Week Five Report Manuscript

THE THREE BRANCHES OF THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT

VIS-A-VIS POLICY PROCESS AND AGENDA SETTING

Submitted by:
Lander Dean S. Alcorano
Iana Lexlee B. Cogollo
Ma. Trini D. De Ocampo
Neer Lian May D. Flores

Submitted to:
Dr. Gynnyn G. Gumban

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I. Introduction

The Philippine government takes place in an organized framework of a presidential,

representative, and democratic republic whereby the president is both the head of state and the
head of government. This system revolves around three separate and sovereign yet
interdependent branches: the legislative branch (the law-making body), the executive branch
(the law-enforcing body), and the judicial branch (the law-interpreting body). Executive power
is exercised by the government under the leadership of the president. Legislative power is
vested in both the government and the two-chamber congress—the Senate (the upper
chamber) and the House of Representatives (the lower chamber). Judicial power is vested in
the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body.

II. Source of Government Powers

Concept of Constitution - In its broad sense, the term constitution refers to "that body of
rules and principles in accordance with the powers of or sovereignty are regularly exercised. As
thus defined, it covers both written and unwritten constitutions.

With particular reference to the Constitution of the Philippines, it may be defined as that written
instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are established, limited, and
defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several departments and
branches for their safe and useful exercise for the benefit of the people.

III. First Branch of Government – Legislative Department

Meaning of legislative power.

Legislative power is essentially the authority under the Constitution to make laws and
subsequently, when the need arises, to alter and repeal them. It is the peculiar task of the
legislature to prescribe general rules for the government of society. This legislative function
involves the determination of the legislative policy and its promulgation as a defined and
binding rule of conduct through the enactment of a law.

Meaning of law.
The term laws, as used above, refer to statutes which are the written enactments of the
legislature governing the r elations of the people among themselves or between them and the
government and its agencies.

Function of laws.
Through laws, the legislature defines the rights and duties of citizens, imposes taxes,
appropriates funds, defines crimes and provides for their punishments, creates and abolishes
government offices, determines their jurisdiction and functions, and in general, regulates
human conduct and the use of property for the promotion of the common good.

Such laws are valid or void, as tested by their conformity or nonconformity to the
Constitution.

Legislative power vested in Congress.

The legislative power is vested in the Congress of the Philippines which consists of the
Senate of the Philippines and the House of Representatives. The upper house is located in
Pasay, while the lower house is located in Quezon City. Both are in Metro Manila. The district
and sectoral representatives are elected for a term of three years. They can be re-elected but
they may not run for a fourth consecutive term.

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 Senators are elected to a term of six years. They can be re-elected but may not run for
a third consecutive term. The House of Representatives may opt to pass for a vacancy of a
legislative seat, which leads to a special election. The winner of the special election will serve
the unfinished term of the previous district representative, and will be considered as one
elective term. The same rule also applies in the Senate; however it only applies if the seat was
vacated before a regular legislative election.

Scope of legislative power of Congress.

A grant of legislative power means the grant of all legislative powers for all purposes of
civil government. Accordingly, the legislative power of Congress, except to the extent reserved
to the people by the provision on initiative and referendum, may be characterized as plenary or
general subject only to specific limitations in the Constitution.

The delegated powers of our Congress are broader than the American Congress. The
latter's legislative powers are confined only to those granted by the Federal Constitution. Hence,
powers not granted or powers that cannot be reasonably implied from the granted powers are
denied to the American Congress.

Classification of powers of Congress.

The primary function of Congress is to legislate. The Constitution, however, has also
expressly given it powers which are non-legislative in character.

The powers of Congress may be classified into:

1. General legislative power. – It is the power to enact laws intended as rules of
conduct to govern the relations among individuals or between the individuals and the
State. Congress can enact any law as long as it is not contrary to the Constitution.
Unless otherwise decreed by a competent court, a law is presumed constitutional;

2. Specific powers. – They are powers which the Constitution expressly directs or
authorizes Congress to exercise like the power to choose who shall become President in
case two or more candidates have an equal and highest number of votes, to confirm
certain appointments by the President, to promote social justice, to declare the
existence of a state of war, to impose taxes, to appropriate money, to impeach, to act
as a constituent assembly, etc.;

3. Implied powers. – They are those essential or necessary to the effective exercise of
the powers expressly granted, like the power to conduct inquiry and investigation in aid
of legislation, to punish for contempt, to determine the rules of its proceedings, etc.;
and

4. Inherent powers. – They are the powers which are possessed and can be exercised
by every government because they exist as an attribute of sovereignty. In other words,
they are always deemed conferred by the people even if not expressly granted by them
in the Constitution. These powers which are legislative in nature are the power of
taxation, power of eminent domain, and police power. They fall under the general
legislative powers of Congress.

