PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF LENS MATERIALS

AUTHOR
David Wilson: Brien Holden Vision Institute (BHVI), Sydney, Australia

PEER REVIEWER
Mo Jalie: Visiting Professor: University of Ulster, Varilux University in Paris

THIS CHAPTER WILL INCLUDE A REVIEW OF:

 Refractive index
 Abbe number
 Impact resistance
 Specific gravity
 Scratch resistance
 Transparency
 Ultra-violet absorption
 Chemical resistance
 Comparing Lens Materials

INTRODUCTION

When you have worked through this unit you should be able to:

 state what taking a case history is and why it is important

 describe the things you need to ask about a person’s eyes and their vision
 describe the things you need to ask about a person’s general health and lifestyle
 perform a case history
 use good communication skills when taking a case history.

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Chapter 1-1
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

REFRACTIVE INDEX

The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
A reference wavelength is used to represent ‘white light’. In Europe, this wavelength is the mercury e line
(Fraunhofer’s e line) with a wavelength of 546.07 nm while in other parts of the world, including the United States, the
helium d line (587.56 nm) is used. For this reason, the indices quoted in different countries may vary for the same
material. The Europeans, for example give the refractive index (ne) of CR-39 as 1.502 while the United States gives
the refractive index (nd) as 1.498.

The significance of refractive index to lens design is that the higher the refractive index,
the thinner the lens can be made (Figure 1.1). So, lenses made from a higher refractive
index material will be thinner and more attractive than lower index materials such as
CR-39 or crown glass. There are problems, however, with the use of high index materials
that must be balanced against their benefits. In the case of glass high index lenses the
material is considerably heavier than crown glass, though the reduction in mass may
mean that the final lens weight is very similar. Secondly, all high index materials, glass or
plastic, have lower Abbe numbers and are therefore more prone to chromatism (we will
look at this shortly). Finally, the materials are usually softer, requiring hard coatings in the
case of plastic lenses.

SIGNIFICANCE OF
REFRACTIVE INDEX

Figure 1.1: Lens of identical power and diameter with different indices

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 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

REFRACTIVE INDEX (cont.)

The curve variation factor (CVF) is used to find the equivalent crown glass curve to the
material being considered. This would enable the laboratory to select the appropriate tool
if it held tools only intended for glass. It would also allow the practitioner to calculate the
expected thickness of a lens using thickness charts designed for crown glass. The CVF
demonstrates the benefits of increasing the refractive index (Figure 1.2). As the graph
shows, an increase in refractive index produces a lower curve variation factor.

Figure 1.2: Significance of refractive index: Curve variation factor 

CURVE VARIATION
FACTOR CVF = (00-1)(00-1)
Where:
nc = refractive index of base material, usually crown glass
nm = refractive index of lens material

For example:
For the material, n = 1.670

So, a +10.00D curve made in this index would have the same radius as a +7.81D
curve in crown glass.

That is,+10.00 X CVF= +7.81D

For the material, n = 1.498

A +10.00D curve in this index would have the same radius as a +10.50D curve
in crown glass.

That is, +10.00 X CVF= +10.50D

 

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Chapter 1-3
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

ABBE NUMBER (V value)

The Abbe number is the reciprocal of the dispersive power of the material and gives a
measure of the material’s ability to hold the spectrum together. It is often referred to as the
constringence of the material. The higher the Abbe number, the less likely the wearer will
notice the transverse chromatic aberration produced at the lens periphery. The Abbe
number can also be used to calculate the axial (Figure 1.3(a)) and transverse chromatic
aberration (Figure 1.3(b)).

ABBE NUMBER
(V value)
Figure 1.3(a): Axial chromatic Figure 1.3(b): Transverse chromatic
aberration aberration

The formula for the Abbe number is:

n = nd-1FnF-nC

Where: nd = refractive index for 587.56 nm

nF = refractive index for 486.31 nm
nC = refractive index for 656.28 nm

The Abbe number (sometimes referred to as the V Value) can be calculated for either the
helium d line (above) or the mercury e line. The calculation for the e line also requires
different Fraunhofer lines for F and C.

