International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Effect of Vibration Massage and Passive Rest on Recovery of
Muscle Strength after Short-Term Exercise
Wiesław Chwała 1 , Paweł Pogwizd 2 , Łukasz Rydzik 3, * and Tadeusz Ambroży 3

1 The Department of Biomechanics, University of Physical Education, Al. Jana Pawla II 78,
31-571 Cracow, Poland; [email protected]
2 Research and Development Department of Vitberg, Marcina Borelowskiego 29, 33-300 Nowy Sacz, ˛ Poland;
[email protected]
3 Institute of Sports Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Krakow, Poland; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-730-696-377

Abstract: Background: The aim of the study was to compare the effect of vibration massage and
passive rest on accelerating the process of muscle recovery after short-term intense exercise. Methods:
Eighty-four healthy men aged 20 to 25 years participated in the study. Study participants performed
isometric (ISO-M Group) and auxotonic (AUX-M group) contraction exercise in the lower limbs.
Vibration massage was administered after exercise in the first recovery period. In the same period,
controls rested passively, without the support of vibration massage. To assess the effectiveness of the
applied vibration, a 4-fold measurement of the maximum force of the muscles involved in the exercise
was performed under conditions of isometric contractions on a leg press machine set at an angle of





 45◦ degrees upwards. Results: Differences in maximum strength during isometric contraction were
found compared to baseline in favor of the groups subjected to the experimental vibration massage.
Citation: Chwała, W.; Pogwizd, P.;
Rydzik, Ł.; Ambroży, T. Effect of
Differences were demonstrated in muscle strength between the study groups (p < 0.005). The second
Vibration Massage and Passive Rest period of passive rest in all groups did not bring significant changes in the values of maximal lower
on Recovery of Muscle Strength after limb strength. Conclusions: Properly selected characteristics of the vibration effect can be an effective
Short-Term Exercise. Int. J. Environ. method in accelerating recovery and regaining lost motor capabilities of muscle groups fatigued by
Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680. exercise. This offers the potential to shorten rest periods between sets of repetitions in training or
https://doi.org/10.3390/ between training units.
ijerph182111680

Keywords: recovery; fatigue; muscle; vibration; massage; sport; training

Academic Editors: Fabrizio Perroni
and Erica Gobbi

Received: 29 September 2021

1. Introduction
Accepted: 5 November 2021
Published: 7 November 2021
Intense physical activity leads to fatigue, resulting in a deterioration of exercise
capacity, manifested by a decrease in intensity and efficiency of muscle work [1,2]. In the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
case of maximal physical exercise, muscle fatigue is experienced from the first seconds [3,4].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
The magnitude and nature of the functional changes in the body induced by physical
published maps and institutional affil- exercise are largely influenced by the intensity, duration, and specificity of the exercise [5].
iations. They are also affected by the size and type of muscle groups involved in performing the
specific work, the type of contraction of the muscles involved, and the individual body
metabolism [6].
Researchers point to possible differences during isometric and auxotonic muscle work.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
During auxotonic and isometric exercise, alternating muscle contraction and relaxation
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
facilitate blood circulation, which supplies the intensely working muscles with oxygen and
This article is an open access article
energy substrates and helps remove metabolic products from them [7–9].
distributed under the terms and The situation is different when muscles work under isometric conditions. During
conditions of the Creative Commons isometric exercise, muscles put pressure on blood vessels. Isometric muscle work increases
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the rate of fatigue, which means a reduction in the ability to perform exercise [4]. As a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ result, even at low loads of 25–30% of the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), venous
4.0/). blood outflow from the muscles is limited [10]. This is despite a significant increase in

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111680 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 2 of 15

