PROJECTS

1
□
PROJECT

To determine the wavelength of a laser beam by diffraction.

A PPARATUS AND MATERIA' RfO ' 1RfD

A He-Ne or semJconductor laser. a s hining s teel scale with mm
gra duations. one metre scale. clamp s tand. a graph paper sheet
mounted on a card board.

T ERMSANO DEFINITI ONS

Laser: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
(abbreviated as LASER).
D(ffraction: The phen omenon of bending of Light from narrow
holes or slits.

*
- - - - d- --
(a) (b)

Fig. P 1.1 Single sUt diffraction (a) normal incidence (b) oblique incidence
•
P RINCIPLE
If a parallel beam of light of wavelength A. falls normally on a single
slit of width d (as shown In Fig. P 1. 1(al) the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern occurs at 9 = 0 and s ubsequent maxima appear at

.sin8= ( n + !)~. n ~0
LABORATORY MANtJAL

Consider now. many such ·sms· equally spaced as in a shiny steel

scale. Also the angle of incidence of the light beam may be close to
goo.
Y Referring to Fig. Pl. I (b) . the path
difference between the incident and
dlffracted beam is
Ym (N 1B - AN 2 ) = d (sin t - sin 8)

i is Angle between the incident ray and

the perpendicular.
If the engravings on a metal scale are
used for diffrac tion of light of
wavelength A. incident at an angle of
incidence ; ~ 90° . for the m th order
maximum, diffracted at an angle 8111 as
shown in Fig. P 1.2 . we h ave
dlsln l - sin 8,,.J = mA.

l+-- - - - - - - --.i •yo

where the spacing d b etween
D successive engravings Is con stant.
lfd=lmm
Wa ll (Screen)

Fig. P l .2 Schematic diagram of the experimental

a= Angle between incident ray and the
steel scale
¥ arrangement

a=(~-t)
2
and P, =(!!.-e )
"' 2 "'

The above equation can be written as

d (cos a - cos Pm)= mA
=
For the zeroeth order (m 0). the beam ls peculiarly reflected and a = Po.
tp 1. 1) Let D be the distance between the region of incidence at the scale and
• the screen. The diffraction spots lie along the y-axis. and the position
of the m th spot ls represented by Y,..-
From Fig. Pl.2

D D
cosp =--==== - --====
m /o2+y! ~
'/ Dv l+ ~

208
 P ROJECT 1

=1-!~+ ...

Using binomial expansion ( ·: Ym<< D for all m)

. 1 lj,2
and cos a = cos P0 = 1 - D~ + ...
2
R
:. cosa - cos,.,,,, .. ( y 2
,,, - Yo2)/ 2D2 = d
m,l from Eq. (Pl. I)

Thus, wavelength of the light ls gtven by

l=d(y;-~)/2mD2.

P ROCEDURE
1. Clamp the metal scale in the horizontal position on a stand.
2. Clamp the laser source on another stand , near the edge of
the scale.
3. Place both stands on the table keeping the distance between them
about 20 cm. also both should be at the same height.
4. Fix a graph sheet on a wall facing the laser source and at a distance
of 3 -4 m from the scale.
5. Turn on the laser source and incline the same such that the laser
beam strikes the grooves on the scale at a grazing angle such that
diffraction spots are observed on the graph.
(You may need to adjust the position and orientation of the scale
and the source to observe the spots on the graph sheet).
6. Now keep the position and orientation of laser and the scale fixed.
7. Mark position of various diffraction spots on the graph paper.
8. Remove metal scale and observe the spot directly coming
from the laser source on the graph paper. Mark this position
as (-!4,J.
9. Find the mid point of direct beam position (-yJ and first spot (yJ
on the graph and mark lt as M .
10. Now measure the distance of the second spot (y1) from M .
1 1. Repeat steps 7 to 10 for obtaining readings for 2nd and 3rd order
of dl.ffractton pattern.

