CHAPTER TWO

UNDERSTANDING FOREIGN POLICY AND

DIPLOMACY
Defining national interest
 Refers to set of values, orientation, goals and
objectives a given country would like to achieve in its
international relations.
 It has been the main driving force that determines the
contents of foreign policy.
 There are controversies on the exact meaning, scope
and contents of national interests.
 It is something related to the ambition of governments.
 National interest cont‟d…
 It is what governments aspire to full fill in its future
interaction with others (A. K. Holsti).
 Power or the ability to influence the behaviors of
other states is underscored as the primary instrument
to implement national interest.
 In the normative sense: it is related to the set of
purposes which a nation should seek to realize in the
conduct of its foreign relations.
 In the descriptive sense: it may be regarded as those
purposes which the nation (states) through its
leadership appears to pursue persistently over time.
 National interest cont‟d…
 Colmbis has provided a multiplicity of criteria used in
defining national interest, including:
1. Operational philosophy,
2. Moral and legal criteria,
3. Pragmatic criteria,
4. Ideological criteria,
5. Professional advancement,
6. Partisan criteria,
7. Bureaucratic-interest criteria,
8. Ethnic/racial criteria,
9. Class-status criteria and
10. Foreign –dependency criteria
 1. Operational philosophy
 Depending on time, location, the world around you, and the
action of your predecessors, you may choose one of two
major style of operation.
 First, act in a bold and sweeping (comprehensive)
fashion.
 Up on taking office, introduce major new practices,
policies, and institutions and discontinue others.
 This style is often referred to as synoptic in the decision
making literature.
 The decision maker with synoptic orientation assumes that
he/she has enough information about an important issue.
 It helps to develop a major policy with some confidence
that its consequence can be predicted or controlled.
 Operational philosophy cont‟d…

 The second major style of operation is to act in

caution, probing, and experimental fashion,
following the trial and error approach.
 This style is called incremental in the decision making
literature.
 Political and economic problems are too complex to
proceed with bold initiative without worrying about
their consequence.
 Thus, the incrementalist usually seeks to perfect
existing legislations, policies, institutions and
practices.
 2. Ideological criteria
 The governments employ ideological criteria and
establish their relations on the basis of that criteria.
 They may identify their friends or enemies
countries using the litmus test of ideology.
 During cold war, the ideology of communism and
capitalism had been often used to establish cooperation
or conflict with countries.
 Hence, national interest may be shaped by underlying
ideological orientations of the regime in power.
 3. Moral and legal criteria
 States are expected to act morally as this is equated
with acting honestly and making your public
decision accordingly.
 Thus moral behavior, in international politics involves
keeping your promise:-
*Treaties,
*Living and letting others live (the poor and the
disadvantaged),
*Avoiding exploitation and uneven development
between the developing countries and the
developed ones;
 Moral and legal criteria cont‟d…

 Generally it is also standing up for the principles to

which you are morally committed and that are widely
accepted in your culture.
 Acting legally means, abiding by the rules of
international law to the extent that such rules are
identified and accepted.
 If there are lacunas, areas where no international
regimes have been developed, then you act in a general
sprit of equity and justice.
 4. Pragmatic criteria
 You look at issues and events around you and the
world with sense of prudence and with sort of
rationality.
 On the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and
benefit or merit and demerit to your country interest,
you may act.
 Here, your decisions are made without considering
normative issues, issues that involves judgment, be it
bad or good.
 So the practical utility of merit of your action will be
counted other than morality and personal sentiments.
 5. Professional advancement criteria

 In this case, your action may be manipulated and

adjusted in consideration of your personal success.
 Quite often, in large bureaucracies that lack good
governance the trick to success is to “play the game”
and “not to rock the boat.”
 This attitude has been referred to cynically as the “go
along to get along” effect.
 So, bureaucratic behavior is conformist behavior that is
marked strong resistance to new policies and thinking.
 6. Partisan criteria