blood pressure [7,8]. The free flow of blood is restricted, which in turn interferes with the
supply of essential nutrients and the removal of metabolic products.
Athletes strive to reduce the effects of fatigue and delay the onset of its symptoms. Fa-
tigue increases during each training unit, after successive sets of exercises, especially during
exercises at maximal or submaximal intensity [11]. This is due to depletion of energy stores
and significant acidification of the body [12]. The state of increasing fatigue determines the
time of recovery breaks between successive sets and the frequency of training units of a
specific exercise. The use of effective methods of athletic recovery can significantly acceler-
ate the process of regaining body performance and increase the effectiveness of training.
Various methods and techniques are used to improve the effectiveness of post-exercise
recovery. One criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of the recovery method used is
whether a faster recovery to the baseline levels can be observed compared to that after
passive rest [13]. Today, a number of methods are used to accelerate recovery, including
different techniques of massage, which is a therapeutic procedure used for a long time
in sports [14]. Research shows that using massage before competitions improves athletic
performance [15]. The use of massage after exercise reduces muscle soreness and helps
prevent potential injuries [16]. It has also been demonstrated that massage significantly
modifies the length of tendons [17]. In sports, massage is one of the most popular forms
used to accelerate athletic recovery. The effect of mechanical whole-body vibration (WBV)
on the body, which was used in the present study, is similar to classical massage using
vibration techniques.
It is recognized that an increase in blood flow resulting from the application of WBV
can accelerate the process of post-exercise recovery by enhancing nutrient exchange [18,19],
removing metabolic by-products that inhibit tissue repair, and improving the efficiency
of oxygen supply between capillaries and the fluid surrounding the body cells [5,20].
Furthermore, the increase in blood flow produces a thermal effect [21,22], initiating a
healing response in tissues damaged during exercise, which can be further enhanced by
the heat produced by vibrating muscle fibers [23–26].
Previous research results have indicated discrepancies between individual authors
as to the effects of vibration on restoring strength and speed capabilities of muscles in the
recovery period following intense exercise. Studies [27–30] have shown that vibration is
effective in relieving exercise-induced muscle pain. Unfortunately, these studies provide
limited information on how the reduction of exercise-induced muscle pain affects the rate
at which muscle strength returns to baseline or hypercompensation of muscle strength.
A study by Barnes et al. [31] failed to confirm the positive effects of vibration applied
after eccentric contractions of the lower limb muscles on an isokinetic dynamometer.
Dabbs et al. [32] also argued that vibration does not help with muscle recovery, which does
not translate into improvements in the level of variables that characterize vertical jumps on
the platform. In contrast, Annino et al. indicated that the use of WBV during rests between
sets delays muscle fatigue and results in better competitive performance of athletes [33].
This study aimed to compare the two forms of recovery (with vibration and pas-
sive rest) in supporting muscle recovery after a single submaximal exercise (isometric
and auxotonic).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants
The study was a randomized control trial with repeated measures. The study involved
84 young men aged 20 to 24 years who had not suffered from orthopedic injuries within
a year of the study and had not suffered from other conditions that could significantly
affect the results of maximum muscle strength measurements. The participants who were
enrolled in the study participated in weekly recreational physical activity of similar inten-
sity, volume, and nature of sporting activities. The characterization of study participants
is presented in Table 1. Prior to participation in the tests, the competitors were informed
about the research procedures, which were in accordance with the ethical principles of
 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 3 of 15

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 3 of 15

similar intensity, volume, and nature of sporting activities. The characterization of study
participants is presented in Table 1. Prior to participation in the tests, the competitors were
informed about the research procedures, which were in accordance with the ethical prin-
ciples
the of the Declaration
Declaration ofWMADH
of Helsinki Helsinki WMADH (2000). Obtaining
(2000). Obtaining the competitors’
the competitors’ written
written consent
consent
was was the condition
the condition for their participation
for their participation in the The
in the project. project. The research
research was approved
was approved by the
by the Bioethics
Bioethics Committee
Committee (No. (KB/245/FI/2020).
(No. (KB/245/FI/2020).

Table
Table 1. 1. Characteristics
Characteristics of participants
of study study participants by group.
by group.

Group/Variable ISO-M
Group/Variable ISO-P
ISO-M ISO-P AUX-M AUX-M AUX-P
AUX-P
Number [n] 21
Number [n] 21 21 21 21 21 2121
Age [years] 20.4
Age± [years]
1.78 20.4 19.9 ± 1.91
± 1.78 19.9 ± 1.9121.1 ± 1.24
21.1 ± 1.24 20.7 ±±
20.7 1.55
1.55
Body mass [kg] Body± mass
79.1 11.33[kg] 79.1 ± 11.33
74.9 ± 5.67 74.9 ± 5.6772.4 ± 8.34
72.4 ± 8.34 ±±
78.6
78.6 8.31
8.31
Body height [m] Body
1.81 ± 0.97−[m]
height ± 0.97
1.81 1.79 ± 0.81 1.79 ± 0.811.78 ± 0.86
1.78 ± 0.86 1.81 ± 0.10
1.81 ± 0.10
BMI [kgm 2 ] 24.1 ± 1.26 23.2 ± 1.96 22.9 ± 2.04 23.9 ± 1.13
BMI [kgm−2] 24.1 ± 1.26 23.2 ± 1.96 22.9 ± 2.04 23.9 ± 1.13
ISO-M—experimental group subjected to the isometric muscle exercise using vibration sessions in the first
ISO-M—experimental group subjected to the isometric muscle exercise using vibration sessions in the first period of re-
period of recovery and passive rest in the second, AUX-M—experimental group subjected to the auxotonic
covery and passive rest inmuscle
the second,
exerciseAUX-M—experimental
using vibration sessions ingroup subjected
the first period of to the auxotonic
recovery muscle
and passive rest inexercise using
the second, ISO-P—
vibration sessions in the first period
control of recovery
group subjected and passiveexercise
to isometric rest in using
the second, ISO-P—control
only passive group
recovery in both subjected
periods to isomet-
intended for recovery,
recovery ingroup
AUX-P—control
ric exercise using only passive both subjected to auxotonic
periods intended forexercise using
recovery, only passive recovery
AUX-P—control during
group the periods
subjected intended
to auxo-
for recovery.
tonic exercise using only passive recovery during the periods intended for recovery.

