ELEMENTS OF MODERN PHYSICS (PHY1401ET)

In our everyday experiences, we come across two terms ‘particles’ and ‘waves’. A stone
dropped into a lake would create ripples at the point of impact, which would further spread
ahead; this indicates the transfer of energy and momentum from one place to another.
Classical Mechanics deals with particles and waves as two different entities. In the present
paper we will consider how Quantum Mechanics helps us to consider particles and waves
together. Where, an electron though behaves as a particle having a specific mass and charge;
it can also be considered that a moving electron would also behave as a wave.

Limitation of Classical Physics in Explaining the Concept of Light:

• The nature of light has been studied following both classical and quantum physics. It
was Isaac Newton who initiated the study to determine the nature of light. According
to his corpuscular theory, light consists of tiny particles called corpuscles travelling in
all directions in straight line with the velocity of light. But this theory could not
explain many of the light related phenomena such as interference and diffraction.
• Later a new theory was proposed and validated by Huygens, Young and Fresnel
according to whom, light could be considered as a wave travelling through an elastic
medium ether. They considered light as a propagation of energy.
• Followed by this, Maxwell introduced a new concept of light, according to which
light consists of electromagnetic waves with electric and magnetic field perpendicular
to each other. The light is said to propagate in a direction perpendicular to both
electric and magnetic fields. He derived an expression for the speed of light

1
𝑐= = 2.998 ∗ 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
√𝜀0 𝜇0

Where, 𝜀0 is the electric permittivity and 𝜇0 the magnetic permeability of free space.

Hertz had experimentally validated the concept put forward by Maxwell. However, based on
this theory certain phenomena such as photoelectric effect could not be explained. But
Maxwell’s theory was broadly accepted by considering light as electromagnetic wave.

The first doubt rose when the radiation emitted by matter bodies was to be investigated.
Black Body Radiation

We know that a hot piece of metal starts to glow and gives off light in the visible range,
whose colour varies with the temperature of the metal going from red to yellow to white as it
becomes hotter. In fact, there would be other frequencies emitted as well which might not be
visible to our eyes. All objects radiate such energy depending on their temperature. At room
temperature, most of the energy is in the infrared part of the spectrum and hence are not
visible to naked eyes. The ability of a body to emit radiations depends on its ability to absorb
radiation as well. As a body at a particular temperature would be in thermal equilibrium with
its surrounding, it would absorb radiation at the same rate as it emits. An ideal body is one
that absorbs all radiation incident on it regardless of the frequency. Such a body is called a
black body. The radiation emitted by such a black body was considered. In the laboratory to
consider a black body, a box with a small hole is considered having reflecting interior
surfaces. The light entering the box would pass through the hole and would be continuously
reflected within the cavity. The radiation coming out from the hole can be considered as the
black body radiation. The spectrum of such a black body radiation is shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Black Body spectra. The spectral distribution of energy in radiation depends on the
temperature of the body

According to Rayleigh and Jeans, the spectral energy density i.e. the total energy u (υ) dυ per
unit volume in the cavity in the frequency interval of υ and υ+dυ is therefore
 8𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝑢(𝜐)𝑑𝜐 = 𝜐 2 𝑑𝜐 (1.1)
𝑐3

The radiation rate is proportional to υ2, so the radiation rate should increase with υ. But
looking at the spectrum it is observed that the law holds correct at lower frequencies; but
towards higher frequency range the energy density tends towards zero. This discrepancy is
called the Ultraviolet catastrophe.

Figure 1.2: Comparison of Rayleigh-Jeans formula for spectrum of black body radiation at 1500K and
the observed experimental spectrum.

Figure 1.2 shows how the Rayleigh-Jean’s law did not fit with the experimental data at higher
frequencies. A correction to the formula was provided by Planck, the corrected formula is

8𝜋ℎ 𝜐3
𝑢(𝜐)𝑑𝜐 = 𝑑𝜐 (1.2)
𝑐 3 ℎ𝜐
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1

Where h is a constant termed as Planck’s constant, h = 6.626 * 10-34 Js.

While deriving the expression, Planck came under the consideration that the radiation emitted
by a black body cannot be continuous but has to be discrete. According to Planck, the energy
emitted has to be in packets (or quanta) of hυ.

Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis:

Max Planck had theoretically found a solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe. His modified
formula was fitting well with the experimentally observed black body radiation spectrum. He
assumed that the atoms of the walls of the black body act as tiny electromagnetic oscillators
each having a characteristic frequency of oscillation. The oscillators emit electromagnetic
energy into the cavity and absorb electromagnetic energy from the cavity of the black body.
To come to a conclusion of the meaning of the formula, he suggested the following
hypothesis:

1. An oscillator (atoms of the walls of back body) can have energies given by
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜐
Where, n = 0, 1, 2----, h is Planck’s constant and υ is the oscillator frequency. The
oscillator energy is quantized.
2. Oscillators can absorb or emit energies only in discrete units called quanta
∆𝐸𝑛 = ∆𝑛ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐
3. The spectral energy density is expressed as
8𝜋ℎ 𝜐3
𝑢(𝜐)𝑑𝜐 = ℎ𝜐 𝑑𝜐
𝑐3
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
ℎ𝜐
Which reduces to Rayleigh-Jean’s law as 𝑘𝑇 ≪ 1

So, according to Max Planck, the light being electromagnetic radiations are actually waves
but they can be absorbed or emitted only in quanta or packets (later known as photons) thus
denoting the particle nature of light as well. Where, the energy of each quanta is denoted by
𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 = ℎ 𝜆 (1.3)

With E being the energy of a photon, υ representing its frequency, λ the wavelength of
radiation and c the velocity of light.