 Here you tend to equate the survival and the success

of your political party, or ethnic or religious origin
with the survival and success of your country.
 In similar fashion, you may use bureaucratic criteria to
prioritize the policy issues.
 You may tend to equate the interest of your
organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth)
with the national interest.
 7. Foreign dependency criteria
 These criteria usually applies to less developing
countries who had fallen under the yoke of
colonialism.
 Now, even after political independence, kept the
colonial ties with their ex-masters intact.
 These countries are still dependent on their ex-colonial
states for technical aid, expertise and technology,
sometimes even for their security.
 Governments in these countries are therefore heavily
dependent on the support of the outside powers.
 As a result of this state of dependency, the less
developing countries face difficulties to defend and
promote their national interest.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…

 Thus, national interest is not a purely scientific endeavor

that results in optimal advantage for states.
 However, realist international scholars reject the
ideological, legal and moral criteria to define and shape
the contents of national interest.
 They advised leaders to prioritize pragmatic criteria when
defining national interest and employing foreign policy.
 Morgenthau defines national interest in terms of pursuits
of power.
 Power is about establishing control or influencing the
behaviors of others, either diplomatically or use of
coercion.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…
 In anarchical international system, power for him is
a means for achieving and promoting the interest of
state.
 International politics is a struggle among states.
 Thus, the prime interest of state is survival and
security among other things.
 So, national interest in the competitive and anarchical
international environment should be objectively
defined in terms of ensuring survival and security of
a state, than talking about justice and morality.
 The leaders of states have to be cautious enough in
calculating the range and scope of their countries
national interest.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…

 The scope of national interest and their foreign policy

should be proportional to their capabilities.
 So, prudence should be the virtue of leaders, if there is
virtue and morality;
 Otherwise, miscalculations and moral and ideological
visions might lead to chaos and destruction.
 On the other hand, idealists have strong belief in the
relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements.
 The realists also failed to recognize them as the
constituting elements of national interest.
 They don„t see legal and moral factors apart from the
so called “reality.”
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…

 According to the idealist view:

 Specific actions and objective of foreign policy have
often been derived from general moral and legal
guidelines and principles.
 Even such policies as:
*The formation of alliance,
*Declaration of war,
*Covert foreign intervention,
*Humanitarian intervention,
*Foreign aid and others have always been justified on
moral and legal grounds.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…

 So, national interest reflects the marriage of different

criteria that include:
*Legal, moral, ideological and prudence or pragmatism-
practical necessities on the ground.
 Realists, however, fail to recognize and prescribe
solutions for addressing global problems.
 It gives the exclusive emphasis given to state and
national interest.
 Idealists believe on the prevalence of common
problems of human beings.
 Example:- environmental pollution, ecological imbalance,
depletion of resource, population growth, poverty, war, arms
race, uneven development and the north-south gap…etc.
 Foreign dependency criterion cont‟d…

 The idealists call for global solutions than local

(national) solutions.
 The establishment of new institutions with global
orientation may play vital role in addressing global
problems, instead of the state-centric particularism.
 States could no longer be viable actors in
addressing cross-cutting problems by themselves.
 Understanding foreign policy and foreign policy
behaviors
 Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and
instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world.
 The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants
to achieve are in one way or another related to
national interest.
 So, national interest is often considered as the
objectives of foreign policy of a state.
 These objectives can be classified as long range,
middle range and short range.
 The scope and content of foreign policy of a state is
often determined by the capabilities of the concerned
state.
 Defining foreign policy
 Foreign policy is something that a state would like to
achieve in its external relations with others.
 It involves the general purposes and specific strategies
a state employs to achieve or promote its national
interest.
 Involves general purposes, priority of goals to be
realized and achieved.
 It also encompasses specific strategies and
instruments, economic and diplomatic tools that states
employ to achieve their objectives.
 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to
achieve is commonly referred as national interest.
 Defining foreign policy cont‟d…
 All states would like to promote their national interest
as their capability or power allows them to do.
 Every state should protect their physical, political, and
cultural identities against any encroachment by other
states.
 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and
tactics that must be employed to realize those
objectives and goals.
 The most widely employed instruments include:
*Diplomatic bargaining,
*Economic instruments,
*Propaganda,
*Terrorism (sabotage) and
*Use of force (war).
 Defining foreign policy cont‟d…

