Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

Section 2.1 The Limit Process (An Intuitive Introduction) Section 2.4 Continuity
a. The Limit Process a. Continuity at a Point
b. Area of a Region Bounded by a Curve b. Types of Discontinuity
c. The Idea of a Limit c. Properties of Continuity
d. Example d. Example
e. Illustration of a Limit e. Composition Theorem
f. Limits on Various Functions f. One-sided Continuity
g. Example g. Continuity on Intervals
h. One-Sided Limits
i. Example: One-Sided Limits Section 2.5 The Pinching Theorem; Trigonometric Limits
j. Another Example a. The Pinching Theorem
k. Functions Approaching Infinity b. Basic Trigonometric Limits
l. Summary of Limits that Do Not Exist c. Continuity of the Trigonometric Limits
d. Example
Section 2.2 Definition of Limit
a. Definition Section 2.6 Two Basic Theorems
b. Illustration of Definition a. The Intermediate-Value Theorem
c. Selection of Epsilon b. Boundedness; Extreme Values
d. Limits on Open Intervals c. The Extreme-Value Theorem
e. Limit Properties d. Properties of the Two Basic Theorems
f. Equivalent Limit Properties
g. Left-hand and Right-hand Limits
h. Example

Section 2.3 Some Limit Theorems

a. The Uniqueness of a Limit
b. Limit Properties: Arithmetic of Limits
c. Limit of Quotients
d. Limits that Do Not Exist for Quotients

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 The Limit Process
THE LIMIT PROCESS (AN INTUITIVE INTRODUCTION)
We could begin by saying that limits are important in calculus, but that would
be a major understatement. Without limits, calculus would not exist. Every
single notion of calculus is a limit in one sense or another.

For example:

What is the slope of a curve? It is the limit of

slopes of secant lines.

What is the length of a curve? It is the limit of

the lengths of polygonal paths inscribed in the
curve.

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 The Limit Process
What is the area of a region bounded by a curve? It is the limit of the sum of areas
of approximating rectangles.

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 The Limit Process
The Idea of a Limit
We start with a number c and a function f defined at all numbers x near c but
not necessarily at c itself. In any case, whether or not f is defined at c and, if
so, how is totally irrelevant.

Instead of evaluating a function at a certain value-value, limits ask the

question, “ What values does a function approach as its inputs and a constant
becomes infinitesimally small?”. Notice how this question does not depend
upon what f© actually is.

Now let L be some real number. We say that the limit of f (x) as x tends to c
is L and write
lim f ( x ) = L
x →c

provided that (roughly speaking)

as x approaches c, f(x) approaches L
or (somewhat more precisely) provided that
f (x) is close to L for all x ≠ c which are close to c.

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 The Limit Process

Example 1
Set f(x) = 4x + 5 and take c = 2. As x approaches 2, 4x approaches 8 and 4x +
5 approaches 8 + 5 = 13. We conclude that

lim f ( x) = 13.
x→2

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 The Limit Process

Example 2
Set
f ( x ) = 1 − x and take c = −8.
As x approaches −8, 1 − x approaches 9 and 1 − x approaches 3. We conclude
that
lim f ( x ) = 3
x →−8

If for that same function we try to calculate

lim f ( x )
x→2

we run into a problem. The function f ( x ) = 1 − x is defined only for x ≤ 1. It

is therefore not defined for x near 2, and the idea of taking the limit as x
approaches 2 makes no sense at all:

lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x→2

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 The Limit Process

Example 3

x3 − 2 x + 4 5
lim = .
x →3 x +1
2
2

First we work the numerator: as x approaches 3, x3 approaches 27, −2x

approaches –6, and x3 – 2x + 4 approaches 27 – 6 + 4 = 25. Now for the
denominator: as x approaches 3, x2 + 1 approaches 10. The quotient (it would
seem) approaches 25/10 = 52.

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 The Limit Process
The curve in Figure 2.1.4 represents the graph of a function f. The number c is
on the x-axis and the limit L is on the y-axis. As x approaches c along the
x-axis, f (x) approaches L along the y-axis.