2.2.
2.2.Procedure
Procedure
Eighty-four
Eighty-fourparticipants
participantswere randomized
were intointo
randomized 4 equal groups.
4 equal Each respondent
groups. drew
Each respondent
lots to determine their group. Each study group was tested by the same researchers, using
drew lots to determine their group. Each study group was tested by the same researchers,
the same
using themeasurement tools and
same measurement identical
tools measurement
and identical procedures.
measurement The experimental
procedures. The experi-
design is shown in Figure 1.
mental design is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Experimental design.

Figure 1. Experimental design.
Each participant began the activity with a standard warm up consisting of 15 alter-
natingEach participant
repetitions beganand
of flexion theextension
activity with a standard
of the lower limb warm
jointsuponconsisting
a leg pressofmachine
15 alter-
nating repetitions of flexion and extension of the lower limb joints on
(Body Craft F660, Fort Lauderdale, OH, USA) in a seated position (the back at 45 degrees a leg press machine
(Body
to Craft F660,
the ground), withFort
theLauderdale,
machine setOH, at anUSA)
anglein of
a seated position
45◦ degrees (the backThe
upwards. at 45
loaddegrees
was
to the ground), with the machine set at an angle of 45° degrees upwards.
selected individually and was 30% of one repetition maximum (1RM); it was tested one day The load was
selected individually and was 30% of one repetition maximum (1RM);
prior to the actual testing. The whole procedure was repeated three times. In the starting it was tested one
day prior to the actual testing. The whole procedure was repeated three
position, the angle of limb flexion at the knee joints measured between the thigh and the times. In the start-
ing position,
shank the anglewith
was monitored of limb flexion at and
a goniometer the knee
was 80joints
◦ (0◦measured
: full joint between
extension). theThethigh and
ankle
the shank was monitored with a goniometer and was ◦80° (0°: full joint
joints in the initial setting were in a neutral position (90 angle between the foot and the extension). The
ankleleg).
lower jointsThe
in the initial
angle setting
at the were
hip joint in adetermined
was neutral position
by the(90° angle
flexion between
angles of thethe footand
knee and
the lower
ankle jointsleg).
andThe
the angle at the dimensions
individual hip joint wasofdetermined
the lower limbby the flexion angles
segments. of the knee
The adjustment
of the leg press machine ensured constant angle settings in the knee and ankle joints. The
pelvis and upper body were stabilized with straps.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 4 of 15

To determine the baseline maximum level of strength of the lower limb muscles, a
measurement of the maximum force of isometric contraction was carried out after the
warm up on a measuring stand in a seated position, with the leg press machine set at an
angle of 45◦ degrees upwards and the lower limb joints positioned in the starting position,
as described above.
In order to determine the maximum level of strength of the lower limb muscles,
after the warm up using leg press machine (Body Craft F660, Fort Lauderdale, OH, USA),
repetitions with maximum force were performed. The crane was set at 45◦ and the working
procedure was as described above.
Next, each subject was subjected to submaximal physical exercise that loaded the
lower limb muscle groups, in particular, aimed at their fatigue. Groups ISO-M and ISO-
P performed exercise consisting of 3 min isometric exercise following the warm up of
the lower limb muscles during one 60-s submaximal contraction at 75% of individual
maximal strength, in a seated position with the leg press machine set at an angle of 45◦
degrees upward.
Groups AUX-M and AUX-P performed one auxotonic exercise, consisting of 20 rep-
etitions at the level of 75% of individual maximum strength without recovery breaks by
alternate extension and flexion of the joints of the lower limbs with the upper body and
pelvis stabilized by straps, on a leg press machine in a seated position, with the machine
positioned at 45◦ degrees upward. The flexion angles of the lower limbs in the starting
position were identical to those during the measurement of maximal strength.
Immediately after the completion of the exercise, the maximum strength of the mus-
cles involved in the exercise was measured a second time in the experimental and con-
trol groups.
Next, participants from experimental groups ISO-M and AUX-M were subjected to
the first 20-min recovery period with the use of vibration sessions. Study participants from
control groups ISO-P and AUX-P recovered passively without vibration sessions in the
same position as study participants from groups ISO-M and AUX-M.
The third measurement of the level of maximal strength of the lower limb muscles
was performed after the first recovery period.
After the measurement, the second 20 min of post-exercise recovery was started
(passive rest in all groups).
The final (fourth) measurement was taken immediately after the end of the second
20-min passive rest in all groups.

2.3. Vibration Sessions

Vibration massage of the involved muscles was performed during rest after submax-
imal exercise in groups ISO-M and AUX-M. The vibration was generated by a device
designed at Vitberg. An author’s vibration program was developed specifically for the
study, which, during a 20-min procedure, generated vibrations in the frequency range of 20
to 50 Hz, amplitude < 0.5 mm, and varied in terms of the duration of intervals (from 1 to
4 s) [21,34]. The characteristics of the vibration intervention also took into account the fact
that there was a possibility of individual variation in adaptation to the applied vibration
frequency, resulting from individual characteristics and properties of the neuromuscular
spindles, different numbers and locations of mechanoreceptors and proprioreceptors, or
different elastic characteristics of the muscle-tendon complex and the proportion of type II
fibres in the muscle [35]. The vibrating mattress and vibrating module were used in the
study, with their total application surface allowing for simultaneous (without changing the
position of the mattress and the participant during the procedure) massaging of the muscle
groups of both lower limbs engaged previously in the exercise (Figure 2).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 5 of 15
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 5 of 15

Figure2.2.Position
Figure Positionof
ofthe
thetest
testsubject
subjectduring
duringvibration
vibrationmassage
massageapplication.
application.Source:
Source:Figure
Figuretaken
takenby
by
the authors of the paper.
the authors of the paper.