Principle of checks and balances.

Under the Constitution, there is no absolute separation among the three principal organs
of government. Constitutional provisions at1thorize a considerable amount of encroachment or
checking by one department in the affairs of the others. The system of checks and balances is
also observed along with t he doctrine of separation of powers to make the presidential system
workable.

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 The three co-equal departments are established by the Constitution in as balanced
positions as possible. To maintain this balance or to restore it if upset, each department is given
certain powers with which to check the others. Thus:

1. Checks by the President. – The President may veto or disapprove bills enacted by
Congress, and through the pardoning power, he may modify or set aside the judgments
of courts.

2. Checks by Congress – On the other hand, Congress may override the veto of the
President; reject certain appointments of the President; revoke the proclamation of
martial law or suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus by the President;
and amend or revoke decisions of the courts (by the enactment of a new law or by an
amendment of the old, giving it such meaning and interpretation as to wipe out the
effect of such decisions). It has likewise the power to define prescribe and apportion the
jurisdiction of the various courts, prescribe the qualifications of judges of lower courts;
determine the salaries of the President and Vice-President, the members of the Supreme
Court and judges of lower courts; and impeach the President and members of the
Supreme Court.

3. Checks by the judiciary. – The judiciary, in turn, with the Supreme Court as the final
arbiter may declare legislative measures or executive acts unconstitutional and
determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack
or excess of jurisdiction on the part of Congress or the President.

The Senate.
1) Composition and election. – It is composed of 24 Senators. They are elected at large
(nationwide) by the qualified voters, as may be provided by law. Unless otherwise
provided by law, the regular election of Senators shall be held on the second Monday of
May.

2) Term of office. – It is six (6) years. It shall commence, unless otherwise provided by
law, at noon on the 30th day of June next following their election. The Constitution has
a similar provision with respect to the President and Vice-President except that the hour
and date of commencement of their term of office cannot be changed by law.

3) Qualifications. - A Senator must be:

(a) a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
(b) at least 35 years of age on the day of the election (i.e., day of the balloting);
(c) able to read and write;
(d) a registered voter; and
(e) a resident of the Philippines for not less than two (2) years immediately
preceding the day of the election.

The above qualifications are beyond the authority of Congress to diminish, increase or
alter.

4) Maximum terms. – In line with the state policy on equal access to opportunities for
public service and against political dynasties, a Senator is disqualified lo serve for more
than two (2) consecutive terms. While theoretically the people are the best judge of
whether an official should be re-elected or not, the Constitution has opted to impose
term limits to guard against the weakness in our culture that tends to perpetuate

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 political dynasties. There is no shortage of highly talented and motivated men and
women to replace those who have long been in office.

At any rate, a Senator can still run for re-election after a break or interval. There is no
limit as to the number of years one can serve as Senator. What is prohibited is to serve
for more than two (2) successive terms. But a voluntary renunciation of the office by a
Senator for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full term for which he was elected.

The House of Representatives.

1) Composition and election/selection. – It is composed of not more than 250 members
popularly known as Congressmen. They are elected from legislative or congressional
districts and through a party-list system. The party-list representatives are filled by
selection or election from the labor, peasant, etc. and other sectors as may be provided
by law, except the religious sector.

Unless otherwise provided by law, the regular election of the members of t he House of
Representatives shall be held on the second Monday of May.

2) Term of office. – It is three (3) years, to begin also, unless otherwise provided by law,
at noon on the 30th day next following their election. The House of Representatives is
intended to be close to the people. The shorter term of three (3) years is expected to
make the representatives more responsive and sensitive to the needs of their
constituents.

It is also consistent with the constitutional policy of accountability. If the people had
made a mistake in their choice of the incumbent congressman, they would not have to
wait a long time for the opportunity to correct the mistake by withholding a new
mandate.

3) Qualifications – A representative must be:

(a) a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
(b) at least 25 years of age on the day of the election;
(c) able to read and write;
(d) except for a party-list representative, a registered voter in the district in which he
shall be elected; and
(e) a resident thereof for a period of not less than one (1) year preceding the day of
the election.