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 The Limit Process
As we have tried to emphasize, in taking the limit of a function f as x tends to c,
it does not matter whether f is defined at c and, if so, how it is defined there. The
only thing that matters is the values taken on by f at numbers x near c. Take a look
at the three cases depicted in Figure 2.1.5. In the first case, f (c) = L. In the second
case, f is not defined at c. In the third case, f is defined at c, but f (c) ≠ L. However,
in each case
lim f ( x ) = L
x →c

because, as suggested in the figures,

as x approaches c, f (x) approaches L.

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 The Limit Process
Example 4
x2 − 9
Set f ( x ) =
x−3
and let c = 3. Note that the function f is not defined at 3: at 3, both numerator and
denominator are 0. But that doesn’t matter. For x ≠ 3, and therefore for all x near 3,

x 2 − 9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
= = x+3
x−3 x−3
x2 − 9
Therefore, if x is close to 3, then = x+3
x−3
is close to 3 + 3 = 6. We conclude that
x2 − 9
lim = lim ( x + 3) = 6
x →3 x − 3 x →3

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 The Limit Process
Example 5

x3 – 8
lim = 12.
x→2
x–2
x3 – 8
The function f(x) = is undefined at x = 2. But, as we said before, that
x–2
doesn’t matter. For all x ≠ 2,

x3 – 8 (x – 2)(x2 + 2x +4)
= = x2 + 2x +4.
x–2 x–2
Therefore,

x3 – 8
lim = lim (x2 + 2x + 4) = 12.
x→2 x→2
x–2

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 The Limit Process

Example 6
3x – 4, x ≠ 0
If f(x) = then lim f(x) = –4.
10, x ≠ 0, x→0

It does not matter that f(0) = 10. For x ≠ 0, and thus for all x near 0,
f(x) = 3x – 4 and therefore lim f(x) = lim (3x – 4) = –4.
x→0 x→0

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 The Limit Process

One-Sided Limits
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to the left
of c and those that lie to the right of c. We write

lim− f ( x ) = L [The left-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]

x →c
to indicate that
as x approaches c from the left, f(x) approaches L.
We write

lim+ f ( x ) = L [The right-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]

x →c

to indicate that
as x approaches c from the right, f(x) approaches L

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 The Limit Process

Example
Take the function indicated in Figure 2.1.7. As x approaches
5 from the left, f (x) approaches 2; therefore

lim f ( x ) = 2
x → 5−

As x approaches 5 from the right, f (x) approaches 4; therefore

lim f ( x ) = 4
x → 5+

The full limit, lim f ( x ) , does not exist: consideration of x < 5 would force the
x →5
limit to be 2, but consideration of x > 5 would force the limit to be 4.

For a full limit to exist, both one-sided limits have to exist and they have to be equal.

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 The Limit Process
Example 7
For the function f indicated in figure 2.1.8,

lim − f ( x ) = 5 and lim + f ( x ) = 5

x →( −2 ) x →( −2 )

In this case
lim f ( x ) = 5
x →−2

It does not matter that f (−2) = 3.

Examining the graph of f near x = 4, we find that

lim f ( x ) = 7 whereas lim f ( x ) = 2

x → 4− x → 4+

Since these one-sided limits are different,

lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x→4

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 The Limit Process
Example 8
Set f ( x) = x / x . Note that f(x) = 1 for x ＞ 0, and f(x) = −1 for x ＜ 0:

1, if x ＞ 0
f(x) =
−1, if x ＜ 0.
Let’s try to apply the limit process at different numbers c.
If c ＜ 0, then for all x sufficiently close to c,
x ＜ 0 and f(x) = −1. It follows that for c ＜ 0
lim f(x) = lim (−1) = −1
x→c x→c

If c ＞ 0, then for all x sufficiently close to c, x ＞ 0 and f(x) = 1. It follows that

for c ＜ 0
lim f(x) = lim (1) = 1
x→c x→c

However, the function has no limit as x tends to 0:

lim f(x) = −1 but lim f(x) = 1.
x→ 0- x → 0+

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 The Limit Process
Example 9
We refer to function indicated in Figure 2.1.10 and examine the behavior of
f(x) for x close to 3 and close to to 7.