2.4.
2.4. Statistical
StatisticalAnalysis
Analysis
Statistical
Statistical analysis performed using
analysis was performed usingthetheSTATISTICA
STATISTICA13.3 13.3PLPLsoftware.
software. TheTheex-
exercise-induced
ercise-induced changeschangesininmaximal
maximalleg legstrength
strength during
during both periods of of recovery
recovery werewere
used
usedto todetermine
determinetheir
theirabsolute
absoluteincrease
increasecompared
comparedto tobaseline
baseline(measured
(measuredafter afterthe
thewarm
warm
up)
up) in
in subsequent periods of
subsequent periods ofthe
theexperiment.
experiment.The The significance
significance of of statistical
statistical differences
differences be-
between the maximum relative values of changes in
tween the maximum relative values of changes in muscle strength muscle strength was tested by ANOVA
by ANOVA
for
forrepeated
repeatedmeasures
measures andand
using Tukey’s
using post-hoc
Tukey’s test. Friedman
post-hoc ANOVA
test. Friedman test withtest
ANOVA Dunn’s
with
post-hoc test was test
Dunn’s post-hoc usedwasin the case
used in of
thethe
caselack
of of
thenormal
lack ofdistribution. The significance
normal distribution. of
The signifi-
differences between maximum
cance of differences relative values
between maximum of values
relative increments of the variables
of increments analyzed an-
of the variables in
all groups
alyzed was
in all assessed
groups wasby one-way
assessed byanalysis
one-wayofanalysis
variance ofANOVA
varianceusing
ANOVA Tukey’s
usingpost-hoc
Tukey’s
test. In thetest.
post-hoc caseInofthe
thecase
lackofofthe
normal
lack distribution or lack of homogeneity
of normal distribution of variance tested
or lack of homogeneity of var-
by Levene’s test, ANOVA Kruksal–Wallis test was applied,
iance tested by Levene’s test, ANOVA Kruksal–Wallis test was applied, followed by Dunn’s post-hoc
followed by
test.
Dunn’sFor post-hoc
variablestest.
withForvalues showing
variables withthe characteristics
values showing the of acharacteristics
normal distribution, the
of a normal
arithmetic
distribution,mean
theand standard
arithmetic deviation
mean (± s) aredeviation
and standard given, while
(± s)for
arevariables whose
given, while forvalues
varia-
did not have a normal distribution, in addition to the means, the median
bles whose values did not have a normal distribution, in addition to the means, the me- and quarter
deviation
dian and (Me ± Q)
quarter are also(Me
deviation reported.
± Q) are Furthermore,
also reported. a measure
Furthermore,of thea effect
measuresizeofwasthe
calculated by presenting eta-squared values.
effect size was calculated by presenting eta-squared values.
3. Results
3. Results
Table 2 shows the basic statistical variables (∆Fwmax_w-p, ∆Fwmax_r1-p, ∆Fwmax_r2-
Table 2 shows the basic statistical variables (ΔFwmax_w-p, ΔFwmax_r1-p, ΔFw-
p), expressed in Nkg−1 for all groups studied.
max_r2-p), expressed in Nkg−1 for all groups studied.
Figure 3 shows the percentage changes of the maximum relative strength of the
examined muscles between successive periods for each group compared to the baseline
taken as 100%.
 Table 2. Changes in the maximum relative strength compared to baseline expressed in Nkg-1, in individual stages of the
experiment in groups of participants.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 6 of 15
Variables/Parameters/Group ISO-M ISO-P AUX-M AUX-P
𝑥±s −3.6 ± 2.13 −4.1 ± 2.38 −3.2 ± 1.49 −4.2 ± 2.69
ΔFwmax_w-p Me ±Q - −4.2 ± 1.17 - −2.9 ± 2.22
Table 2. Changes in the maximum relative strength compared to baseline expressed in Nkg−1 , in individual stages of the
[Nkg−1] Min. −8.1 −11.4 −5.9 −8.7
experiment in groups of participants.
Max. −0.4 −1 −0.6 −0.6
𝑥±s
Variables/Parameters/Group ISO-M
1.2 ± 2.65 ISO-P
−2.6 ± 4.64 0.4AUX-M
± 2.27 −2.5AUX-P
± 2.10
ΔFwmax_r1-p Me
x ±± sQ −1.3
3.6±±0.74
2.13 −4.1-± 2.38 −3.2- ± 1.49 −4.2- ± 2.69
∆Fwmax_w-p
[Nkg−1] ±Q
MeMin. -
−6.1 −4.2 ± 1.17
−16.7 −4.5- −2.9
−7.4± 2.22
[Nkg−1 ] Min. − 8.1 − 11.4 − 5.9 −8.7
Max. 8.7 5.1 7.2 0.3
Max. −0.4 −1 −0.6 −0.6
𝑥 ±s 1.3 ± 3.73 −2.5 ± 3.35 0.3 ± 2.04 −2.1 ± 2.78
x±s 1.2 ± 2.65 −2.6 ± 4.64 0.4 ± 2.27 −2.5 ± 2.10
ΔFwmax_r2-p Me ±Q - - - -
∆Fwmax_r1-p Me ± Q 1.3 ± 0.74 - - -
[Nkg
−
[Nkg ] 1−1] Min.
Min. −6
−6.1 −9.1
−16.7 −3.2
−4.5 −6.5
−7.4
Max.
Max. 8.5
8.7 3.62
5.1 4.6
7.2 40.3
x±s 1.3 ± 3.73 −2.5 ± 3.35 0.3 ± 2.04 −2.1 ± 2.78
∆Fwmax_r2-p Me ± Q Figure 3 shows- the percentage changes
- of the maximum - relative strength of
- the ex-
[Nkg−1 ] amined muscles between
Min. −6 successive periods
−9.1 for each group
−3.2 compared to the baseline
−6.5
Max.
taken as 100%. 8.5 3.62 4.6 4