Chromatic aberration, or chromatism, occurs as a result of the unequal refraction of the various
wavelengths of light. There are two types of chromatism, axial chromatism and transverse
chromatism. Axial chromatism is created by normally incident light where violet light forms a
focus earlier than red with the rest of the spectrum spread in-between. This form of chromatism
is of little concern to spectacle wearers, largely because of the eye’s own axial chromatism.
Transverse chromatism is a result of the greater refraction of shorter wavelengths at the lens
SIGNIFICANCE OF periphery. Transverse chromatism can be measured as the prismatic effect at any point on the
THE ABBE NUMBER lens divided by the Abbe number of the material. That is:
TCA = P/ or TCA= cF/
Where:
v = Abbe number
P = prismatic effect
c = distance from the optical centre of the lens (in cm)
F = lens power

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Chapter 1-4
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

ABBE NUMBER (V value) (cont.)

Chromatic aberration is directly related to lens power and inversely to the Abbe number of the
lens material. It will occur in any lens of power and will be more noticeable towards the lens
periphery. According to Jalie (2003), transverse chromatism of less than 0.1 is unlikely to be
noticed, however significantly greater Transverse Chromatic Aberration (TCA) will cause
annoying chromatism.

In order to determine these effects and the power threshold, we should first consider the
direction of gaze. Studies of the direction of gaze found that most eye movements (around 80%)
are within 15 of the primary position and that virtually none exceeded 30. It therefore follows
that we should be most concerned with the effects of the lens or material in the area of 15
around the primary position.

Studies in the United States found that transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) of 0.16 causes a
one line drop in acuity, measured on the Snellen chart (a drop in V/A from 6/6 to 6/7.5). The
following charts show the threshold for this one line drop in acuity. Moreover, Jalie argues that
TCA is unlikely to be noticed at less than 0.10. Jalie’s threshold is also shown in Figure 1.4.

SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE ABBE NUMBER
(cont.)

Figure 1.4: Significance of Abbe number

When choosing a lens material with reference to the Abbe number and TCA, the following
criteria can be applied:

 If the material for the given lens power falls within Jalie’s 0.10 in the 15 chart, that is, the
area of the lens containing over 80% of eye movements, there is unlikely to be any
problems created by TCA. This would serve as a useful criterion for judging the suitability of
the material.

 A more conservative approach would use the criterion of the given lens power falling within
the 0.16 threshold at 30. There is very little chance of TCA being a problem under such
circumstances.

While degradation of the image due to chromatism occurs, in some materials more than others,
it should also be remembered that the effects of chromatism are normally much less than the
effects of oblique astigmatism (depending, of course, on lens form).

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Chapter 1-5
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

IMPACT RESISTANCE

Impact resistance of lens materials is rarely quoted in absolute terms. The relative impact
resistance of various materials will vary, depending on the size and shape of the missile
used in the test. The standard test employed by the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) involves dropping a 5/8 inch steel ball on to the lens from a height of
50 inches (Figure 1.5).

IMPACT RESISTANCE

Figure 1.5: Testing impact resistance

American legislation requires that all lenses be able to survive this test. Untreated glass
will not survive the test while toughened glass will survive the test. Another common test
involves a 1/4 inch (6.35mm) steel ball fired at various speeds to determine the breakage
speed. This test is used for the table in Figures 1.6(a) and 1.6(b).

While the relative impact resistance between materials may vary in measurable terms
depending on the test method, their positions on a scale of most to least impact
resistance will not. Polycarbonate is by far the most impact resistant, followed by high
index plastic lenses, CR-39, toughened glass and finally, ordinary glass. A recently
released material, Trivex, which is not represented in the chart (Figure 1.6(a)), has an
impact resistance very similar to that of polycarbonate. Trivex is manufactured by PPF
Industries (the company which developed CR-39) and sold by various lens manufacturers
under their own trade names.

