Infrastructure Development vis a vis Cultural Site Preservation,

Indigenous People Protection, Biodiversity and the Environment

of Halsema Highway Towards Safer and Greener Roads
Engr. Joy M. UNTALAN1, Romelda P. AZORES1, Jane P. PALACAY1, Dr. Titos Anacleto O.
QUIBUYEN2
1
Institute of Environmental Science and Meteorology,
University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines

Abstract: Development projects, when improperly designed and inadequately planned, can damage cultural sites
and structures. They diminish their value through unregulated building activities, degradation of ecosystems,
environmental pollution, and/or disruption of traditional ways of life, which also create unacceptable health and
safety risks for indigenous people. Often, these are cited to defer the right-of-way permission. The study aims to
provide a possible long term protection of cultural heritage threatened by road projects. It is useful for any
government agency involved in construction of infrastructures to come up with comprehensive background studies
prior to road construction. These should include environmental assessments, biodiversity surveys, cataloguing
cultural attitudes that input aesthetics and harmonious road designs to minimize impacts to heritage sites and
ancestral domains with sensitive ecosystems.

Keyword: Environmental Risk Assessments, Biodiversity Survey, Archeological/ Cultural Site, Indigenous People
Protection

INTRODUCTION growth rate between 1995 to 2000 is 3.21% but has

decreased to 1.59% for 2005 to 2010.
Country Information
The Philippines constitutes an archipelago of 7,107 islands The Philippines has a tropical climate, and is usually hot,
with a total land area of approximately 300,000 square and humid. The average yearly temperature is around
kilometers (116,000 square miles). It is located between 26.5°C (79.7°F). There are three recognized seasons: "Tag-
116° 40', and 126° 34' E. longitude, and 4° 40', and 21° 10' init" or "Tag-araw" (the hot season or summer from March
N. latitude. Its breadth is about 965 kilometers. The to May), "Tag-ulan" (the rainy season from June to
Philippine coastline adds up to 17,500 km. Three prominent November), and "Tag-lamig" (the cold season from
bodies of water surround the archipelago: the Pacific ocean December to February). Annual rainfall measures as much
on the east, the South China Sea on the west and north, and as 5,000 millimeters in the mountainous east coast section,
the Celebes Sea on the south. but less than 1,000 millimeters in some of the sheltered
valleys. Sitting astride the typhoon belt, most of the islands
The topography of the bigger islands - particularly Luzon experiences annual torrential rains, and thunderstorms from
and Mindanao - is characterized by alluvial plains, narrow July to October.
valleys, rolling hills and high mountains. The highest
mountains are found in Mindanao and Luzon, with the
altitudes varying from 1,790 to 3,144 meters. Most of the Status of the Environment
smaller islands are mountainous in the interior, surrounded
by narrow strips of discontinuous flat lowlands which Forest
constitute the coastal rims. The shorelines of both large and Forest cover in the Philippines decreased from 34% in the
small islands are irregular. 1970s to 22% in 1987, and remaining forest cover is
concentrated in Palawan, Mindanao and the uplands of
The Philippines is the world's 12th most populous nation, Luzon. The last forest resource inventory in 1987 showed a
with a population of over 90 million as of 2008. An forest cover of 6.6 M ha, leaving 10.8 M ha of possible
estimated figure of half of the population resides on the degraded forest land of the 17.4 M ha of designated forest
island of Luzon. Manila, the capital city, is the eleventh land (> 18% slope). Estimates and distribution of actual area
most populous metropolitan area in the world. Population in degraded open brushlands and grasslands are highly
variable. An idea of possible extent of degraded areas is
indicated by the land cover map to the left produced from Total Road Length
SPOT images from 1998-2000. Most of the area is As of July 2007, total road length and paved road
mountainous and faces severe erosion problems with
ratio by road classification is as follows:
vegetation removal. About 20 M people live and depend on
the forested uplands. The main causes of deforestation and The Philippines has a network of 29,367 km of
land degradation include intensive logging over decades, national roads with a paved ratio of 0.70 or 70%
upland migration, agricultural expansion, development of the network. This is comprised of: (1) a
policy failures, and inequitable land distribution. Declining national arterial network of 15,576 km with a
wood availability, heavy soil erosion and flashfloods led to
paved ratio of 0.80; and (2) a national secondary
logging bans on primary forests with concessions reduced to
a few sustainable operations and massive reforestation road network of 14,371 km with a paved ratio of
efforts in the last few decades. 0.56.We also have a provincial road network of 26,
925 km with a paved ratio of 0.20; a network of
city roads of about 7,052 km with a paved ratio of
0.77; a network of municipal roads of about
15,803 km with a paved ratio of 0.34; and a
network of barangay roads or farm to village roads
of about 121,989 km with a paved ratio of 0.07.
Overall, the total Philippine road network is about
200,740 km with a paved ratio of 0.22.