 Each instrument is used to affect the behaviors of other

states, and has an element of power.
 In diplomacy, states attempt to affect the behavior of
others through bargaining that involves less element
of power as compared to other instruments.
 Yet, states may manipulate carrot and stick methods,
such as reward or threats.
 By doing so, they can induce agreement whenever
there appears to be incompatible goals and objectives.
 Security and survival of a state, has always been
considered as the first priority, among various
foreign policy objectives.
 Defining foreign policy cont‟d…

 A state aspires to achieve them in the short run.

 In this regard, K. J. Holisti categorizes the foreign
policy objectives of states into three, namely:
*The short range,
*Middle ranges and
*Long range objectives.
 Foreign policy objectives
 Foreign policy, just like any policy, sets short term,
middle term and long term goals and objectives to be
achieved in proportion to a state„s capability.
 Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is
based on the combination of the three criteria.
1. The value placed on the objective;
2. The time element placed on its achievement and
3. The kind of demands the objective imposes on other
states in international system.
 Foreign policy objectives cont‟d…
 Based on these criteria, the objectives can be classified
as:
1. Core values and interests
 The states commit their very existence and that must
be preserved or extended at all time.
2. Middle range goals
 Normally impose demands on several others states
(commitments to their achievement are serious and
time limit is also attached to them).
3. Universal long range goals
 Have definite time limits.
 In practice, leaders rarely place the highest value on
long range goals and it„s very much dependent on the
capability and ideology of the state.
 1. Core interests and values (short range objectives)

 They can be described as those kinds of goals for

which most people are willing to make ultimate
sacrifices.
 They are usually stated in the form of basic principles
of foreign policy.
 Society accepts without any questioning it.
 So, core interests are sacrosanct by entire peoples
residing in the state.
 They are most frequently related to the self
preservation of political and economic systems, the
people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a
state.
Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont‟d…

 They are short-range objectives.

 This is because, others goals cannot be realized if
the existence of the state and its political units are
not ensured.
 Their exact definition in any given country depends on
the attitudes of those who make foreign policy.
 Some governments place great values on controlling or
defending neighboring territories.
 This is because these area contain asset such as man
power and resources that can increase the capabilities.
 Furthermore, the major threat for their territorial
integrity might materialize through adjacent countries.
Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont‟d…
 Then, conquering the part or whole of neighboring
countries might be considered as the core interests of
states.
 These have been the underlying reason behind
colonialism.
 The direct acquisition of foreign soil and people will
help to bolster the capability and economic needs-
national interest (of the colonial power).
 Still to day countries such as Israel and the United
States pursue such policies called extra-territoriality.
 Extraterritoriality is there when the national
interest and claims of a country is projected beyond
the limit of its geographic boundary.
 Core interests or values (short range objectives) cont‟d…
 States may think that their national interest is at risk
when:
I. The interests and security of citizens or,
II. Kin ethnic or religious groups living in the neighboring
states and other states are threatened.
 So, liberating or protecting the interests of such
individuals and groups might be considered as part of
its core national interest.
 Nevertheless, the most essential objective of any
foreign policy, core interests and values is:
A. To ensure the sovereignty and independence of the
home territory and;
B. To perpetuate a particular political, social, and
economic systems based on that territory.
 2. Middle range objectives
 Unlike, the short range objective, the middle range
objectives drastically varies across states.
 The variation is obviously due to the difference in the
level of economic and technological progress, as well
as the military capability, the middle range objectives
of states.
 A state would like to achieve in its medium term is to
take a course of actions that have the highest impact
on the domestic economic and welfare needs and
expectation.
 This would include the attempts of government to meet
economic-betterment demands and needs through
international action.
 Middle range objectives cont‟d…
 Social welfare and economic development, cannot be
achieved through self-help.
 This is because, most states have only limited
resources, administrative services, and technical skills.
 Interdependence means that to satisfy domestic needs
and aspirations, states would have to interact with
others.
 Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities,
sources of supply, and foreign market are for most
states necessary for increasing social welfare.
 The primary commitment of governments must be to
pursue those course of action that have the highest
impact on domestic economic and welfare needs of its
people.
 3. Long- range objectives