As x approaches 3 from the left or from the right, f(x)

becomes arbitrarily large and cannot stay close to any
number L. Therefore

lim f(x) does not exist.

x→3

As x approaches 7 from the left, f(x) becomes arbitrarily large and cannot
stay close to any number L. Therefore

lim f(x) does not exist.

x→7

The same conclusion can be reached by noting as x approaches 7 from the

right, f(x) becomes arbitrarily large.

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 The Limit Process
Remark To indicate that f (x) becomes arbitrarily large, we can write
f (x)→∞. To indicate that f (x) becomes arbitrarily large negative, we
can write f (x)→−∞.

Consider Figure 2.1.10, and note that for the function depicted
there the following statements hold:
as x → 3¯, f (x) → (∞) and as x → 3 +, f (x)→∞.
Consequently,
as x → 3, f (x)→∞.
Also, +

as x → 7¯, f (x)→−∞ and as x → 7 , f (x)→∞.

We can therefore write
as x → 7, | f (x)| → ∞.

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 The Limit Process
Example 10
We set 1
f(x) =
x–2

and examine the behavior of f(x) (a) as x tends to 4

and then (b) as x tends to 2.

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 The Limit Process

Example 11

1 – x2, x ＜ 1
Set f(x) =
1/(x – 1), x＞ 1.

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 The Limit Process
Example 12
Here we set f(x) = sin (π/ x) and show that the function can have no limit as
x→0

The function is not defined at x = 0, as you know, that’s irrelevant. What keeps
f from having a limit as x → 0 is indicated in Figure 2.1.13. As x → 0, f(x) keeps
oscillating between y = 1 and y = –1 and therefore cannot remain close to any
one number L.

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 The Limit Process
Example 13
Let f(x) = (sin x)/x. If we try to evaluate f at 0, we get the meaningless ratio 0/0;
f is not defined at x = 0. However, f is defined for all x ≠ 0, and so we can
consider sin x
lim .
x→0 x

We select numbers that approach 0 closely from the left and numbers that
approach 0 closely from the right. Using a calculator, we evaluate f at these
numbers. The results are tabulated in Table 2.1.1.

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 The Limit Process
These calculations suggest that

sin x sin x
lim− =1 and lim+ =1
x →0 x x →0 x

and therefore that

sin x
lim = 1.
x →0 x
The graph of f, shown in Figure 2.1.14,
supports this conclusion. A proof that this
limit is indeed 1 is given in Section 2.5.

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 The Limit Process
Summary of Limits That Fail to Exist
Examples 7-13 illustrate various ways in which the limit of a function f at a number
c may fail to exist. We summarize the typical cases here:
(i) lim f ( x ) = L1 , lim+ f ( x ) = L2 and L1  L2 (Examples 7, 8).
x →c− x →c
(The left-hand and right-hand limits of f at c each exist, but they are not equal.)
(ii) f(x) → +∞ as x → c–, or f(x) → +∞ as x → c+, or both (Examples 9, 10, 11). (The
function f is unbounded as x approaches c from the left, or from the right, or both.)
(iii) f(x) “oscillates” as x → c–, c+ or c (Examples 12, 13).

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Definition of Limit

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 Definition of Limit

Figures 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 illustrate this definition.

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 Definition of Limit
In Figure 2.2.3, we give two choices of ε and for each we display a suitable δ. For
a δ to be suitable, all points within δ of c (with the possible exception of c itself)
must be taken by the function f to within ε of L. In part (b) of the figure, we began
with a smaller ε and had to use a smaller δ.

The δ of Figure 2.2.4 is too large for the given ε.

In particular, the points marked x1 and x2 in the
figure are not taken by f to within ε of L.

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 Definition of Limit

The limit process can be described entirely

in terms of open intervals as shown in
Figure 2.2.5.