Classification Length (km) Paved Road

Ratio
National Roads 29,369 0.70
National Arterial 15,559 0.80
National Secondary 13,810 0.56
Provincial Roads 26,925 0.20

City Roads 7,052 0.77

Municipal Roads 15,803 0.34

Barangay Roads 121,989 0.07

Water Pollution
TOTAL 201,138 0.23
With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and
industrialization reduce the quality of Philippine waters, Source: DPWH road data

especially in densely populated areas and regions of

industrial and agricultural activities. The discharge of The Halsema Highway
domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff Construction of infrastructure is presently at a breakneck
has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. speed in the Philippines, due to the Government’s drive to
Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute infuse economic investments and activity into the rural areas.
seasonal problem in urban and coastal areas in the In particular, road building has never been as active as
Philippines. Nearly 2.2 million metric tons of of organic during any other period in our history. Most of the roads
pollution are produced annually by domestic (48 percent), being fast-tracked in the planning, budgeting and
agricultural (37 percent), and industrial (15 percent) sectors. implementing stages are those that will open the hinterlands,
In the four water-critical regions, water pollution is particularly mountainous regions of the Philippine Islands.
dominated by domestic and industrial sources. One of the biggest in scope among these road-building
projects is the Halsema Highway.
Air Pollution
High levels of industrial emission and the increasing number
of motor vehicles seriously degraded air quality in urban
areas.

Solid Waste
6,000 tons of garbage is generated daily in Metro Manila
with limited and constrained disposal sites.
 the year. Annual precipitation is around 3563 mm in Baguio
but declines northwards, and maximum daily rainfalls totals
(978mm in Baguio City ) approach world records.

Temperatures are moderate and elevation dependent. The

highest temperatures along the road occur in Bontoc and are
probably around 30degrees C. The coldest time of the year
is December – January while the warmest month is April.

Winds speeds are generally low, but the region is subject to

tropical storms and typhoons.

Geology
Fig. 1 Map of the Philippines. Location of the Halsema Geomorphology : the whole of the Cordillera Administrative
Project in the main island of Luzon region is characterized by mountainous terrain , with
elevations reaching 2922m at Mt. Pulog ( the highest peak in
The proposed Halsema Highway is part of the Baguio – Luzon , and second highest in the Philippines ). Surface rock
Bontoc – Banaue Road covering an approximate length of types vary from sedimentary limestones through
180 km and is within the Mt Data National Park. This road metamorphic to igneous (e.g diorite). Faulting is widespread
serves as the principal vehicular from Baguio City to the and the region is seismically active. Precipitation is high,
Highlands of Benguet and Mt Province. It extends further to temperatures are moderate, and weathering is fairly rapid.
Banaue in the Province of Ifugao, a major tourism area. The geology is complex, the mountains are young, heavily
The highway also functions as the main access or spur road faulted, and actively eroding. Slopes are steep or very steep,
for the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and is of and river valleys narrow. Erosion by landslide is common,
strategic importance in the country’s arterial road network. now accentuated by road construction and mining and
It runs thru mountains with limited forest cover and which supplemented by widespread surface erosion from land
appears to be geologically unstable and seismically sensitive. recently cleared for vegetable farming.
The road lies within a mossy forest belt which is protected
and traverses the headwaters of a river supplying the Banaue Hydrology
Rice terraces, which are inscribed as a World Heritage Site The region served by the road is the headwater area for three
under the UNESCO World Heritage Convention. The road major river systems (Abra, Chico, Agno) and many minor
itself goes thru these UNESCO rice terraces ones, which are vital to the environment and economy of
Northern Luzon. Flows vary widely throughout the year,
responding rapidly to major storm events.
EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION
(Baguio- Bontoc - Banaue section) Watershed condition has been severely affected by land use
Part of the road has been constructed across very steep change over the last century, and continues to deteriorate.
terrain at 850-2350 m elevation, crossing two major ridge No basin wide landslide inventories have been carried out,
systems of the Central Cordilleras. The 2-lane road starts so as yet it is not possible to quantify the relative
from Baguio City to the highlands of Mt. Province and contributions of roads, mines and natural failures to total
extends further to Banaue, Ifugao province with a distance sediment loads. There is a drastic increase in erosion rates
of 180.1 kms. The road project has steep grades and sharp due to forest removal and road construction.
curves along its mountainous section and flat sections at
either end of the road segment, with rolling hills in between. Soils
The road follows the ridge alignment, hence, the number of Soils are of variable depth and texture, depending on parent
cross drainage structures was few and there were almost no material and location in the landscape. Soils on slopes may
retaining walls. The side slopes of the road were fully be developed on weathered in –situ rock or on colluvial
covered by vegetation. Environmentally, the most important debris, in which case horizonation is weak. Except under
design parameters are road width and hillslope. Minor forest, organic matter levels are probably low due to erosion
realignments are necessary for improved roadbench stability, and oxidation. High precipitation results in leaching, and
considering the inherent conditions of the hillslopes, and soils are generally acid except where influenced by
their sensitivity to major storm and seismic events underlying limestone.