4) Maximum terms. -The provisions are the same as those for Senators except that the
limit is for not more than three (3) consecutive terms. Under the Constitution, a
representative cannot serve continuously for more than nine (9) years.

Again, the purpose is to prevent the growth of political dynasties or wardlordism – terms
which in our country have come to connote guns and goon and almost absolute power –
which in the past made it impossible for qualified and deserving individuals to enter the
legislative service. After some re-elections, the politician managed to accumulate much
wealth and to set up his own formidable political machinery such that in many places
the people could not freely choose their candidates because they were coerced into
submission by professional politicians who had become powerful on account of long
tenure. The term limits for elected public officials will level the playing field for
candidates especially for newcomers to the political arena.

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Party-list and sectoral representation.
The basic aim of representative government is to attain the broadest possible
representation of all interests in its law and policy-making body. It becomes necessary to give
an opportunity to the various social, economic, cultural, geographical and other groups or
sectors of our society to have their voices heard. And because they are usually without
sufficient funding or political machinery, it becomes incumbent upon the government to extend
such opportunity without the need to go through an expensive elector al contest.

For this reason, the party list system has been adopted in the new Constitution to
assure them of representation in the highest law-making body of the Republic.

IV. Second Branch of Government – Executive Department

President, the Executive.

The Constitution vests the executive power in one person alone – the President of the
Philippines. It is, therefore, accurate to refer to him as the Executive, not merely Chief
Executive. The President in a presidential system of government is, however, referred to also as
the Chief Executive.

Under both the 1935 Constitution and the present Constitution, the President is both the
head of State and the head of the government. Unlike the Prime Minister or under the 1973
Constitution (as amended), the President is not a legislative leader with membership in
Congress. He is purely an executive.

Meaning of executive power.

Executive power has been defined as the power to administer the laws, which means
carrying them into practical operation and enforcing their due observance. The laws include the
Constitution, statutes enacted by Congress, decrees and executive orders of the President, and
decisions of courts.

Qualifications of the President and Vice-President.

The Constitution provides for the basic or minimum qualifications of the President:
a) He is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
b) He is a registered voter;
c) He is able to read and write;
d) He is at least forty (40) years of age on the day of the election for President; and
e) He is a resident of the Philippines for at least ten (10) years immediately preceding such
election.

The Vice President must have the same qualifications as the President. The Constitution
does not prescribe any educational, academic, or literacy qualification except only the ability to
read and write, in line with the egalitarian objectives of our democratic society.

The Vice-President.
The Vice-President shall have t he same qualifications and term of office as the
President and maybe removed from office on impeachment as in the case of the President. He
may be appointed as a member of the Cabinet without need of confirmation by the Commission
on Appointment in Congress. To request confirmation would degrade the dignity of the high
office of Vice-President.

Meaning of appointment.
Appointment is the act of designation by the executive officer, board, or body to whom
the power has been delegated, of the individual who is to exercise the functions of a given
office.

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Nature of power to appoint.
The power of appointment is intrinsically an executive prerogative. The legislative body
creates the office, defines its powers, limits its duration, and provides the compensation. This
done, its legislative power ceases. It has nothing to do with designating the man to fill the
office.

The executive nature of the appointing power does not imply that no appointment by
Congress and the courts can be made. They may also appoint those officers who are necessary
to the exercise of their own functions.

Officials whose appointments are vested in the President.

1. The power of the President to appoint high officers in the government is shared by
the Commission on Appointments' power to ratify or reject. The officials whom the President is
authorized to appoint under the Constitution are:
a) The heads of executive departments, ambassadors, and other public ministers and
consuls;
b) The officers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines from the rank of colonel or naval
captain;
c) Other officers whose appointments are vested in the President by the Constitution;
d) All other officers of the Government whose appointments are not otherwise provided for
by law, and they refer to officers to be appointed to lower offices created by Congress
where the latter omits to provide for appointments to said offices or provides in an
unconstitutional way for such appointments; and
e) Those whom he may be authorized by law to appoint such as the heads of government-
owned or controlled corporations, department undersecretaries, heads of bureaus and
offices, and other officials.

The Congress may impose qualifications for appointment to public offices of relevance to
the duties to be performed.

2. Under other provisions. – The President, likewise, under other provisions of the
Constitution, appoints the members of the Supreme Court and judges of lower courts including
the Sandiganbayan, the regular members of the Judicial and Bar Council, the Chairman and
Commissioners of the Civil Service Commission, the Chairman and the Commissioners of the
Commission on Audit, and the Ombudsman and his Deputies. The Constitution does not state
the appointing authority with respect to the Chairman and Members of the Commission on
Human Rights. There is no doubt, however, that the power to appoint them is lodged in the
President.