209
LABORATORY MANlJAL

O s~ERVATlf"JNC
For First Order
d= 1mm
D= ... m
Distan ce of 1st spot from M(!4,) = ... ~
Distance of 2nd spot from M(y1) = ... y 1
Observations for 2nd and 3rd order - Same as for 1st order.

C ALCULATIONS

Calculate the value of {y~-y~) for each set and then find the average

vaJue of {y~ - y~)

Use the average value ln the formula

A= d(y: - y!)
2d
Find the value of A.

R ESULT
Wavelength oflaser beam = ... m

0 1scuss10N
1. While considertng from obstacles of the order of 1mm, why ls lt
necessary to consider grazing incidence of the visible light?
Can diffraction be observed when i = 45"?
2. Lattice constant of a sodium crystal is IA. Can you obtain
diffraction of a laser light from a sodium crystal?

. ~

I\ "
f\ A
,
SUGGESTED ADD1n011A1, .EXPIOtUIEJl'TS/ ACT1VlTIBS

using th e same prtncip e as in this project. measure thewtdtb o f a pencil b yp laclng

a bunch of them adjacent to each other as shown 1n Fig. P 1.3 below.
~ '--

, Fig. P 1.3 A bunch of pencils placed touching ea ch other

...
,,. 210
'--
•
 PROJECT

To design an automatic traffic signal system using suitable

combination of logic gates.

A PPARATUS ANO MATERIAL REQU IRED

LEDs (of red. yellow. green colours) four each, one IC 555 time r. on e
IC 7490. two Nor gates (or a single IC 7400) . four NAND gates (or
single IC 7400). capacitors of0. l µF. l0µF (1 6 V). resistors of5.6 kn.
150 kn (1 W) each. four resistors of 2 20 kn (1 W) each. two resistors
of 47 kn (1 W) each. battery. switch .

P RINCIPLE
Integrated circuit (IC) is an extremely
small sized electronic circuit which
incorporates a whole system of electronic D eaa
0 Y3
components and devices. Depending on
the number of components fabricated on G2 Y2 I¼
e o e D • Ra
a chip. the integrated circuits are
classified into various classes: 555 timer.
IC 7400 etc. are ex a m p les of MSI
CJ CJ
□ CJ CJ

(Medium Scale In tegrated) circuits. Any

logic gate opera tion can be achieved by
using suitable IC's.
R1e
Y10
D • o•
R◄ Y◄ G4

The basic arrangemen t of traffic light

a,e D
system wbJch Is used at a common road-
crossing ls s hown in Fig. P 5.1 .
Each traffic light system uses red. yellow Ralo R4 - Red LEDs
and green lights. These days LEDs are Y1 to V.. Amber
used for th.ls purpose (represented here by (Yellow) LEDs
R 1• Y1 • G 1 : ~ . Y2 , G2 : R:i, Y3 , G3 and R4 , Y4 • G1 to G4 Green LEDs
G/ In traffic light system. usually the lights
of the same colour on the opposite sides Fig. P 5 .1 Schematic diagram of basic
of the cross roads are either ON or OFF • road traffic light system
simultaneously. so the LED pairs R1 and
 R:i• R:i and
R•. Y, and Y3 • Y2 and Y4 • G, and G3 and G2 and G4 are
connected In serles . Th!s arrangement ts shown In Fig. P 5.2.

+SV

R 1 t o R~ -Rttl LED
Y I t o Y4 -Yellow LE
I lo G4 -Green LED

R,. .. ....... ......... ....... .