Climate Air
The climate of Northern Luzon is tropical monsoonal with Air quality along road is good, except locally in La Trinidad
two wind systems, the north-east and south-west monsoons. where exhaust emissions (principally diesel) degrade air
There also two climatic conditions along the project road: quality, and along unpaved sections of the road where dust
Benguet and Western Mt. Province have a pronounced dry is a severe nuisance during dry periods.
season from November to April and wet season the rest of
Biodiversity
Ecosystem diversity in the Baguio-Bontoc-Banaue road
project has been determined to consist of four vegetation
types:

Fig. 5 Open grass-covered summit vegetation.

Among the vegetation types present in the Halsema highway

road project is the montane forest that exhibits the highest
Fig. 2 Mixed vegetation of grass and scattered broad-leaved plant species diversity. Herbarium surveys shows at least
shrubs and small trees extending up to 2000 masl. thirty four (34) vascular plant families consisting of 60
genera which are endemic to the BBB area.34

Subsistence rice production is a way of life for the people of

Mountain Province and Ifugao. The indigenous rice varieties
planted in permanent rice terraces have to be conserved as
they are woven into the fabric of the Igorot material and
culture. The use of forest resources by the local communities
ranges from hunting (which is the supplementary source of
the indigenous peoples’ protein) fire-wood gathering, and
swidden farming.

More importantly the road project is expected to exacerbate

the destruction of natural and critical habitats which may
stem cumulatively from resource exploitation by this road
project if not properly abated.
Fig. 3 Open forest dominated by Pinus insularis between
1200 to 2200 masl.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL/ HISTORICAL SITES

Ancestral Domains
The land tenure situation is complex, and reflects unresolved
differences between the claim of ancestral domain by the
indigenous inhabitants and eminent domain by the
State .The legal corpus is steadily evolving towards
recognizing ancestral land (at the individual or corporate
level) and ancestral domain (tribal level ), as recognized by
the 1987 Constitution.

Since some three quarters of the Total land area of the

Cordillera is steeper than 10 degrees, the whole region is
classified as alienable and not disposable, thus dispossessing
Fig. 4 Montane oak forest, extending from 2500 to 2600 the indigenous cultural communities (ICC’s) who have been
masl. living and farming in the region for centuries. To these
peoples, the immediate surroundings of their villages, which
include the mountains, rivers, arable lands and grazing
grounds, are theirs. Traditionally, recognition of ownership
over these properties was governed by traditional customs
and inscribed in the collective consciousness of each
generation, and not by any written patent or deed.
Projects were introduced into the Cordillera, for instance,
electricity, only in recent years and are still not universal.
When a series of Mega-dams were proposed for the Chico
River in Mt. Province and Kalinga, the projects was
successfully opposed by ICCs which had learned the power
of organized protest. Since then, the Cordillera people have
developed a heightened political awareness and a strong
sense of their collective strength. For the past decades they
have been clamoring for the State to recognize their
ancestral rights over lands and resources and grant greater
political autonomy. The project may directly or indirectly
affect cultural heritage sites, especially those of
archaeological significance. The road rehabilitation project
may directly affect for example, the Ibaloy mummies of
Kabayan, the burial sites of Alab in Bontoc , the Northern
Kankaneys of Pingad and Sagada ; the Bontoc wet rice
terraces of Alab, Samoki,Talubin and Bay-yo. For example,
widening works had resulted in direct destruction of, at least,
one burial site where the remains were reportedly bulldozed
into the Chico River by the road contractor (Barangay
Gonogon, Bontoc). Indirectly, there have been serious
impacts on other cultural heritage sites since the road was
opened in 1930, in particular, theft and vandalism of many
of the Timbac Mummies (Reconnaissance Cultural Heritage
Survey).