Light as a collection of Photons:

Followed by Planck’s statement of quantum theory of light, Einstein suggested that light is
not just a wave but also a collection of particles called photons, which are discrete bundles of
energy. According to Einstein, the energy associated with a single photon is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐.

ℎ
Where the momentum of the photon is expressed as 𝑝 = 𝜆 .

[Note: According to Einstein’s energy mass relation E = pc

Therefore, p = E/c = hυ/c = h/λ]

For both the expressions of energy and momentum, the left-hand side quantities represent
properties associated with particles whereas the right-hand side quantities include parameters
highlighting the wave nature. Both the expressions therefore relate the particle and wave
nature of light, through Planck’s constant. Thus, Einstein suggested the dual nature of light;
according to which light is electromagnetic radiation which is actually a collection of
particles called photons.

Photoelectric Effect:

During his experiments on electromagnetic waves, it was Hertz who accidently observed
certain sparks emitted when light was incident on metal balls. This accidental discovery led
to the photoelectric effect. However, it was Einstein who later confirmed the dual nature of
light based on the results of the photoelectric experiment.

Photoelectric effect is a process where, electrons are emitted from the surface of metallic
plates when light is incident on them. When light is incident on metallic plates, the electrons
within them absorb the energy based on which they overcome the potential (the forces
holding the electrons to the system) and get liberated from the surface.

To carry out the experiment of photoelectric effect, an evacuated tube was taken consisting of
two electrodes (metal plates). The polarity of the electrodes is decided based on the terminals
of the power supply connected to the electrodes as shown in the figure. An ammeter is
connected to determine the generated photocurrent. While the potential difference maintained
between the two plates can be identified with the help of a voltmeter. Light is incident on the
cathode (metal plate), which would emit photo electrons (as a result of the photo electric
effect). The electrons would be attracted towards the anode placed opposite. The acceleration
of electrons towards the anode can further be controlled based on the potential difference
between the two plates. Due to the motion of photoelectrons towards the anode a
photoelectric current would be generated which can be measured using the ammeter. The
entire process can only be made possible if an electromagnetic radiation incident on the metal
surface is considered as a collection of photons, each of which carries energy hυ. It is this
energy that is transferred to the electrons within the metal plate when photons strike their
surface.

However, the photoelectrons would be emitted from the surface of the electrode only if it gets
a minimum energy from the incident light. The minimum energy required by the
photoelectrons to overcome the attractive forces of the positive ions in the metal surface is
termed as work function (Φ = hυ0). While the minimum frequency required by the incident
light (for photoelectric effect) to eject electrons form the surface of the electrodes is called
threshold frequency. By increasing the potential difference between the electrodes, all the
photoelectrons emitted by the cathode will be collected by the anode. As a result, the
photocurrent will increase (as the electrons are collected) and then it will later saturate.
Instead, if the photocurrent is to be reduced, the applied bias can be reduced. When the
potential would be taken to the negative range the anode would become negative and so at
one point no more electrons would be able to reach the anode. The potential at which the
photocurrent becomes zero (where, no more electrons reach the anode) is called the stopping
potential.

According to Einstein, the photoelectric effect of a metal should obey the equation

ℎ𝜐 = 𝛷 + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1.4)

ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐0 + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐0

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝜐 − 𝜐0 ) (1.5)

Where, ℎ𝜐 is the energy of the incident photon, ℎ𝜐0 the work function of the material and
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum photoelectron energy and h is the Planck’s constant.

Certain conditions that affect the photoelectric effect and the value of photocurrent are
mentioned below:

➢ The photoemission of electrons will not occur if υ < υ0, as the electrons would not
receive the minimum energy to overcome the attractive forces holding them together
in the system.
➢ Instead, if υ = υ0, photoelectrons would be emitted but they would not possess
sufficient kinetic energy to travel further. So the condition for photoelectric effect to
happen is υ ≥ υ0.
➢ If the intensity of incident light is increased, the number of photons interacting with
the metal would also increase leading to an increase in photocurrent. [Intensity is
directly proportional to photocurrent]

➢ When the potential applied to the anode is increased, the value of photocurrent
increases as more photoelectrons would be collected on the electrode. After reaching
a characteristic value, further increase in the applied bias would only give a saturated
value of current with no further rise.
 ➢ Instead, if the frequency of incident photons is increased it would lead to an increase
in the kinetic energy of the photons. [If red light is incident on the metal surface, since
the frequency of red is low the energy carried by the photons also would be low, in
such cases photoelectric effect would happen only if υRed > υ0. Compared to red light,
if blue light is incident on the metal surface, since its frequency and hence energy is
more than that of red; probability of emission of photoelectrons is more.]

It was based on the photoelectric effect, that Einstein concluded the quantized nature of light.
According to which, the electromagnetic radiation travels through space in discrete quanta
called photon exhibiting the dual nature (wave and particle) of light.