0 . JµF
5 .6 kCl
, I
8 4 5
: I 2
•· ·· . ........... ..........9 .. .........
10 (
~

& IC4 • 7400

7 14
ICl IC2
555 l 7490
Sl
6 12
2 1 236710

0. l µF

-
14 13 12 II 10 9 8 14 13 12 II 10 9 8

Vee Vee
CC 4 7400 IC3

GND GND
6 7 7

Fig. P 5 .2 Circuit diagram of basic circuit for automatic traffic light system
•
IC 7490 is a decade counter. As the name suggests. It produces one
output pulse for every 10 tnput pulses.
IC 555 is a highly stable timing clrcuJt capable of producing accurate
tlme delays or oscillations. The tlme pertod ts controlled by an external
resistor-capacitor combination. There Is also a provision for triggering
and resetting of the timer.
In this traffic ligh t system tf the red light will remain ON for 8 seconds
(or 8 units of time). the yellow light for 2 seconds and gree n light for
l O seconds then the ratio of timings of red , yellow and green Lights Is
224
 PROJECT 5

4: 1:5. IC 555 acts as a tlmer IC which works on the principle of charglng

and discharging of a capacitor connected in series with the resistor
and that gives high or low output after a regular interval of time. In
the present situation. It is used to give a square wave output whose
time period can be varied by using suitable values of resistances R 0

and R b and capacitance C,. The time period of such timer Is given by
T= 0.693 (R., + RJ c,- 0 .693 R a c, s ince R., >> R b
IC 7490 performs the function of a decade counter.

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the components as per the clrcuit arrangement shown In
Fig. P 5.1.
2. Take a plywood board and paint It In black colour (road colour).
3. Mount the LEDs R 1• Y1• G 1: R:i• Y2 • G2 : R:i, Y3 • G3 : R•. v•. G4 on four
dilJerent strips and fix the four strips on the suitable four sJdes of
the road crossing.
4. Check the circuit connections Lwice and close the switch S 1 for
functioning of the traffic light system.

O ssERVATIONS

Table P 5.1 : Requirement• of light& to remain ON at different

count& of time (l:ON, 0:OFF)

Oto3 I 0 0 I

4 0 0 0 0 I

5 to8 0 0 l 0 0

9 0 0 1 0 0

R ESULT
By closing the switch s, the traffic light system starts action for
demonstration.

225
-
P RtCAUTIONS
1. Take sufllcl.e nt care In soldering the components used In tbe circuit
arrangement In order to avoid dry solder Joints.
2. Use IC base so as not to damage the IC by directly soldering It.
S ~U A':. F-~SM£.Nl
I. Design a circuit for traffic signal system using LEDs and a delay
circuit only.
2. Design the basic gates (OR. AND. N011 using NAND gate.s.

226
 PROJECT

A1M
To study frequency response of (I) a capacitor (U) an Inductor (UI) LCR
se.rtes circuit.
(l) Frequenc:, response of a capacitor

A PP/I.RA I us ANO Ml TERI.I\L R[OIJIR[D

Paper or mica capacitor (O. l - 1.0 µF). digital multimeter (DMM). carbon
resistor ( lOOO!l) and an audio oscllJator /signal generator.

D ESCRIPTION OF- APF--ARATU _

Current passing through a capacitor depends on Its capacitance and
the frequ e n cy of the applied
sin u soid al alternating vo ltage .
Keeping frequency fixed.varlaUon of Audio osclUator
current(IJ wtth voltage (VI Is observed
and the capaclUve reactance X, Is
found out from the slope of the V-1 v.
graphs. ln order to measure lhe
current. a carbon resistor R of the
0 C
order of 1000 n Is Inserted In the
circuit (Fig. P 7.1) and the voltage V
across It Is measured With the DMM.
In ac voltage mode. So the current In v. v,
U1e circuit Is I= V,,/R Setting the
•

osclllator at different frequencies. x, Fig. P 7,J Measurement of the reactance of

0

Is found for dUTerent frequencies. A • a capacitor

graph between X, and frequency v ls
called the frequency response of the capacitor. A graph between x,- 1
and frequency v ls also obtained which ls a straight line passing through
the origin.
Note: A DMM always measures the rms values of ac current and
voltage. It Is a lways advised not to use th e DMM In the ac current
mode. These measurements are rel.t able only for frequencies less than
400 Hz.
l.ABORATORY MANtJAL