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 Definition of Limit
Example 1
Show that
lim (2x – 1) = 3. (Figure 2.2.6)
x→2

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 Definition of Limit

Example 2
Show that
lim (2 – 3x) = 5. (Figure 2.2.7)
x → –1

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 Definition of Limit
Example 3
For each number c

Example 4
For each real number c

Example 5
For each constant k

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 Definition of Limit

Example 6
Show that
lim x2 = 9. (Figure 2.2.11)
x→3

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 Definition of Limit

Example 7
Show that
(Figure 2.2.12)
lim x = 2.
x →4

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 Definition of Limit

There are several different ways of formulating the same limit statement.
Sometimes one formulation is more convenient, sometimes another, In
particular, it is useful to recognize that the following four statements are
equivalent:

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 Definition of Limit

Example 8

For f(x) = x2, we have

lim x2 = 9 lim (3 + h)2 = 9
x→3 h→3

lim (x2 – 9) = 0 lim x2 – 9 = 0.

x→3 x→3

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 Definition of Limit

One-sided limits give us a simple way of determining whether

or not a (two-sided) limit exists:

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 Definition of Limit
Example 9
For the function defined by setting

2 x + 1, x  0
f ( x) =  2
 x − x, x  0
lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x →0

Proof
The left- and right-hand limits at 0 are as follows:
lim− f ( x ) = lim− ( 2 x + 1) = 1, lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ ( x 2 − x ) = 0
x →0 x →0 x →0 x →0

Since these one-sided limits are different,

lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x →0

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 Definition of Limit
Example 10
For the function defined by setting
1 + x2, x＜1
g(x) = 3, x=1
4 – 2x, x ＞ 1,
lim g(x) = 2.
x→1

Proof
The left- and right-hand limits at 1 are as follows:

lim g(x) = lim (1 + x2) = 2, lim g(x) = lim (4 – 2x) = 2.

x→1– x→1– x → 1+ x → 1+

Thus, lim g(x) = 2. NOTE: It does not matter that g(1) ≠ 2.

x→1

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Definition of Limit

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Limit Theorems

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 Limit Theorems

The following properties are extensions of Theorem 2.3.2.

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 Limit Theorems

Examples
lim (5x2 – 12x + 2) = 5(1)2 – 12(1) + 2 = –5,
x→1
lim (14x5 – 7x2 + 2x + 8) = 14(0)5 – 7(0)2 + 2(0) + 8 = 8
x→0

lim (2x3 + x2 – 2x – 3) = 2(–1)3 + (–1)2 – 2(–1) – 3 = –2.

x→–1

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 Limit Theorems

Examples

1 1 1 1 1 1
lim = 16, lim = , lim = = .
x → 4 x2 x→2 x3 –1 7 x→–3 x –3 3

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 Limit Theorems

Examples
3x − 5 6 − 5 1
lim = =
x→2 x 2 + 1 4 +1 5

x 3 − 3 x 2 27 − 27
lim = =0
x →3 1 − x 2 1− 9

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 Limit Theorems

Examples
From Theorem 2.3.10 you can see that
x2 3x − 7 5
lim lim lim
x →1 x − 1 x →2 x 2 − 4 x →0 x

All fail to exist.

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 Limit Theorems

Example 1
Evaluate the limits exist:

x2 – x – 6 (x2 – 3x – 4)2 x+1

(a) lim , (b) lim , (c) lim .
x→3 x–3 x→4 x–4 x → –1 (2x2 + 7x + 5)2

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 Limit Theorems

Example 2
Justify the following assertions.

1/x – 1/2 1 x–9

(a) lim =– , (b) lim = 6.
x→2 x–2 4 x→9 √x–3

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 Squeeze Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem states that if

h(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ g(x), and lim h(x) = lim g(x) = L,
x→c x→c

Then lim g(x) = L

x→c

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 Continuity
Continuity at a Point
The basic idea is as follows: We are given a function f and a number c. We
calculate (if we can) both lim f ( x ) and f (c). If these two numbers are equal, we
x →c
say that f is continuous at c. Here is the definition formally stated.