Power of control over all executive departments, bureaus and offices.

The above subject emphasizes the role of the President as administrator. As
administrative head, the duty of the President is to see to it that every department, bureau and
office under the executive branch it managed and maintained properly by the person in charge
of it in accordance with the pertinent laws and regulations. There are two factors that constitute
to the effective hold and control of the President over all executive departments, bureaus and
offices, to wit:
a) The power of appointment with which he may choose men of competence and
confidence; and
b) The power of removal (which is implied in the power to appoint), with which he may
weed out incapable and dishonest officials.

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Nature and extent of the power of control.
a) Over cabinet members. – The power of control of the President is in line with the
concept of Cabinet members serving as alter egos of the President. It implies that he
may alter or modify or set aside what a subordinate officer had done in the performance
of his duties and to substitute his judgment for that of the latter, act directly on any
specific function entrusted to the offices concerned, direct the performance of a duty,
restrain the commission of acts, determine priorities in the execution of plans and
programs, and prescribe standards, guidelines, plans and programs.

b) Over other subordinate officers. -- The power of control of the President over all
executive departments, bureaus and offices is not just over the heads thereof but
extends to all other subordinate officers. It includes the power to supervise, investigate,
suspend, or remove officers and employees who belong to the executive branch if they
are appointed by him or do not belong to t he career service.

c) Over officers and employees in the career service. – The President, however, has no
authority to directly investigate and thereafter remove even for cause, an officer or
employee who belongs to the career service. Such officer or employee falls under the
original and exclusive jurisdiction of the Civil Service Commission insofar as investigation
is concerned. A direct action of the President would deprive them of due process as
guaranteed by the Civil Service Law.

Power to insure that laws be faithfully executed.

Primary function of President. - As the Executive in whom the executive power is vested,
the primary function of the President is to enforce the laws. Before assuming office, he is
required to take an oath or affirmation to the effect that as President of the Philippines, he will,
among others, ''execute its laws." Now, he "shall insure that the laws be faithfully executed."

Powers of President as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.

The President is not only a civil official. As Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, he
is also in a sense a military officer. He is not, however, a member of the armed forces, and
consequently, he is not subject to court martial or military discipline.

As Commander-in-Chief, the President has control of the military organization and

personnel whether in peace time or in war time. He is given the broad powers to call out the
armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion, or rebellion. He is also
empowered to military tribunals to try persons who violate military laws or commit crimes
against national security. However, even in a state of martial law, military courts and agencies
have no jurisdiction over civilians where civil courts are able to function.

Power to suspend privilege of writ of habeas corpus.

Two conditions are necessary in order that the President may suspend the privilege of
the writ:
a. There must be invasion or rebellion; and
b. The public safety must require the suspension.

Power to declare martial law.

The conditions for a valid suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus are
also the requisites for the declaration of martial law by the President. However, the Constitution
makes it clear that the proclamation of martial law does not automatically suspend the privilege
of the writ.

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 The suspension of the privilege shall apply only with respect to persons judicially
charged for rebellion or offenses inherent in, or directly connected with invasion. A person
arrested or detained must be released if not judicially charged within three days. This mandate
is directed against the practice in the past of detaining indefinitely persons for alleged political
offenses without charges being filed against them in court. And even when the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus is suspended, the right to bail is not impaired.

The power to proclaim martial law includes the power to make all needful rules and
regulations with the force of law until the termination of martial rule.

Authority to contract and guarantee foreign loans.

Exclusive executive function. – The President may contract foreign loans on behalf of
the Republic of the Philippines without t he need of prior congressional approval. When
obtained by private persons, natural or juridical, he may guarantee such loans. There is possibly
no official better qualified to enter into such negotiation than the President. He is the official
best supplied with information as well as with executive and legislative assistance to determine
the advisability of obtaining loans as well as the country's capacity for making good use of such
credit.

Budgetary power of the President.

The President is entrusted by the Constitution with the task of-preparing the budget of
receipts and expenditures based on existing and proposed revenue measures and other sources
of financing and submitting it to Congress within thirty (30) days from the opening of each
regular session. The budget thus submitted shall be the basis of the general appropriations act
to be enacted by the Congress for the following year.