P ROCEDURE
l. Connect the audio oscillator. carbon resistor R. and capacitor
according to the Fig. P 7 . I .
2 . Set the oscillator to frequency of 50 Hz and maximum amplitude.
The DMM In ac voltage mode Is connected across C. afterwards
across R0 to measure V, and VR respectively. The different pa irs of
values of Ve and VR are obtained by changing the amplitude of the
a pplied voltage. The values are recorded in Table P 7.1.
3. The s tep 2 Is repeated with frequencies 100 Hz. 150 Hz. 200 Hz.
250 Hz and 300 Hz and the corresponding values of V c and V Rare
also tabulated ln Table P 7.1.
 (ii) Frequency response of an inductor

A PPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An Inductor (L} of inductance 0.1 H having low resistance. carbon
res istor R (lOOn). oscillator With low output impedance. digital
0

multimeter (DMM).

P R NCIPLE
Current passing through an Inductor depends on Its inductance and
frequency of the applied sinusoidal alternating voltage. Keeping
frequency fixed. variation of current (J) With voltage (V) Is observed
and the Inductive reactance Is found out by drawing a straight line
graph between V (along y-axis) and I (along x-axis). The slope of this
graph is the inductive reactance x,_= 2 1t v L, where v Is the frequency
and L Is the Inductance of the inductor. if the Inductor is ideal I.e..
Its resistance r Is zero. If r Tc o. the Impedance of the inductor
Is zt = .,/4rc2v2 L2 + r 2 • Setting the oscillator at other frequencies. the
Inductive reactance XL Is found out for different frequencies. A graph
between frequency v and Xt. represents frequency response of
inductor.

P ROCEDURE
l. The connections are made according to Fig. P 7. l by replacing
capacitor C With the Inductor Land changing the resistance of the
resistor R to l 00 n.
0

2. Making these connections. the values of v,. and VR are found with

235
 PROJECT 7

0 1scuss10N
(I) If th.e frequency ts very large then 4i2v2L2 >> r, then
at this high frequency range zL·= xL and the XL - v
graph ts straight line. The slope of this graph at
large frequency Is equal to 21tL. so It Is possible to
l
determine the self Inductance L of the Inductor from
X L-v graph. But In order to cany out the expertment tC
in this frequency range. DMM Is not suitable. + y2_ __
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) Is to be used for
measuring voltage. With CRO, the voltages, V L and l"lg. P 7 .6 Va.nation of Z/
V R are actually the measure of amplitudes. • with v"
(II) If the Inductor of Inductance L Is replaced by a
carbon resistor (or any non - Inductive resistor) and
the experiment Is repeated. then V / I = R for all
frequencies . so the graph between R versus v Is a
straight line parallel to v-axis (Fig. P 7.7). Resistance
Is Independent of frequency.
l
R

(111) Phuor dlaCrum

If the source voltage. V8 • In the ctrcultln Fig. P 7.1
ls also measured alongwtth the voltage V0 across
., ___
l"iQ. P 7 . 7 Varlallon Qf R
the capacitor and the voltage V• across the resistor • with v
R and tabulated ln Table P 7.1. then It can be
0

found that
A 90"
v 2= v 2+va2

A
• C

for all observatio n s. T his means as If V c and

V • are two vectors and In the present case they
are perpendicular to each other. Hence. If we B v. C
draw a triangle ABC. whose length AB Is
proportional to V c· length AC to V • and length BC to .P'ig. P 7 -8 Phasor diagram
• for C-R circuit
V •· then LCAB = 90°.
·nus Is true for all frequencies. This Is due to the fact that V c and
V • have dUJerent phases and ln fact V • leads V c by 90° ln phase.
This Is why they are called phasors.
1n case of Inductance also It Is possible to draw phasor diagrams.
Here the voltage VL across a pure Inductor (having no resistance
of Its own) when connected In series with a resistor Rand an audio
oscillator (having a small Impedance). leads over v •. the voltage
across the resistor R. So.
v 2= va2+vL2
■

But ln reality. an Inductor always has a small but flnlte

resistance rand so If a triangle. called voltage triangle ABC Is
drawn and V • oc BC. VL oc AB and Va oc AC. then the LBAC Is not 90".

