Chapter 1

Review of atomic theory of matter.

Matter:

The substance of which a physical object is composed b : material substance that occupies
space, has mass, volume and is composed predominantly of atoms consisting of protons,
neutrons, and electrons..

There are four fundamentals types of Matter or structure of Matters are classified as

(1) Solids
(2) Liquids
(3) Gases
(4) Plasma

Solids:

In a solid the particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces
between particles are strong so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As
a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change
their shape by force, as when broken or cut..

Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by
freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can
likewise change directly into solids through deposition. Exaples : gold, wood, sand,, steel, brick

Liquids:

The liquid state of matter is an intermediate phase between solid and gas. Like the particles of
a solid, particles in a liquid are subject to intermolecular attraction; however, liquid particles
have more space between them, so they are not fixed in position. The attraction between the
particles in a liquid keeps the volume of the liquid constant.

The movement of the particles causes the liquid to be variable in shape. Liquids will flow and fill the
lowest portion of a container, taking on the shape of the container. The limited amount of space
between particles means that liquids have only very limited compressibility. Example : water, milk,
blood, urine, gasoline, mercury (an element).

Gases :

Gas is a state of matter that has no fixed shape and no fixed volume. Gases have lower
density than other states of matter, such as solids and liquids. There is a great deal of empty
space between particles, which have a lot of kinetic energy. The particles move very fast and
collide into one another, causing them to diffuse, or spread out, until they are evenly
distributed throughout the volume of the container. Examples : hydrogen ,oxygen, helium .

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Plasma : A plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of
positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons. The characteristics of plasmas
are significantly different from those of ordinary neutral gases so that plasmas are
considered a distinct "fourth state of matter." For example, because plasmas are made
up of electrically charged particles, they are strongly influenced by electric and magnetic
fields

Plasma is the fourth state of matter. Many places teach that there are three states of matter;
solid, liquid and gas, but there are actually four. The fourth is plasma. To put it very simply, a
plasma is an ionized gas, a gas into which sufficient energy is provided to free electrons from
atoms or molecules and to allow both species, ions and electrons, to coexist. The funny thing
about that is, that as far as we know, plasmas are the most common state of matter in the
universe. They are even common here on earth. A plasma is a gas that has been energized to
the point that some of the electrons break free from, but travel with, their nucleus. Gases can
become plasmas in several ways, but all include pumping the gas with energy. A spark in a
gas will create a plasma. A hot gas passing through a big spark will turn the gas stream into a
plasma that can be useful. Plasma torches like that are used in industry to cut metals. The
biggest chunk of plasma you will see is that dear friend to all of us, the sun. The sun's
enormous heat rips electrons off the hydrogen and helium molecules that make up the sun.
Essentially, the sun, like most stars, is a great big ball of plasma.

Most matter in the universe is in the plasma state. Here are a few specific examples of plasmas:

 Gases in discharge tubes (fluorescent lamps and neon signs)

 Welding arcs
 Lightning
 Auroras
 The upper atmosphere (the ionosphere)
 Stars and the Sun
 the solar wind .

Introduction to atom:

An atom is the smallest form of a chemical particle that retains the properties of the
particle. atom definition. A unit of matter; the smallest unit of a chemical element.

An atom is the smallest part of an element that retains the properties of that element.
The concept of an atom goes a long way back. It was first suggested by an ancient
Greek named Democritus (the Greek word "atoms" means indivisible).

Structure of an atom. An atom contains three sub-atomic particles. At the centre is a

nucleus, which contains protons, positively charged particles, and neutrons, which are
particles with no charge. Surrounding the nucleus are moving electrons, which are
negatively charged particles.

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 Structure of the Nucleus:

Protons :
1. Protons
a. Positive charge, mass of 1.673x10-27 kg
b. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atom's identity and is called
the atomic number .

c. The proton, a positively charged Particle, is present in the central part of the atom called
nucleus.

Neutrons:

(1) it is an elementary particle having no charge, mass slightly greater than that of a proton,

(2). No charge, mass of 1 .675x10-27 kg .