Figure 3.
Figure Graphical representation
3. Graphical representation ofof changes
changes in in the
the maximum
maximumrelative
relativestrength
strengthcompared
comparedtotobaseline
base-
expressed in % in individual periods of the experiment in groups of participants.
line expressed % in individual periods of the experiment in groups of participants. ΔFwmax_w-∆Fwmax_w-p—post-
exercise change in
p—post-exercise relative
change strengthstrength
in relative following exercise
following relativerelative
exercise to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r1-p—change
to baseline, ΔFwmax_r1-p—
in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r2-p—change in
change in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline, ΔFwmax_r2-p—
change
relativein relativeafter
strength strength after the
the second second period,
recovery recoveryrelative
period,torelative to baseline.
baseline.

The mean
mean values
valuesof
ofchanges
changesin ∆Fwmaxrecorded
inΔFwmax recordedafter
aftereach
eachperiod
periodofofthe
theexperiment
experiment
relative to baseline were then subjected to the analysis of the statistical significance
relative to baseline were then subjected to the analysis of the statistical significance of dif-of
ferences
differences for repeated measures in all groups of participants. Strong effect size wasalso
for repeated measures in all groups of participants. Strong effect size was also
demonstrated
demonstrated in in most
mostmeasurements.
measurements.The Theresults
resultsofofthe
thepost-hoc
post-hoctests
testsand
andeffect
effectsize
sizeare
are
presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Results of the ANOVA analysis of variance for repeated measures and the post-hoc test for changes in maximal
relative strength compared to baseline in individual periods of the experiment in groups of participants.

∆Fwmax_w-p [Nkg−1 ] ∆Fwmax_w-p [Nkg−1 ] ∆Fwmax_r1-p [Nkg−1 ]

Variable/Group vs. vs. vs.
∆Fwmax_r1-p [Nkg−1 ] ∆Fwmax_r2-p [Nkg−1 ] ∆Fwmax_r2-p [Nkg−1 ]
ISO-M p < 0.001 N η2 = 0.82 p < 0.001 N η2 = 0.83 p = 0.82 N η2 = 0.18
ISO-P p < 0.01 N η2 = 0.76 p < 0.05 N η2 = 0.76 p = 0.79 N η2 = 0.38
AUX-M p < 0.001 P η2 = 0.85 p < 0.001 P η2 = 0.85 p = 0.98 P η2 = 0.05
AUX-P p = 0.097 N
∆Fwmax_w-p—post-exercise change in relative strength following exercise relative to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r1-p—change in relative strength
after the first recovery period, relative to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r2-p—change in relative strength after the second recovery period, relative
to baseline, N—significance of differences tested by Dunn’s post hoc test, P—significance of differences tested by Tukey’s post hoc test.
η2 —measure of eta-squared effect size.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 7 of 15

The results of the analysis of variance in intergroup comparisons indicate the presence
of statistically significant differences in the variable studied only within some pairs of
groups of participants in subsequent periods of the experiment. Between-group compar-
isons revealed strong measures of effect size. As a result of post-hoc testing and effect size,
groups of participants with the statistically significantly different values of the variable
analyzed were separated as presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Results of the analysis of variance ANOVA (F-test; Tukey’s post-hoc test) and its counterpart
for non-parametric ANOVA Kruskal–Willis tests (Dunn’s post hoc test) of the changes in maximum
relative strength compared to baseline in subsequent periods of the experiment between groups
of participants.