SIGNIFICANCE OF
IMPACT RESISTANCE

Figure 1.6(a): Impact resistance in lens materials Figure 1.6(b): Comparing the breakage velocities

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 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

IMPACT RESISTANCE (cont.)

Material Impact velocity (6.35 mm steel ball)

Crown glass 12 metres per second
Toughened glass 18 metres per second
Uncoated CR-39 49 metres per second
Coated polycarbonate 153 metres per second
Uncoated polycarbonate 244 metres per second

Impact resistance is an important criterion for lens selection, particularly in cases where
SIGNIFICANCE OF
there may be danger of physical harm to the eye. Such instances would include, children,
IMPACT RESISTANCE
factory workers, commercial gardeners and sports-people.
(cont.)
Compare the breakage velocities of the previous table with some common missiles
(Figure 1.6(b)):

Missile Velocity of missile

Cricket ball (bowler) 42 mps
Tennis ball 50 mps
Badminton (shuttlecock) 60 mps
Squash ball 70 mps

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Chapter 1-7
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is a measure of the physical density of the material. It is the ratio of one
cubic centimetre of a material to one cubic centimetre of water. Since one cubic
centimetre of water weighs one gram, the unit-less specific gravity is also a measure of
the weight of one cubic centimetre of a material. Thus, it is often found both with and
without the unit grams per cubic centimetre (gms/cm3).
For example, the specific gravity of CR-39 is 1.31 which can also be taken to mean that
one cubic centimetre of CR-39 weighs 1.31cm3. While specific gravity will give a clue as
to the relative weight of various lens materials it cannot accurately predict the relative
weights of finished lenses since the denser materials normally have higher refractive
indices and so have a smaller mass. So, it is possible for a lens made of a denser
material to be lighter in weight than a lens of the same power made from a less dense
material due to the significantly smaller mass of the denser material.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Figure 1.7: Specific gravity glass versus plastic

While specific gravity will give a clue as to the relative weight of various lens materials, it
cannot accurately predict the relative weights of finished lenses, since the denser
SIGNIFICANCE OF materials normally have higher refractive indices and so have a smaller mass. It is
SPECIFIC GRAVITY therefore possible for a lens made of a denser material to be lighter in weight than a lens
of the same power made from a less dense material because of the denser material’s
significantly smaller mass.

Table 1.1: Lens weight in grams for a given R.I. and Specific Gravity
Specific +3.00D +6.00D +9.00D
Refractive Index Plano
Gravity F1 = +8.00D F1 = +10.00D F1 = +12.00D
1.498 1.32 5.60 11.59 18.16 25.88
1.523 2.54 10.77 21.59 33.33 46.61
1.600 1.36 5.77 10.61 15.74 21.34
1.701 3.21 13.61 23.11 32.90 43.37
1.802 3.65 15.47 24.78 34.16 44.17
1.586 1.20 5.09 9.49 14.17 19.31

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Chapter 1-8
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

SCRATCH RESISTANCE

Various tests have been developed to measure the scratch resistance of a lens material.
The oldest and most often quoted in text books is Moh’s hardness scale. It rates a
material’s surface hardness on a scale of 1 to 10 with talc having a rating of 1 and
diamond, 10. Most ophthalmic lens materials rate between 4 and 5 on this scale.
More modern methods used by manufacturers include:
1. The Taber test: An abrasion wheel is applied to the surface under a measured
amount of pressure. This was originally designed to test paint.
2. The Bayer test: Lenses are secured to an oscillating pan containing an abrasive
material. A standard lens is used as a control.
3. The steel wool test: A pad of steel wool of a certain grade is applied with a fixed
pressure to the surface and the scratched surface is compared to a scale.
4. The tumble test: Lenses are tumbled in a barrel containing an abrasive mix.