(3) The neutron, a neutral particle, is also present in the nucleus of the atom.Since the
atom is electrically neutral, the number of positive charges on the nucleus is exactly
balanced by an equal number of orbital electrons.

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 Electrons:

Electron: An electron is the negatively charged subatomic particle that revolves around the
nucleus in an electron orbital. The electron was discovered by the English physicist Sir
Joseph J. Thomson around 1897 with the use of a cathode ray tube.
Electrons have a negative charge and are electrically attracted to the positively charged
protons. Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbital’s.

Atomic number - indicates the number of protons and defines the element (atomic
number 6 is always carbon, atomic number
7 is always nitrogen etc.).
Mass number - equals the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an
atom
Atomic mass - the average mass of an atom of an element (in amu).

Atomic Models :
The different historical models are described as follows:
(1)Dalton's model of the atom - solid, tiny, indivisible particles.

(2)Thomson's model - often describe as the "plum pudding" model - electrons are
Scattered throughout the atom.

(3) Rutherford's model - includes the solid nucleus in the center of the atom.

(1)JOHN DALTON MODEL:

The introduction of the atomic theory by John Dalton in 1808 marks the inception of a modern
area in chemical thinking. According to this atomic theory:
 All matter is composed of very small particles called atoms. All elements made up of
of atoms.
 The Atoms were regarded to be structure less, hard, impenetrable particles which cannot
be subdivided.

(2) J.J THOMSON Atomic Model :

In 1904 Sir J. J. Thomson proposed the first definite theory as to the internal structure
of the atom. The electron was discovered by him with the use of a cathode ray tube. A
cathode ray tube is similar to your TV. It has an anode (positive electrode) and a cathode
(negative electrode).

These are enclosed in an evacuated (air removed) glass container and when a charge is
applied the electrons flow from anode to cathode through the open space of the glass
container. Thomson observed these particles and determined that
the particles:
·
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THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
J. J. Thomson showed that the atoms ofany element can be made to emit tiny
negatively charged particles. · He investigated the conductance of gases through glass tubes
called “gas discharge tubes” this model also called as plum pudding model, there were
negatively charged particles i.e. electrons embedded or suspended in a sphere of positive
charge (electrons presented as plums inside the bowl of pudding). J.J. Thomson that electrons
are present in an atom and that they are negatively charged. So it was assumed that since an
atom is neutral and electrons present are negatively charged, there should be some positive
charge inside it that makes it neutral.

J.J. Thomson investigated the properties of“CATHODE RAYS” and concluded: · Cathode Rays
are a stream ofvery small and very light particles emitted the cathode. · These particles are
negatively charged, since they travel from the Cathode (-) toward the
Anode (+), and they are repelled by the negative plate ofan electric field. · These particles are
present in any form ofmatter (No matter what metal was used as a
Cathode, each emitted Cathode Rays). · J.J. Thomson called these particles “electrons”
Conclusions:
The atom is not the smallest particle of matter.Atoms contain smaller particles, such as the electron.

(1) move at a very high speed

(2) have a negative charge
(3) have a mass of about 1/2000 of a hydrogen atom (smallest atom)
(4) An atom consists of negative charges scattered throughout a ball of positive
charges.
(5) A neutral atom is made up of an equal number of positive and negative particles.(the
plum pudding model)

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 ERNEST RUTHERFORD
FORD MODEL:
MODEL

Rutherford conducted a scattering experiment in 1911to find out the arrangement of electrons
and protons. This Model can be carried out a gold foil scattering experiment carried out by
Rutherford.

Construction of his experiment:

It has a radioactive source rich in positively charged heavy alpha particles inside a
cube shaped thick lead box with a narrow opening.
The experiment of consisted radioactive source rich in positively charged heavy alpha
particles inside a cube shaped thick lead box with a narrow opening. in passing an alpha
particles ray (positively charged particles) through a extremely thin piece of gold paper.. The
results got from this experiment, take to Rutherford to postulate a new atomic model
model.