∆Fwmax_w-p ∆Fwmax_r1-p ∆Fwmax_r2-p

Variable/Group
[Nkg−1 ] [Nkg−1 ] [Nkg−1 ]
ISO-M/ISO-P p < 0.005 N η2 = 0.37 p < 0.001 P η2 = 0.39
ISO-M/AUX-M p = 1.00 N η2 = 0.87 p = 0.73 P η2 = 0.08
ISO-M/AUX-P p < 0.001 N η2 = 0.62 p < 0.005 P η2 = 0.40
p = 0.71 N
ISO-P/AUX-M p = 0.055 N η2 = 0.27 p < 0.05 P η2 = 0.37
ISO-P/AUX-P p = 1.00 N η2 = 0.61 p = 0.98 P η2 = 0.48
AUX-M/AUX-P p < 0.005 N η2 = 0.61 p = 0.05 P η2 = 0.38
∆Fwmax_w-p—post-exercise change in relative strength following exercise relative to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r1-p—
change in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline, ∆Fwmax_r2-p—change in relative
strength after the second recovery period, relative to baseline, N—significance of differences tested by Dunn’s
post hoc test, P—significance of differences tested by Tukey’s post hoc test. η2 —measure of eta-squared effect size.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 8 of 15

The post-exercise changes in maximum relative strength ∆Fwmax_w-p between the
different groups of participants are shown in Figures 4–6.

Figure 4.
Figure Graphical
4. Graphical representation
representation of the
of the results
results of ANOVA
of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis
Kruskal–Willis analysis
analysis forΔFw-
for the the
∆Fwmax_w-p
max_w-p variable
variable between
between all tested
all tested groups
groups of participants.
of participants.

Figure 5. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the ΔFw-
max_r-p variable between all tested groups of participants.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021,Figure
18, 11680
4. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the 8ΔFw-
of 15
Figure 4. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the ΔFw-
max_w-p variable between all tested groups of participants.
max_w-p variable between all tested groups of participants.

Figure 5.
5. Graphical
Graphical representation
representation of the results
of the of ANOVA
results of ANOVAKruskal–Willis analysis
Kruskal–Willis for thefor
analysis ΔFw-
the
Figure 5. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the ΔFw-
max_r-p variable
∆Fwmax_r-p between
variable all
between tested
all groups
tested of
groupsparticipants.
of participants.
max_r-p variable between all tested groups of participants.

Figure 6.
Figure Graphical representation
6. Graphical representation of
of the
the results
results of
of ANOVA
ANOVA (F-test)
(F-test) for the ∆Fwmax_r2-p
for the ΔFwmax_r2-p variable
variable
Figure 6.
between allGraphical
all tested representation
tested groups
groups of of the
of participants.
participants. results of ANOVA (F-test) for the ΔFwmax_r2-p variable
between
between all tested groups of participants.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
In the ISO-M group of participants, who performed submaximal isometric exer-
In the
cise and ISO-M group
underwent of participants,
vibration who performed
massage during the recoverysubmaximal isometric exercise
period, a statistically signifi-
In the ISO-M group of participants, who performed submaximal isometric exercise
and underwent
cantunderwent vibration
(p < 0.001) and massage
most massage during
substantial the
increase recovery period,
in the maximum a statistically significant (p
and vibration during the recovery period, arelative strength
statistically of about
significant (p
<4.8
0.001)
Nkg− and
1 most substantial
afterincrease
the first in the maximum
period, relative strength of about
to an4.8 Nkg-
< 0.001) andwas observed
most substantial increase recovery
in the maximum which corresponded
relative strength of about average
4.8 Nkg-
1increase
was observed after
of about 16%the first recovery
compared to theperiod, which
value of corresponded
post-exercise maximumto an average increase
relative strength
1 was observed after the first recovery period, which corresponded to an average increase
(Table 2 and Figure 3). It can therefore be concluded that the increase in strength is related
to the application of vibration massage. Fuller et al. claim that vibration massage has
similar efficacy to classical massage [36]. Furthermore, in the AUX-M group, subjected to
auxotonic exercise and experimental vibration exposure, an average increase in strength
of approximately 12% was recorded during an identical period of the experiment, which
accounted for an increase in the relative strength of 3.6 Nkg−1 compared to the value of
the variable recorded after the exercise test (Table 2 and Figure 3). In addition, in this case,
the results of the statistical analysis confirmed the presence of significant differences at
p < 0.001. This may indicate the efficacy of the vibration massage in muscle recovery result-
ing in increased strength. Similar findings were reported by Mukhtar et.al, who showed
that vibration therapy had a significant positive effect on neuromuscular performance,
resulting in improved upper extremity strength [37].
It should be added that in the groups subjected to vibration massage, the values of
maximum relative strength in maximum isometric contraction exceeded the baseline levels
already after the first period of recovery. The recovery of previously lost relative strength,
together with the occurrence of the hypercompensation effect, was noted in both groups
(by 3.5% in the ISO-M group and 1.2% in the AUX-M group), even though they differed in
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 9 of 15