The constitutional mandate requiring Congress to consider first the budget reverses the
practice of the old Congress which yearly took up the budget not at the beginning but at the
end of the legislative year.

V. Third Branch of Government – Judicial Department

Meaning of judicial power.

Judicial power is the power to apply the laws to contests or disputes concerning legally
recognized rights or duties between the State and private persons, or between individual
litigants in cases properly brought before the judicial tribunals.

Scope of judicial power.

1. Adjudicatory power - It includes the duty of courts of justice:
a. to settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable; and
b. to determine whether there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to
lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the
government

To be legally demandable and enforceable in courts rights must be derived from law or
recognized by law. Grave abuse of discretion as used above has been judicially define to mean
such capricious an arbitrary exercise of judgment as is equivalent in the eyes of the law to lack
of jurisdiction that is lack of authority to act on the matter in dispute.

Now, not even the President or Congress can escape judicial scrutiny when facing
complaints of great indiscretion or abuse of authority by invoking the political nature of their
acts are pronouncements.

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 2. Power of judicial review - it also includes the power:
a. to pass upon the validity or constitutionality of the laws of the state and the acts
of the other departments of the government
b. to interpret them; and
c. to render bonding in judgments

3. Incidental powers - It is likewise includes the incidental powers necessary to if to the

effective discharge of the judicial functions such as the power to punish persons
adjudged in contempt.

Judicial power vested in one Supreme Court and in lower courts.

Judicial power under the constitution is vested in one supreme court and in such lower
courts as may be established by law the judiciary composed of the course is one of the three
main divisions of power in our government as the highest court of the land, the decisions of the
supreme court are binding on all lower tribunals.

1. Classification of courts - under the provision only the Supreme Court is a

constitutional court in the sense of being a creation of the constitution. All other courts
including the Sandiganbayan are statutory courts in the sense that they are creations of law.
They are referred to as lower courts in the constitution meaning courts below that of the
Supreme Court.

2. Creation and abolition of courts by Congress - In the exercise of its legislative power
congress may abolish any or all lower courts and replace them with other courts subject to the
limitation that the reorganization shall not undermine security of tenure. It cannot however
abolish the Supreme Court: neither can it create an additional Supreme Court because the
constitution provides for only one Supreme Court. Neither can it abolish the Sandiganbayan
because its existence is constitutionally recognized although Congress, in the exercise of its
legislative power may determine its functions and jurisdiction.

Power to apportion jurisdiction of various courts vested in Congress

The power to define, prescribe and apportion the jurisdiction of the various courts is
vested by the Constitution in Congress. However, there are three limitations to the exercise of
this power namely:
a. The congress cannot diminish otherwise impair the original and appeal appellate
jurisdiction of the supreme court over cases enumerated by the Constitution;
b. No law shall be passed re-organizing the judiciary when it undermines security of
tenure guaranteed in the constitution; and
c. No laws shall be passed increasing the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court without its advice and concurrence.

Composition of the Supreme Court.

The Constitution provides that membership of the Supreme Court shall be fifteen
members including the Chief Justice to cope with the continuing increase in the number of
cases brought about by a growing population.

The Constitution requires any vacancy to be filled within 90 days from the occurrence
thereof. In the past vacancies in the Supreme Court sometimes remain unfilled for a long time
even when the membership of the court was fixed at 15, it was seldom constituted.

Cases to be heard or decided en banc and vote required.

They are:
1) All cases involving the constitutionality of a treaty, international or executive
agreement, or law shall always be heard and decided by the Supreme Court en banc. To
declare a treaty, international or executive agreement, or law unconstitutional, the
occurrence of a majority of the members who actually took part in the deliberations on
the issues in the case and voted thereon is required. When the necessary majority
cannot be had, its constitutionality shall be deemed upheld.

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 The quorum of the Supreme Court when sitting and bank is eight (8). Hence, the
votes of five (5) are sufficient for rendering a decision on all cases required to be heard
en banc provided they actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in the case;

2) All other cases including those involving the constitutionality, application or

operation of presidential decrees, proclamations orders, instructions, ordinances, and
other regulations which under the rules of court are required to be heard en banc shall
be decided with the concurrence also of the number provided above.

3) In administrative cases where the decision is for the dismissal of a judge of a

lower court, the same majority vote is necessary to order such dismissal.