An extremely thin gold foil was bombarded with the narrow beam of fast
moving alpha particles. On bombarding the alpha particles were scattered in different
directions with different angles and were detected by florescent rotatable detector
which has a microscope and a screen coated with zinc sulphide. The whole
experimental setup was placed in an evacuated
evacuated chamber to prevent scattering by the
air molecules. These particles after striking on the screen caused scintillations. Before
performing this experiment it was assumed by Rutherford that most of the alpha
particles would pass through the gold foil with
w less deflection.
Observations:

1) Most of the α- practical passed through gold foil undeflected :

2) A small fraction of α- particles was deflected by small angles.
3) A very few α- particles (about 1 in 20000) bounced back means deflecte
deflected by
0.
nearly 180

From above observations he concludes the structure of atom.

atom

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1) +ve charge & most of mass present in the centre of atom known as nucleus.

2) Electrons moves around nucleus with very high speed in circular paths known as orbits.
3) Electrons and nucleus (protons) are held together by electrostatic force of attraction .

4). Most of the part of the atom is hollow and neutral so alpha particles passes
straight without any deflection.

5) All positive charge is present in centre of atom so alpha particle are deflected
at different angles by repulsion from positively charged centre known as nucleus.
6) Only very few particles bounced back so size of nucleus is very small as
compared to size of atom.

7). Electron moves around nucleus like planet moves around sun in orbits.

8) Mass of electron is negligible so all mass of atom is present in nucleus.

9) Atom is electrically neutral so number of electron is equal to number of proton present in

atom.
10) Atom is mostly empty space.

Defects of Rutherford Atomic Model :

1. Stability of atom is not explained on the basis of this model.
2. This model could not explain discrete spectrum.

Niels Bohr atomic model:

The objections of Rutherford atomic model was contested by Niels Bohr atomic model in
1913. Niels Bohr proposed the quantum theory of an atom. The theory was based on the
quantum theory of radiation.
He depicts the atom as a tiny, spherical body which consists nucleus at centre and
negatively charged particles (electrons) revolving around nucleus in a certain path known as
orbit. He proposed some new postulate with same basis concepts of Rutherford theory.

In order to explain the stability of an atom, Neils Bohr gave a new arrangement of electrons
in the atom According to Neils Bohr, the electrons could revolve around the nucleus in only
'certain orbits' (energy levels), each orbit having a different radius. Bohr Atomic Model :

Bohr proposed his quantized shell model of the atom to explain how electrons can have stable
orbits around the nucleus. The motion of the electrons in the Rutherford model was unstable
because, according to classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory, any charged particle
moving on a curved path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons would lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus. To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the
Rutherford model by requiring that the electrons move in orbits of fixed size and energy. The
energy of an electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits.
Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another. The atom will
be completely stable in the state with the smallest orbit, since there is no orbit of lower
energy into which the electron can jump.

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When an electron is revolving in a particular orbit or particular energy level around the
nucleus, the electron does not radiate energy (lose energy) even though it has accelerated
motion around the nucleus.

 An atom is made up of three particles, electrons, protons and neutrons.

Electrons have a negative charge and protons have a positive charge
whereas neutrons have no charge. They are neutral. Due to the presence
of equal number of negative electrons and positive protons, the atom as a
whole is electrically neutral.
 The protons and electrons are located in a small nucleus at the center of
the atom. Due to the presence of protons, the nucleus is positively
charged.
 The electrons revolve rapidly
rapidly around the nucleus in fixed circular paths
called energy levels or shells. The 'energy levels' or 'shells' or 'orbits' are
represented in two ways: either by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 or by
letters K, L, M, N, O and P. P. The energy levels are counted from center
outwards. This representation is called as Bohrs Quantum number .
 Each energy level is associated with a fixed amount of energy. The shell
nearest to the nucleus has minimum energy and the shell farthest from the
nucleus has maximum energy.
 There
ere is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep
revolving with the same energy level. But, when an electron jumps from a
lower energy level to a higher one, some energy is absorbed while some
energy is emitted.
 When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one, the
amount of energy absorbed or emitted is given by the difference of
energies associated with the two levels. Thus, if an electron jumps from
orbit 1 (energy E1) to orbit 2 (energy E2), the change in energy is given by
E2 - E1.
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  The energy change is accompanied by absorption of radiation energy of
E = E2 E1 = h where, h is a constant called 'Planck's constant' and is the
frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted. The value of h is 6.626 x 10-34
J-s. The absorption and emission of light due to electron jumps are
measured by use of spectrometers.