SCRATCH 5. The eraser test: An abrasive eraser is rubbed on the lens surface at a given
RESISTANCE pressure.
In all cases, the lenses are compared against a control lens and a graded haze scale

Figure 1.8: Scratch resistance in different ophthalmic lens materials

Figure 1.8 shows the relative difference in scratch resistance between the various
materials, with the exception of polycarbonate. However, it should be noted that most
plastic lenses are hard-coated, making their surface durability significantly higher than the
uncoated material (Figure 1.9). Surface coating is considered essential in the case of
polycarbonate.
The vast majority of lens scratches are due to rubbing lenses with grit on the surface and
laying the spectacles face down. Potential damage can be virtually eliminated with proper
instructions to the patient.
SIGNIFICANCE
OF SCRATCH
RESISTANCE

Figure 1.9: Scratch resistance in hard coated versus non-coated ophthalmic lens materials

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Chapter 1-9
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

TRANSPARENCY

Transparency is a function of the refractive index. The higher the refractive index the more light is lost as a result of
reflection at each surface. The amount of reflection is determined by Fresnel’s reflection factor.

R = [(n´ - n)/ (n ´ + n)]²

Where:
r = refractive index
n' = refractive index of one surface
n = refractive index of air

E.g.: For CR-39

r = [(1.498 - 1)/ (1.498 + 1)]²= 0.0397

= 3.97% reflected at each surface

Higher index lenses will create more reflection at each surface. For example:
For high index glass (n = 1.806)

FRESNEL r = [(1.806 - 1)/ (1.806 + 1)]²

REFLECTION
= 0.0825
FACTOR
= 8.25% reflected at each surface

Figure 1.10: Transmittance through different ophthalmic lens materials

Increased transparency results in:

 Reduction of troublesome ghost

images
 Reduction in the glassy appearance
of the lenses
 Increased transmittance
SIGNIFICANCE OF
TRANSPARENCY

Figure 1.11: Difference in transmittance without

and with antireflection coated glasses

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Chapter 1-10
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

ULTRA-VIOLET ABSORPTION

Lens materials vary in their ultra-violet (UV) absorption (Figure 1.12). Plastic lenses
absorb more UV than glass, with polycarbonate cutting out all radiation to about 390
nanometres. CR-39 will cut out UV to about 360 nm but requires a clear UV coating to
absorb all wavelengths of UV.

ULTRA-VIOLET
ABSORPTION

Figure 1.12: UV absorption in different ophthalmic lens materials

UV rays are is responsible for a number of ocular conditions, such as pterigia and
cataracts. Its absorption is, therefore, desirable. This is one of the main advantages of
plastic lens materials over glass. They are more efficient at absorbing solar UV radiation
(Figure 1.13).

SIGNIFICANCE OF
UV ABSORPTION

Figure 1.13: Wavelength absorption of different light rays in different ophthalmic lens materials

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Chapter 1-11
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE

Lens materials vary in their chemical resistance and, therefore, their life expectancy. The
measure used for chemical resistance is known as the Thermodyne Test and it was
developed by Chance-Pilkington. The test simulates prolonged exposure to atmospheric
conditions using heat and humidity.
In Figure 1.14, the higher the figure, the poorer the chemical resistance.

CHEMICAL
RESISTANCE

Figure 1.14: Chemical resistance in different ophthalmic lens materials

The measure of chemical resistance gives some indication of the life expectancy of the
lens. It also gives an indication of the lens material’s resistance to various solvents. For
example, polycarbonate has poor resistance to many solvents, notably acetone. It also
has a low thermodyne rating.
SIGNIFICANCE
However, while the thermodyne measure will give an indication of the lens material’s
OF CHEMICAL
resistance to atmospheric attack over time, it does not take into account the effect of
RESISTANCE
scratch resistant coatings, which will protect the lens substrate.
As a word of caution, though; while a scratch resistant coating will protect polycarbonate
from attack by acetone, the acetone can run into the groove of the frame and attack the
lens through the uncoated edged bevel of the lens.

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 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

COMPARING LENS MATERIALS

Lens materials vary in their UV absorption (Figure 1.12). Plastic lenses absorb more UV than glass, with
polycarbonate cutting out all radiation to about 390 nanometres. CR-39 will cut out UV to about 360 nm but requires a
clear UV coating to absorb all wavelengths of UV.