4) Cases heard by a division shall be decided or resolved with the concurrence

likewise of the same majority of the members who are at least three in number but if
such required number is not obtained, the case shall be decided en banc;

5) Cases modifying or reversing a doctrine or principle of law laid down by the

Court in a decision rendered en banc or in division shall be decided by the court sitting
en banc.

Meaning of power of judicial review.

The power of judicial review is the power of the courts ultimately of the Supreme Court
to interpret the constitution and to declare any legislative or executive act invalid because it is
in conflict with the fundamental law.

Through such power the judiciary, the Supreme Court particularly, enforces and upholds
the rule of law and supremacy of the Constitution it is because the courts are the official
interpreters of the Constitution that a study of our Constitution is in large measure a study of
judicial decisions and opinions on the meaning and application of its provisions.

The power of judicial review now includes the duty to determine whether or not there
has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of
any branch or instrumentality of the government this is true although the question before the
court may be political and character which ordinarily cannot be inquired into by the courts.

VI. Policy Process: Agenda setting

Public policy is a government action to achieve a certain goal in addressing social

problem that are of major public interest. Such policies are oriented to solve issues in housing,
welfare, crime, illegal drugs, tax, corruption, and international affairs. It is governed by officials
and administrators inclined in policy-making that is finalized by a policy decision and
implementation of that decision.

In policy-making, policy analysis is detrimental in ensuring the quality of the policies that are of
major public interest. It integrates science with art that is oriented to improve good
governance. The Philippine policy-making process can be viewed in a legislative and executive
perspective.

A policy established and carried out by the government goes through several stages from
inception to conclusion. These are agenda building, formulation, adoption, implementation and
evaluation.

Agenda Setting.

Before a policy can be created, a problem must exist that is called to the attention of the
government. People have many concerns. These become part of the policy agenda when they

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are seen as requiring government attention and action (e.g., global warming). In agenda
setting, then, what were conditions ignored or to be endured become problems requiring
government intervention. The media move a subject onto the policy agenda when they give it
extensive coverage and frame it as a problem demanding a response by policymakers.

In short, agenda setting is the issue-sorting phase in the public policy process, during
which some concerns rise to the attention of policy makers while others remain neglected.

Policy Formulation

Policy formulation means coming up with an approach to solving a problem. Congress,

the executive branch, and interest groups may be involved. Contradictory proposals are often
made. The President may have one approach to drug war problems, and the opposition-party
members of Congress may have another. Policy formulation has a tangible outcome: A bill goes
before Congress which drafts proposed measures.

In short, policymakers in the legislative and executive (national and local) take up the
agenda.

Policy Adoption

Policy adoption is the third phase of the policy process in which policies are adopted by
government bodies for future implementation. For formulated policies to be put into effect, they
must be adopted by the relevant institutions of government. Adoption can be affected by the
same factors that influence what issues move into the earlier phase of agenda building. For
instance, policies that address the changed circumstances crises often bring can often be
immediately adopted. Meanwhile, powerful interest groups can use their political influence to
determine what policies are adopted.

In short, policy adoption is formal enactment of the official and legal policy instrument
after a series of dialogues and consultations with state and non-state sectors.

Policy Execution

Policy implementation is the fourth phase of the policy cycle in which adopted policies
are put into effect. The implementation or carrying out of policy is most often accomplished by
institutions other than those that formulated and adopted it. A statute usually provides just a
broad outline of a policy. For example, Congress may mandate improved water quality
standards, but the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides the details on those
standards and the procedures for measuring compliance through regulations. As noted earlier,
the Supreme Court has no mechanism to enforce its decisions; other branches of government
must implement its determinations. Successful implementation depends on the complexity of
the policy, coordination between those putting the policy into effect, and compliance.

In short, this phase means the translation of policy into programs and projects at the
executive branch – from the line agencies and concerned institutions at the national and local
levels.

Policy Evaluation

Policy evaluation means determining how well a policy is working, and it is not an easy
task. People inside and outside of government typically use cost-benefit analysis to try to find
the answer. In other words, if the government is spending x billions of dollars on this policy, are

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the benefits derived from it worth the expenditure? Cost-benefit analysis is based on hard-to-
come-by data that are subject to different, and sometimes contradictory, interpretations.

Policies may be evaluated according to a number of standards. They may be informally

evaluated according to uncritical analysis, such as anecdotes and stories. Policies may also be
substantively evaluated through careful, honest feedback from those affected by the policies.
More formal research can provide empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of policies.
Finally, scientific research provides both comparative and statistical evaluations of whether
policies produce clear causal results.

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