 These are plans, dreams, and visions concerning the

ultimate political or ideological organization of the
international system.
 Includes the rules governing relations in that system.
 The difference between middle-range and long range
goals relates to:
-Different time elements inherent in them
-There is also a significant difference in scope.
 In pressing for middle range goals, states make
particular demands against particular interest.
 In pursuing long range goals, states normally make
universal demands.
 Long range objectives cont‟d…
 They may have international repercussions as far as
they are complemented by the capabilities and
powers.
 This, however, doesn„t necessarily imply that less
developing countries does not formulate long range
objective.
 Every country has its own visions and ambition
proportional to its relative strength and capabilities to
be realized in the long run.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends
 Refers to the actions states take towards each other.
 All foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down in to
three possible patterns (Arnold Wolfers).
1. Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
2. Self-extension (revising the status quo in one‟s own
favor);
3. Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‟s
favor).
 The foreign policy patterns of countries such as
United States can be categorized as self-preservation.
 United States, following second world emerged as one
of the strongest actor, super power in international
relations.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont‟d…

 The international institutions (IMF, World Bank,

GATT/WTO) were established following Second
World War.
 They have been strongly shaped by United States.
 The underlying philosophy of such institutions, and
even the decision making procedures are all shaped to
serve the global interests the country.
 Even the United Nations has been serving the interest
of United State as the country has key position in the
Security Council as one of Veto power among the few.
 U.S has become the staunch supporter of the
international order.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont‟d…
 Any attempt to reform the international system and the
politico-economic order will face strong criticisms.
 These days U.S has become the sole defender of the
international system and the liberal economic-political
order.
 On the other hand, newly emerging powers such as
China, India, Brazil, Germany and others are
competing to restructure the international
institutions.
 This is to create enabling environment to promote their
national interest.
 Such policy trend can be equated with Wolfers„ model
of self-extension.
 Foreign policy behavior: patterns and trends cont‟d…

 The third model, i.e. self-abnegation reflects the

foreign policy trends that are being displayed in Less
Developing Countries (LDC).
 This can be seen in the weak states of the world which
fail to defend and promote their national interests in
their external relations.
 Weak and very much dependent states on foreign aid
are profoundly caught with many problems in order to
pursue an autonomous policy.
 Such countries may succumb to (fail to resist) such
challenges and compromise its long lasting national
interest for temporary and immediate benefits.
 Foreign policy dimensions

 The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be

done along a number of specific dimensions.
 The behavior can change over time and with different
style of leaderships and circumstances.
 These dimensions include:
A. Alignment,
B. Scope and
C. Modus operandi.
 Foreign policy dimension cont‟d…
A. Alignment
 It is about whether national leaders choose to ally with
certain countries or to remain neutral.
 The focus here is not to discuss the alignment
configuration at international level.
 It takes the form of bi-polarity or multi-polarity.
 The alignment decisions of individual states or
governments can also be discussed.
 A country„s alignment behavior can vary from time to
time during its history in response to changing
circumstances and policy decisions.
 Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as
alliance, neutrality and non-alignment.
 Tendencies of alignment cont‟d…
Alliances
 Alliances are formal agreements to provide mutual
military assistance; as such, they carry legal weight
and certain benefits as well as risks.
Neutrality
 It is a stance of formal non partisanship in world
affairs.
 By keeping a low profile, neutrals may avoid some of
the problems associated with alliances, particularly
the generating of potential enemies and counter
alliances.
 Tendencies of alignment cont‟d…