the form of physical exercise to which the muscles were subjected. Scientific research has
shown that vibration therapy is an effective recovery method [38].
In the ISO-P group (isometric contraction/passive rest), there was also a statistically
significant (p < 0.01) increase in relative strength after the first recovery period. However,
it was not as significant as in the groups with vibration massage and averaged to about
4.4%, which translated into an increase in the maximal relative force of 1.5 Nkg−1 after the
first recovery period (Table 2 and Figure 3). In conclusion, the process of restoring relative
strength after an analogous isometric exercise in the first recovery period in the group with
vibration massage was more than three times faster than in the group with passive rest.
Furthermore, in participants from the AUX-P group (auxotonic muscle contrac-
tion/passive rest), despite a 7% increase in relative strength observed after the first recovery
period (Figure 3) compared to the value recorded after the exercise test, the statistical anal-
ysis did not confirm the presence of statistically significant differences. Similarly as in
the case of submaximal isometric contractions, the effectiveness of the vibration massage
was confirmed in the statistical comparisons determining the rate of restoring the lost
relative strength following auxotonic exercise. The efficiency of recovery, expressed by the
restoration of the relative strength, was similarly about three times higher than in the case
of passive rest. Our study confirmed the differences in the increase in relative strength after
the first recovery period between ISO-M, ISO-P, AUX-M, and AUX-P groups. The recorded
increases in maximum strength induced by vibration massage can be explained by muscle
recovery that occurs as a result of muscle vibration [38,39].
The different observations of the authors of studies [31,32,36,40–43] regarding the
evaluation of the effect of vibration massage aimed to ensure athletic recovery of muscles
that have been previously fatigued during high-intensity exercise may be due to several
factors. The nature and pattern of the vibration massage may be an important problem.
This problem has also been noticed by Cochrane and Booker and Park who believe that
following vibration, any changes related to muscle motor activity depend on the mutual
relations between vibration parameters such as frequency (Hz), amplitude (mm), and
vibration duration (s) [44,45]. A direct comparison of these studies is difficult due to
the lack of homogeneity of the physical effort, the varied measurement methodology,
the characteristics of the vibrations produced, and the variety of positions in which the
vibration massage was performed. All this may explain the considerable discrepancies in
the results obtained by individual researchers in the studies cited.
Previous results reported by various authors indicate a considerable scatter concerning
the optimal parameters of vibration stimulus suggested by them. Consequently, there are
no unequivocal guidelines for the effective choice and application of vibration parame-
ters. Issurin suggests that low-frequency vibration massage (f = 15–50 Hz) increases the
local temperature of the tissues subjected to vibration, causing relaxation of myofascial
tissues, a decrease in emotional tension, and a general calming effect [21]. On the other
hand, a massage using high-frequency vibrations leads to an increase in excitability of
the central nervous system, increases muscle tension, and has a rapid warming effect.
However, according to the same author, a massage with the use of both low- and high-
frequency vibrations brings positive effects. Despite this, Issurin [21] recommends that
the massage time for high-frequency vibration should be much shorter than in the case of
lower-frequency vibration stimulus. In our study, the vibration time also decreased with
increasing vibration frequency. Furthermore, Rittweger et al. reported that vibration fre-
quencies below 20 Hz lead to relaxation in muscles, while frequencies over 50 Hz can cause
acute muscle pain in untrained individuals [46]. There are also reports which indicate that
the vibration frequency range of 30–50 Hz is most effective to activate muscle fibers [47].
Ronnestad suggested that the optimal vibration frequency for professional athletes should
be 50 Hz [48]. Low-frequency vibrations of 5–15 Hz, on the other hand, can speed up
the process of post-exercise recovery due to increased blood flow to and from the injured
muscle and stimulate muscle receptors to relieve muscle tension [34].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 10 of 15