237
 I..ABORATORY ~ WAL

But if we draw a semicircle with BC as the diameter and CA Is

produced to meet the circle at A' then CA' represents the
A' voltage drop across the total resl.stance (R+r) In the circuit.

~
Here V, oc AA' and BA' represents the voltage drop across the
pure inductor.
Then. BC2 = BA'2 + CA'2
B v. C
This can be verttled by using a CRO which can measure
Fig. P 7 . 9 Phasor dlagram for L-R the phase difference between the vartous voltages.
• circuit

(ill) Frequency response of LCR aeries circuit

A PPARATUS AND MATERIAL REOUIR[D

Audio oscillator wt th frequency scale. a resistance box. a digital voltmeter.
a 4µF capacitor. (if 4µF is not available: It can be made using a few low
valued capacitors in parallel). an inductor of - 100 mH. connecting
wtres.

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in F1g. P 7. 10. The resistor R-100 n
Is connected In sertes with Land C.
2 . Set the signal output to a low value say 2 V. when the
switch K Is kept open. Keep this setting fixed throughout the
experiment so that output voltage Ve Is same at all values of
frequencies. (Keep the frequency below 400 Hz. otherwt.se
digital meter readings will not be reliable).
3. Set the signal generator at some low frequency say 100 Hz
Audio and record its value.
osclUator
v. 4. Measure the voltage Vn across the known resistor R. So the
current flowing In the circuit Is I= VR .
R
Fig. P 7.10 LCR series resonance 5. Next measure the voltage Vacross the LC combination (All
• circuit
voltages are root mean square (rms) values)
Then Impedance of the LC combination Is Z = VI I.

6. Calculate r = 1V0 whe.re V Is some fixed value of voltage.

V •
Repeat steps four and five for different frequencies.

238
 3. Resonant frequency from Z vs v graph= ... Hz
4. Minimum value of Z i.e.. internal resistance R, from Z versus v
graph= ... n (should be around - 100 n)

D 1scuss10N
l. Have you wondered. why to perform the experiment at low voltage?
As you approach to resonant frequency v,-, both Vt and Ve increase
enormously. Therefore. It may cause damage to insulation of
electrical components. This Is the reason for setting up the
generator at low voltage. Ensure that the capacitor and tnductor
are rated atleast 300 V.
2. Phase relation between)(,_ and Xe: For frequencies, quite far away
from resonant frequency. tndivtdual voltages VL and Ve may be
larger than the output voltage of the oscillator and V Is quite closely
equal to their difference. Check up this fact at one or two frequencies
by actually measurtng Vt and Ve.
Obviously. It shows that inductive and capacitive reactance are
opposite tn character. I.e.. voltage across inductor and the capacitor
are tn a phase opposite to each other. The ac current tn circuit
lags behind voltage Vt by 90° and Ve lags behind the ac current
by further 90°. Hence Vt and Ve are 180° out of phase with each
other.
3. Internal resistant of resonance circuit- Resonance tn the circuit
Is obsetved when XL and Xe; are equal to each other. In case of
ideal inductor and capacitor their combtned :reactance would be
z.ero at resonance. It will cause an tnfin.lte current at resonance.
except that it ls limited by the output Impedance of the stgnal
generator. Internal resistance R, tn an tnductlve coil Is due to finite
resistance of its wtndings and some hysterisls losses tn its iron
core. In case of a capacitor. there ls energy losses in the dielectric.
The minimum value of X at resonance represents this tnternal
V
resistance Rr It can be calculated as R , = ....!!!!!...
/max
4. Quality factor
The magnitude of voltage drop across Lat resonance Is

V
Vl.. = X Lmu.:
I = 21tvr L m1n
~

= 9o vmln
21tv,L 1
Here 9o - Ri - 2 1tv,CRi Is the quality factor at resonance.

240