If the domain of f contains an interval (c − p, c + p), then f can fail to be

continuous at c for only one of two reasons: either
(i) f has a limit as x tends to c, but lim f ( x )  f ( c ) , or
x →c
(ii) f has no limit as x tends to c.
In case (i) the number c is called a removable discontinuity. The discontinuity can
be removed by redefining f at c. If the limit is L, redefine f at c to be L.
In case (ii) the number c is called an essential discontinuity. You can change the
value of f at a billion points in any way you like. The discontinuity will remain.
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 Continuity
The functions shown have essential discontinuities at c.

The discontinuity in Figure 2.4.2 is, for obvious

reasons, called a jump discontinuity.

The functions of Figure 2.4.3 have infinite discontinuities.

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Continuity

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 Continuity
Example 1
The function
x3 − x
F ( x) = 3 x + 2 +4
x − 5x + 6

is continuous at all real numbers other than 2 and 3. You can see this by noting
that

F = 3 f + g/h + k
where

f (x) = |x|, g(x) = x3 − x, h(x) = x2 − 5x + 6, k(x) = 4.

Since f, g, h, k are everywhere continuous, F is continuous except at 2 and 3, the

numbers at which h takes on the value 0. (At those numbers F is not defined.)

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Continuity

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 Continuity

Example 2
x2 + 1
The function F(x) = is continuous at all numbers greater than 3. To see this,
x–3

note that F = f g, where

x2 + 1
f ( x) = x and g(x) = .
x–3

Now, take any c ＞ 3. Since g is a rational function and g is defined at c, g is

continuous at c. Also, since g(c) is positive and f is continuous at each positive
number, f is continuous at g(c). By Theorem 2.4.4, F is continuous at c.

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 Continuity

Example 3
1
The function F ( x) = is continuous everywhere except at x = ±3,
5 − x + 16
2

where it is not defined. To see this, note that F = f g k h, where

1
f ( x) = , g ( x ) = 5 − x, k ( x) = x , h( x) = x 2 + 16.
x

and observe that each of these functions is being evaluated only where it is
continuous. In particular, g and h are continuous everywhere, f is being evaluated only
at nonzero numbers, and k is being evaluated only at positive numbers. .

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Continuity

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 Continuity

Example 4
Determine the discontinuities, if any, of the following function:
2x + 1, x≦0
f(x) = 1, 0＜x≦1 (Figure 2.4.8)

x2 + 1, x ＞ 1.

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 Continuity

Example 5
Determine the discontinuities, if any, of the following function:

x3, x ≦ –1
x2 – 2, –1 ＜ x ＜ 1

f(x) = 6 – x, 1≦x＜4
6 , 4＜x＜7
7–x
5x + 2, x ≧ 7.

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 Continuity
Continuity on Intervals
A function f is said to be continuous on an interval if it is continuous at each interior
point of the interval and one-sidedly continuous at whatever endpoints the interval may
contain.
For example:
(i) The function
f ( x ) = 1 − x2
is continuous on [−1, 1] because it is continuous at each point of (−1, 1),
continuous from the right at −1, and continuous from the left at 1.
The graph of the function is the semicircle.
(ii) The function
1
f ( x) =
1 − x2
is continuous on (−1, 1) because it is continuous at each point of (−1, 1). It is not
continuous on [−1, 1) because it is not continuous from the right at −1. It is not
continuous on (−1, 1] because it is not continuous from the left at 1.
(iii) The function graphed in Figure 2.4.8 is continuous on (−∞, 1] and continuous on
(1,∞). It is not continuous on [1,∞) because it is not continuous from the right at 1.
(iv) Polynomials, being everywhere continuous, are continuous on (−∞,∞).

Continuous functions have special properties not shared by other functions.