Tribal Groups
The resident population is almost entirely Cordilleran ethnic
stock, Ifugao in Ifugao Province, Bontok in eastern Mt.
Province, Kankaney in Northeastern Benguet and Western
Mt Province and Inibaloi in Benguet. This mountain region
is home to a number of Indigenous Cultural Communities
(ICC’s) which have retained the distinct customs and
practices governing their relationship with one another and
the environment. They have been able to do so by
successfully resisting the onslaught of colonial influences,
unlike their lowland neighbors.

Fig. 6 Distribution of Tribal Groups in the Cordillera

In varying degrees, traditional institutions still pervade the

social and political life of the communities (Ili), particularly
in the interior areas. In Kabayan and Bokok, the Lalakay
(old men) and Babbaket (old women) still play a dominant
role in community decision making. In northern Benguet
and southwestern Mt Province, the Dap-ay which is
composed of old men of known wisdom and stature, plays a
crucial role in decision making and in settling disputes and
dispensing justice. The same is true for the Ator in Bontoc
and Eastern Province. In Ifugao, close family ties dictate the
settlement pattern of the indigenous groups in the province.

Traditional social organizations remain strong in Mt

Province, less so in Ifugao, and are weak in Benguet .
 The mountains of northern Luzon have been identified as an
Endemic Bird Area of global importance by the
International Council for Bird preservation (Bibby et al.
1992). Of the 33 Philippine endemic bird species reported
from the project area, 10 are endemic to Luzon only. In
addition, it is also noted for its endemic muridae (rats and
mice), which have evolved spectacular forms with limited
distribution.

The main threats to the biodiversity of the region are habitat

loss and hunting. The key faunal habitat is the remaining
mossy forest which despite its hydrological and biological
importance is itself globally threatened (Hamilton 1995).
The project road traverses mossy forest for 15 km from km
365 -350 (8% of its total length).

Benguet Province has been hardest hit by deforestation.