Postulates of Niels Bohr Atomic Theory

The important postulates in his theory are,

1. Electrons revolve round the nucleus with definite velocities in concentric circular orbits
situated at definite distances from the nucleus. The energy of an electron in a certain orbit
remains constant. As long as it remains in that orbit, it neither emits nor absorbs energy.
These are termed stationary states or main energy states.
2. Bohr proposed that the angular momentum of an electron is quantized. Thus, the motion of
an electron is restricted to those orbits where its angular momentum is an integral multiple
of h/2 π, where h is Planck’s constant.
3. Thus we have the relationship mvr = nh/2π. , where m is mass of electron, v is
velocity of electron of said orbit, r is radius of that orbit, n is a simple integer.
4. The stationary states or allowed energy levels are only those where n = 1, 2, 3, ……
This is called Bohr quantum condition.
.
5. The energy of an electron changes only when it moves from one orbit to another. An
electronic transition from an inner orbit to outer orbit involves absorption of energy.
Similarly, when an electron jumps from an outer orbit to inner orbit it releases energy,
which is equal to the difference between the two energy levels.

6. The energy thus released in the form of a radiation of a certain frequency appears in
the form a line in the atomic spectrum. If the energy of an electron in the outer orbit
(n2) is E2 and energy of electron in the inner orbit (n1) is E1 then E2 - E1 = ΔE = hν.
When electrons moves or jumps from one orbit to another one, electrons absorbed or
emitted the radiation with a frequency ν determined by the energy difference of the energy
levels according to Planck relations.

7. The value of n could be small integers 1, 2, 3 and these correspond to the first,
second, third, and so on. Quantum states are shells for the electron; n is termed as
principal quantum number.

8. Based on the Bohr theory Bohr calculated the radii of the various orbits and the
energies associated with the electrons present in those shells.

Atomic Bonding:
A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force
of attraction between atoms with opposite charges, or through the sharing of
electrons.

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Ionic bond: bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to
another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.

A chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges. Ionic bonds form when
one atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom. These bonds can form between a
pair of atoms or between molecules and are the type of bond found in salts.
Examples: There is an ionic bond between the sodium and chloride ions in table salt, NaCl.
Now, imagine what will happen when one sodium atom meets one chlorine atom: the
sodium atom will lose one electron to give Na+, and the chlorine atom will gain that electron
to give Cl-. This can be represented schematically in the following way:
For example, in sodium chloride a sodium atom loses its one valence electron to form sodium
ion and chlorine atom accepts one electron to form chloride ion to form chloride ion. Due to
opposite charges, both ions attract each other and form sodium chloride; NaCl.

covalent bond:
 A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that
involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs
are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs.
 Covalent bonds are defined as the union that occurs between two atoms by
the sharing of 2 or more electrons in its outer layer, to form a stable
molecule.
Example:
i) Hydrogen and chlorine combine to form hydrogen chloride (HCl).

(ii) Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide (CO2). Covalent bonds are formed
between non-metal atoms. Each of the atoms involved in bonding contribute one, two, three
or more electrons to form the shared pair.

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Metalic bond:

Metallic bonding arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the
form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) the valence electrons are delocalised,
meaning that an atom's electrons do not stay around that one nucleus. In a metallic bond, the
positive atomic nuclei.

and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a
lattice of positively charged ions (cations). Example : Aluminium .copper ,gold

Quantization of electron energy :

The quantization of energy refers to the absorption or emission of energy in discreet packets, or
quanta. As the intensity of electromagnetic energy increases or decreases, it steps up or down from
one quantized level to another, rather than follow a smooth and continuous curve.

The word quantum derives from quantity and refers to a small packet of action or process, the
smallest unit of either that can be associated with a single event in the microscopic world.

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