 But, neutrals aware that if war clouds gather, there may be

no one committed to providing a protective military
umbrella.
 Switzerland is one country that has carried neutrality to an
extreme case in refusing membership to United Nations till
2002.
Non alignment
 It has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing
state during cold war.
 Most developing countries had a movement, Non
Alignment Movement (NAM).
 It was a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed.
 Tendencies of alignment cont‟d…
Note:
Neutral
 Is a general term for a country's policies.
 Permanently neutral state is by the virtue of international treaty
or a binding unilateral declaration.
 A state under legal obligation not to participate in any future
war.
 Neutral countries are industrial countries in Europe stick more
or less to capitalist.
Non-Aligned movement
 Is a specific organization founded in 1961, Belgrade, Serbia
with a conference and a membership list.
 The idea of non-alignment was coined during the Cold war as a
specific form of neutrality.
 Non aligned countries are situated in Africa, Asia and South
America.
 A forum of 120 developing world states that are not formally
aligned with or against any major power bloc.
 Foreign policy dimension cont‟d…

B. Scope
 A second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a
country„s activities and interests.
 Some countries have extensive, far-reaching
international contacts.
 While other countries have more limited activities
abroad.
 A country„s scope of contact can affect the outcome of
disputes and crises.
 Scope cont‟d…
 With regards to the scope of activities a state has in
international relations, one can identify at least three
patterns of foreign policy behaviors.
I. Some actors act in global terms,
II. Others as regional terms, and
III. those that follow policy of isolationism.
 Major Powers in international relations have
historically been those that have defined their interest
in global terms. Example USA.
 USA has the capability to influence world events.
 Scope cont‟d…

 The country„s military presence and diplomatic

communication in every part of the world make her
global actor, despite economic decline.
 Most countries in the world are essentially regional
actors.
 They interact primarily with neighboring states in the
same geographical area except contacts.
 They frequently concerning economic issues such as
trade.
 Major actors like United States and China are
examples.
 Scope cont‟d…
 For example, South Africa is a regional actor in Africa
in general and in Southern Africa in Particular.
 It is the most important actor in regional organizations
such as SADDIC and AU.
 India can also be considered as the most important
actor in South Asian region, so is China in entire Asia.
 China„s activities is not limited to Asia only.
 The country presence is well felt in every region of the
world, and China is the best candidate to assume global
responsibility and leadership.
 Scope cont‟d…
 In recognition to this fact, America is doing everything
to contain Chinese economic progress and hence its
role in the world.
 China has hugely engaged itself in extraction activities
and related investment in Africa.
 The key weakness or geographic remoteness, may
cause the scope of a country„s foreign policy to
become so narrow that isolationism results.
 This was the case with Burma (currently Myanmar) in
1960 and 70s.
 Foreign policy dimension cont‟d…
C. Mode of operation/ “modus opernadi”
 Certain patterns of foreign policy behaviors can be
identified on the basis of the modus operandi-the
method of operation.
 Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to
address different issues.
 Still others very much rely on unilateral means.
 They may choose to solve the problems by themselves.
 The more multilateralist a state is, the greater its
tendency to seek solutions to problems through
diplomatic forums.
 Mode of operation (modus opernadi) cont‟d…

 In this case, several states participate, such as the

United Nations, rather than utilizing purely bilateral,
country to country approaches.
 Most developing countries used the multilateral
approaches to address many issues of concern.
 The multilateral forum would enhance collective
barraging power of these countries vis-a-vis other
developed countries.
 In addition, establishing bilateral relations (establishing
embassies and assigning diplomatic staffs) are often
found to be costly.
 Mode of operation (modus opernadi) cont‟d…

 Regardless of the power and capability question,

countries may opt to use multilateral frameworks.
 It is used as the best strategy to address issues with
the spirit of cooperation and peace.
 Germany, though it is an economic power, is known to
be multi- lateralist in its external relation.
 Most of Scandinavian countries fall under this
category.
 Whereas countries may opt to rely on unilateral means
of settling different issues with other countries.