There has been almost total forest loss on the Mt Data ridge
due to unregulated conversion to vegetable farms (gardens):
mossy forest cover in the 55 km2. Mt. Data National Park is
now less than 0.8 km2. Forests on the Mt Pulog / Mt Polis
ridge east of the Agno and Chico rivers are in better
condition, but are severely threatened, as a result of the
construction of access roads from the Agno valley (Jensen et
al 1994).
Fig. 7 Some tribal groups in the Cordillera
The mammalian fauna of the area includes 42 species of
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT which 27 are endemic to the Cordillera, Luzon or the
Philippines. The 18 species of rodents (mice and rats) have
Biodiversity Assessment evolved to occupy specific ecological niches e.g the bushy-
The road has had severe negative effects on the region’s tailed and slender-tailed cloud rats (Crateroys Schandebegi
ecology, both directly through erosion and subsequent and Phloeomys Pallidus), which are among the most
sediment impacts on watercourses, and indirectly through spectacular and attractive rodents in the world ( Oliver et al
habitat loss (forest clearance), probably exacerbated by 1993). The largest mammalian group are bats (24 of the 47
water pollution by pesticides. mammalian species are bats , of which 10 are Philippine
endemics). The caves of the Sagada area may contain a
As an example, the mossy forest has been almost totally unique assemblage of bat species.
cleared from Mt. Data National Park, despite its biological
and hydrological importance. Anecdotal evidence suggests The region has a rich bird fauna (164 species of bird have
micro-climatic change (fewer frosts; reduced cloudiness) at been recorded in the Cordillera). The Philippine or Red
Mt. Data as a result. Crossbill is of special interest insofar as it is the
characteristic bird of the Benguet pine forest , living
The Philippine archipelago is noted for both a high absolute exclusively on pine cones , and found nowhere else (Bodner
biodiversity and a high level of endemic species. The 1986).
majority of the flora and fauna is dependent on the original
forests, and many of the endemic species are threatened with Very little is known about the riverine and aquatic ecology
extinction due to forest degradation and loss (Jensen et al. of the area, although nine species of fish have been recorded
1994). from the region, four indigenous and five introduced for
food (Bodner 1986). At least one indicator species, the
The mossy forest is recorded as supporting 285 vascular endemic Luzon Water –redstart “Rhyacornis bicolor (a
plants, and the pine forest, grassland and gullies a further which requires clear, fast flowing mountain streams) is
169. There are some 89 species of pteridophyte (fern) in the undergoing a severe population decline, and is now
region. Mt Pulog and by extension the similar environment classified as threatened.
of the Mt. Polis area has been recognized as a “Centre of
Plant Diversity and Endemism“ in a global survey (Davis et Preservation of Protected Areas
al 1995). There are also many local strains of staple crop The Halsema Highway runs through some 97.5 km through
plants; the reconnaissance survey reports ten native varieties Mt. Data National Park. The remainder of the Highway, as
of rice, and ten of sweet potato (camote). far as Bontoc, lies within the Central Cordillera Forest
Reserve which was declared in 1929.
Three quarters of the Bontoc – Banaue road lies within the at Barangay Pingad current road
Bontoc-Ifugao Forest reserve which overlaps the Chico widening
River Forest Reserve and Central Cordillera Forest Reserve Destroyed: bulldozed
(DENR 1997). The mossy forest in this stretch, on the Mt. Rock shelter burial into Chico River
378 sites with coffins at during recent road
Polis Ridge, is protected under National Integrated Protected
Barangay Gonogon widening.
Areas (NIPAS) legislation.
Pine coffins on LH Direct threat from
At Banaue, the road runs immediately above and through side of road in Brgy road widening; also
terrace systems of the “Rice Terraces of the Philippine Alab seepage from canal
Cordilleras “World Heritage Site”. This site, the first world Indirect threat of
383 + 100
heritage site in the Philippines, comprises clusters of rice Ganga Burial Cave & vandalism, theft from
terraces at Banaue (Batad and Bangaan ), Mayoyao, Petroglyphs, 2.5 Km increased unmanaged
Kiangan, and Hunduan. The site was inscribed under the from Alab; National tourism
UNESCO World Heritage Convention in the category of Cultural Treasure
Sagada burial caves, Indirect impacts of
“Cultural Landscapes” in December 1995.
hanging coffins, increased tourism
385 + 000 subterranean streams:
The road also runs close to or influences two other existing National Cultural
or proposed protected areas: the existing 115 km2 Mt. Pulog Treasure
National Park, and the proposed 120 km2 Mt. Calawitan
National Park. Bontoc
385 + 800 to 830 Rice Terraces of Direct Threat fro
Biodiversity in the region is high, with many rare and + 500 Brgy Samoki road Widening
endangered species of animal (and plant) living in or Direct threat from
374 + 000 to 372 Rice Terraces of
dependent on the old-grown mossy forest. This habitat is road widening
+ 200 Brgy Talubin
under severe pressure from clearance for subsistence and
commercial agriculture. Hunting is widespread.
370 + 300 +to Rice terraces of Brgy Direct threat from
366 + 500 Bay-yo Road widening
Direct treats from
Archaeological /Historical Sites Survey Road widening,
A review of ethnographic and archaeological literature, Rice terraces of
sedimentation of
Philippine laws pertaining to protection and preservation of Banaue: National
345 + 600 + 341 irrigation water,
cultural heritage, field reconnaissance survey, and Cultural Treasure
+ 000 indirect threats from
and World Heritage
consultations with people, revealed two existing types of vegetable industry
Site
cultural heritage namely: burial sites, and irrigated rice and loss of traditional
terraces (payo), which are potentially at risk, directly or values.
indirectly as a consequence of the road rehabilitation. Table Banaue
1 lists some of these. Source : Reconnaissance Cultural Heritage Survey