Table1.2: Comparing different lens materials

Specific Gravity Curve Variation
Material Index, nd Index, ne Abbe no. nd
(g/cm3) Factor
Crown glass 1.523 1.525 58.9 2.54 1.000
CR-39 1.498 1.502 58.0 1.32 1.050
Polycarbonate 1.586 1.591 30.0 1.20 0.892
Mid-index plastic 1.557 1.561 37.0 1.23 0.939
High-index plastic 1.595 1.599 36.0 1.36 0.879
High-index glass 1.701 1.705 42.0 3.21 0.746
High-index 1.802 1.807 35.0 3.65 0.652
NB: nd is an American value and ne is a European value

Weight
All plastic lens materials are considerably lighter than glass. CR-39 is one of the heavier
plastic materials with a specific gravity of 1.31, while crown glass is the lightest glass
material with a specific gravity of 2.51. The significant reduction in the weight of
spectacles made with plastic lenses and the obvious comfort to the wearer is one of the
main benefits of plastic lenses.

Impact resistance
Polycarbonate and Trivex are by far the best materials for impact resistance, being almost
unbreakable. Some high index plastic lenses also have significant impact resistance. CR-
39 has considerably more impact resistance than untreated crown glass but does not
differ greatly from chemically toughened glass. Increased impact resistance is clearly a
desirable characteristic of lens materials. The strength of polycarbonate is a significant
benefit to those in particular need of superior impact resistance, such as children,
monocular patients, people playing hazardous sports and people employed in industry.

Surface durability
Surface durability is one area in which crown glass excels. However, improved hard
coatings have allowed plastic lenses, including the very soft polycarbonate, to perform
almost as well. Indeed, the scratch resistant coatings available for plastic lenses should
PLASTIC VS. GLASS
provide the finished lenses with sufficient resistance to normal wear for the expected life
of the spectacles.

Ease of tinting
Plastic lenses are tinted by dying. They are suspended in a chamber of hot (about 92°C)
dye until the desired density of tint is achieved. This form of tinting is very simple and
inexpensive. Clear glass, however, is tinted by depositing a very thin layer of a metal
oxide onto the surface of the lens in a vacuum chamber. This requires large, expensive
machinery. Plastic tinting can, therefore, be done much faster allowing for speedier
delivery to the patient.

UV absorption
Clear glass does not absorb UVA well, whereas untreated CR-39 absorbs over 90% of
UVA and polycarbonate absorbs almost 100%.

Resistance to fogging
The thermal conductivity of glass causes it to fog easily and to demist slowly. Plastics, on
the other hand, are slower to fog and quicker to demist. This is of significant benefit to
people working hard in a cold climate or people walking from the cold into a heated
building.

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Chapter 1-13
 Physical and Optical Characteristics
of Lens Materials

SUMMARY

Lens manufacturers are continually creating new lens materials to fill what they consider to be gaps in the current
range or to improve on the characteristics of the present materials. In the following lectures we will consider the criteria
by which we can objectively judge these materials.

In a later chapter, we will also consider methods by which we can distinguish between the materials and find the index
of an unknown material.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jalie M. 2003. Ophthalmic Lenses and Dispensing. Butterworth Heinemann, London.
Jalie M. 1984. Principles of Ophthalmic Lenses, ABDO, London.
Wakefield KG and Bennet AG. 2000. Bennett' s Ophthalmic Prescription Work, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Brooks CW and Borish IM. 2006. System of Ophthalmic Dispensing. Butterworth Heinemann.
Brooks CW. 2005. Essentials of Ophthalmic Lens Finishing. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Wilson D. 2006. Practical Optical Dispensing 2nd Edition. Open Training and Education Network, Sydney.
Wilson D and Stenersen S. 2002. Practical Optical Workshop. Open Training and Education Network, Sydney.

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Chapter 1-14