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Trigonometric Limits

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 Trigonometric Limits

From this it follows readily that

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Trigonometric Limits

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 Trigonometric Limits
In more general terms,

Example 1
Find
sin 4 x 1 − cos 2 x
lim and lim
x →0 3x x →0 5x
Solution
To calculate the first limit, we “pair off” sin 4x with 4x and use (2.5.6):
Therefore,
sin 4 x  4 sin 4 x  4 sin 4 x 4 4
lim = lim   = lim = (1) =
x →0 3x 
x →0 3 4 x  3 x →0 4 x 3 3
The second limit can be obtained the same way:
1 − cos 2 x 2 1 − cos 2 x 2 1 − cos 2 x 2
lim = lim  = lim = ( 0) = 0
x →0 5x x → 0 5 2x 5 x → 0 2x 5
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 Trigonometric Limits

Example 2
Find lim x cot 3x.
x→0

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 Trigonometric Limits

Example 3
1
sin( x −  )
4
Find lim .
x → / 4 1
( x −  )2
4

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 Trigonometric Limits

Example 4

x2
Finding lim .
x→0 sec x – 1

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 Two Basic Theorems
A function which is continuous on an interval does not “skip” any values, and thus
its graph is an “unbroken curve.” There are no “holes” in it and no “jumps.” This
idea is expressed coherently by the intermediate-value theorem.

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 Two Basic Theorems
Example 1
We set f(x) = x2 – 2. Since f(1) = –1 ＜ 0 and f(2) = 2 ＞ 0, there exists a number c
between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0. Since f increases on [1, 2], there is only one such
number. This is the number we call 2 .
So far we have shown only that 2 lies between 1 and 2. We can locate 2 more
precisely by evaluating f at 1.5, the midpoint of the interval [1, 2]. Since f(1.5) = 0.25
＞ 0 and f(1) ＜ 0, we know that 2 lies between 1 and 1.5. We now evaluate f at 1.25,
the midpoint of [1, 1.5]. Since f(1.25) –0.438 ＜ 0 and f(1.5) ＞ 0, we know that 2
lies between 1.25 and 1.5. Our next step is to evaluate f at 1.375, the midpoint of [1.25,
1.5]. Since f(1.375) –0.109 ＜ 0 and f(1.5 ) ＞ 0, we know that 2 lies between
1.375 and 1.5. We now evaluate f at 1.4375, the midpoint of [1.375, 1.5]. Since
f(1.4375) 0.066 ＞ 0 and f(1.375) ＜ 0 , we know that 2 lies between 1.375 and
1.475. The average of these two numbers, rounded off two decimal places, is 1.41. A
calculator gives 2 1.4142. So we are not far off.

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Two Basic Theorems

Example 2
The function f(x) = 2/x takes on the value –2 at x = –1 and it takes on the value 2 at x =
1. Certainly 0 lies between –2 and 2. Does it follow that f takes on the value 0
somewhere between –1 and 1? No: the function is not continuous on [–1, 1], and
therefore it can does skip the number 0.

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 Two Basic Theorems
Boundedness; Extreme Values
A function f is said to be bounded or unbounded on a set I in the sense in which
the set of values taken on by f on the set I is bounded or unbounded.
For example, the sine and cosine functions are bounded on (−∞,∞):
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x  (−∞,∞).
Both functions map (−∞,∞) onto [−1, 1].

The situation is markedly different in the case of the tangent.

(See Figure 2.6.4.) The tangent function is bounded on [0,
π/4]; on [0, π/2) it is bounded below but not bounded above;
on (−π/2, 0] it is bounded above but not bounded below; on
(−π/2, π/2) it is unbounded both below and above.

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 Two Basic Theorems

Example 3
Let
1/ x2 ,
g (x) =
0, (Figure 2.6.5)

It is clear that g is unbounded on [0, ∞). (It is unbounded above.) However, it is

bounded on [1, ∞). The function maps [0, ∞) onto [0, ∞), and it maps [1, ∞) onto (0, 1].

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 Two Basic Theorems
For a function continuous on a bounded closed interval, the existence
of both a maximum value and a minimum value is guaranteed. The
following theorem is fundamental.

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 Two Basic Theorems

From the intermediate-value theorem we know that

“continuous functions map intervals onto intervals.”
Now that we have the extreme-value theorem, we know that

“continuous functions map bounded closed intervals [a, b] onto

bounded closed intervals [m, M].”
Of course, if f is constant, then M = m and the interval [m, M] collapses to a point.

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