Table 1 Cultural Heritage Sites along Project Road

Table 2 Impacts of Roads
Approx. Station
Description Threat
(Km) Environmental Effect on Environment
Action or
La Trinidad Feature
Indirect threat of Physical
vandalism, theft from Environment
increased unmanaged Dust Dust from unsurfaced sections of road is
Timbac Mummy
tourism; also major nuisance to road users, roadside
303 + 700 Caves: National
deterioration due to residents.
Cultural Treasure
micro-climatic Slope Failure Erosion, increased instability, siltation
change following of watercourses, direct and indirect
forest loss. impacts on water supplies
Scattered rice
terraces by road in Road widening Past and on going widening carried out
363 + 300 to 365
Barangays Direct threat from without geotechnical assessment has a
+ 600
Camatagan, current road major destabilizing effect on slopes
367 + 100 to 369
Namatec, Pingad, all widening Spoil disposal Loss of vegetation, erosion, gullying,
+ 000
in Sabangan downslope burial of fields, siltation of watercourses
Municipality Roadside Slope destabilization erosion
366 + 600 Stone coffins by road Direct threat from quarrying
 Inadequate/poorly Localized flooding erosion at outfalls, BCEOM/SWK/DSI/MGG.1997.Consulting Services to
designed/poorly gullying, siltation of watercourses Undertake the Economic Evaluation and Engineering
maintained Investigations. Detailed Engineering and the Preparation
drainage of Bidding Documents for the Rehabilitation of the
Water pollution Disruption destruction of aquatic
Bagiuo-Bontoc-Banawe Road (Halsema Highway):
by sediment environment and fauna due to erosion,
spoil disposal, siltation
Feasibility Report (in 3 vols.). DPWH, Manila.
Biological DPWH. 1995. Revision of M.O. 72, Series of 1982. Re:
environment MPWH Guidelines on the Rules and Regulations
Loss of forest Direct loss of habitat & wildlife, slope implementing P.D. No. 1586 establishing the
cover and slope destabilization and disruption especially Environmental Impact Statement(EIS) System in relation
vegetation at Mt Polis, conversion of forest to to P.D. No. 1151 declaring Philippine Environmental
vegetable farms Policy and Proclamation No. 2146, proclaiming certain
Water pollution Disruption/destruction of aquatic areas and type of projects as environmentally critical and
from Pesticides environment and fauna, health effects on within the scope of the EIS System Dept. of Public Works
human population , especially in and Highways. Manila. Feb. 6th 1995. 7 p.
Benguet
Jensen, A. M.K. Poulse. J. Accos, O.F. Jakobsen, C.Y.
Human Society Loss of traditional sense of identity,
health and social problems, violation of Andersen & L.A. Viray. 1994. Conservation of Biological
rights to participate in development Diversity of Mount Pulog National Park, the Philippines.
DENR/ Birdlife International, Manila and Danish
Ornithological Society, Copenhagen.
CONCLUSION Keith, G.P. & E.B. Keith. 1981. Kabayan Mummies: a
Glimpse of Benguet. Hilltop Printing Press. Baguio City.
Road building should therefore include OIDCI.1994. The Six-Year (1995 to 2001)Master Plan for
environmental impact assessments pertaining to physical the Restoration and Preservation of the Ifugao Rice
environment, biodiversity surveys, sociological assessment Terraces: Final Report Orient Integrated Development
covering surveys of archeological and historical sites and Consultants Inc., Quezon City. Report to Ifugao Terraces
native social structures. This is to obtain flexibility in Commision.
imposing designed standards on infrastructure projects Philippine Biodiversity Country Study Project. 1996.
within areas of significant historical/ biodiversity/ cultural Philippine Biodiversity Country Study Report and
significance; to ascertain the negative impact of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Executive
infrastructure projects are mitigated; to conserve/ preserve Summary. Prep. For Donors’ Meeting on Biodiversity, 20
the balance of environmental, agricultural, and socio- June 1996. DENR-PAWB, Quezon City
cultural factors while meeting the demands of modernization Rood, S. 1995. Indigenous Practices and State Policy in the
Sustainable Management of Agricultural Lands and
Forests in the Cordillera. CSC Working Paper 23.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Cordillera Studies Center, UPCB
The authors thank Uriel Joseph Erasquin, Major Gooyit, Viray, L. Undated. The State of Biodiversity Conservation
Dennis Kien Pacardo and Paulo Perez of the University of in the Cordillera.
the Philippines- Institute of Chemistry who helped us do the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines#cite_note-General
field reconnaissance surveys and sampling; Joshua Rey Info-8
Torres for his untiring encoding of this manuscript; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines#cite_note-71
Philippine Insitute of Civil Engineers President Juanito P.
Abergas and Mr Bong David who pushed me in making this
paper .

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