A very interesting suggestion was made by Lamont et al. who recommend starting
vibration sessions with lower frequencies and amplitudes and gradually increasing them
while shortening the exposure to vibrations [49]. The vibration interaction algorithm in
our study also started from the lowest frequencies. However, the vibration based on 26
and 30 Hz frequencies used in the studies by Bullock et al. [50], Barnes et al. [31], and
Dabbs et al. [32] did not produce the expected beneficial effects. Furthermore, vibration
with frequencies of 20, 35, and 50 Hz, used in the studies by Marin et al., produced
positive results during post-exercise recovery [23]. Higher vibration frequencies suggested
by Issurin [21] did not allow Lau and Nosak [27] and Fuller et al. [36] to demonstrate
the effectiveness of the vibration procedure during the recovery period after exercise.
The presented facts may suggest that vibration frequency is not the only parameter that
significantly affects the outcomes of vibration sessions performed during post-exercise
recovery. The results of our study provide compelling evidence that different frequencies
and amplitudes of vibrations may be required, depending on the expected effects of
vibration sessions.
The study used a vibration stimulus with completely different frequency character-
istics than those used in previous experiments. No publications to date have presented
studies in which the frequency and amplitude of a vibration stimulus are varied smoothly
during a single vibration program. During the determination of the characteristics of the
vibration intervention, it is critical to remember that the time of recovery of motor skills
lost due to exercise depends on many factors: age, muscle mass, type of muscle fibers,
level of previous fatigue, fitness level, and specific personal susceptibility to vibration
interventions [51]. The mechanism developed by the authors for the effect of the vibration
stimulus was partially similar to the suggestions made by Lamont et al. [49]. Another
key factor in increasing the effectiveness of vibration massage used in our study was the
variation of rest duration (1–4 s) in generating the vibration stimulus in successive sets of
vibration in the control program. This view was also noted by Issurin [21], who pointed
to the positive effect of vibration stimuli only when intermittent vibration massage was
applied. However, subjecting participants to continuous and prolonged vibration massage
led to a noticeable decrease in the values of biomechanical variables in the muscles tested.
The characteristics of low-amplitude vibration stimuli proposed in our study were
intended to induce a relaxing effect rather than reinforce a stress factor for pre-fatigued
muscles. This need was also emphasized by Cardinale and Lim [35]. Furthermore, the sup-
port of muscle recovery was supposed to be based on increased blood flow as mentioned by
Weerapong et al. [16]. A study conducted by Kerschan-Schindl et al. [52] found an increase
in mean blood flow rate in the femoropopliteal artery as a result of vibration massage
performed on a vibration platform (f-26 Hz A-3 mm). An increase in local blood flow rate
immediately after the vibratory stimulus was also confirmed by other researchers [21,53].
The explanation for this mechanism is based on the assumption that rhythmic muscle
contractions are observed when the body is subjected to vibration [54], which can cause
changes in the peripheral arteries. According to Kerschan-Schindl et al. [52], the increase in
blood flow rate may be due to a decrease in blood viscosity and vasodilation induced by
vibration. Therefore, the increase in blood flow rate resulting from the applied vibration can
accelerate the process of post-exercise recovery by enhancing nutrient exchange, removing
metabolic by-products [40] that inhibit tissue repair and improving the oxygen supply
between capillaries and the fluid surrounding body cells [55]. The low value of vibration
amplitude was further intended to eliminate the possible adverse phenomenon of potentia-
tion of muscle fatigue due to the vibration procedure, as mentioned by Barnes et al. [31].
The results of the study conducted by Zoladz et al. [56] show that already after a 10-s
maximal power exercise test on an isokinetic cycle ergometer, a 25% loss of maximal power
was observed, indicating the onset of pronounced fatigue. During short-term dynamic
efforts, the immediate energy supply to muscles is obtained from adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and phosphocreatine (PCr) [57,58]. Unfortunately, their content in muscle cells is
limited. During the first seconds of exercise, the content of ATP and phosphocreatine in
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 11 of 15

muscle cells decreases rapidly. In the study by Hultman and Sjoholm [59], stimulation of
the muscle to contraction for 2.5 s resulted in 26% depletion of PCr stores. Phosphocreatine
resynthesis and elimination of glycolytic products occur partly during and partly following
the exercise [60–62]. Therefore, symptoms of fatigue are observed even during short-term
efforts of submaximal intensity [63–65]. Another key factor in increasing the effectiveness
of vibration massage used in our study was the use of breaks in generation of the vibratory
stimulus during the program. This was also observed by Issurin [21], who indicated a
positive effect of vibration only when intermittent vibration sessions were applied.
In our study key information was provided by the recorded results of changes in the
maximum relative strength of the tested muscle groups, which were recorded at the end of
the first and second recovery periods. Based on these results, it was found that vibration
sessions conducted in the first period of recovery significantly accelerated the process of
post-exercise recovery and restoration of strength capabilities of the examined muscles.
In the case of groups where recovery during each period consisted solely of passive rest,
even a time of 40 min was insufficient to recover the previous strength capabilities lost due
to exercise.
The use of vibration massage resulted in much more effective muscle recovery in
the case of fatigue caused by isometric exercise. This is confirmed by the results of the
recorded changes in strength after each recovery period, with their rate of return to pre-
exercise levels and the possible effect of hypercompensation being significantly higher for
the groups subjected to isometric exercise. The reason for this may be the fact of lower
regression of energy substrate levels recorded during isometric exercise as demonstrated
by Konturek [66] and Ortega et al. [67]. During static exercise, tense muscles put pressure
on blood vessels, thus impeding the blood flow, which in turn interferes with the supply of
essential nutrients and the removal of metabolic products [7,8]. Consequently, during static
muscle work, conditions are created for oxygen debt and an increase in the proportion
of anaerobic metabolism causing their acidification [68,69]. Furthermore, the increase in
blood flow due to the application of vibration intervention [21,53] facilitates the exchange
of nutrients and the removal of metabolic by-products [40,55] which were accumulated
during the exercise with isometric muscle work. According to Lattier et al. [70], a very
important factor in the acceleration of post-workout relaxation and ability to undertake
the next effort is lactate removal from blood and muscles. This view is also supported
by other researchers [71,72], who believe that blood lactate accumulation is at least partly
responsible for the delayed return to homeostasis after fatigue. Therefore, this helps explain
why the vibration interaction in our study led to better recovery after isometric exercise.
Post-exercise rest is an essential part of ensuring body homeostasis. There are scientific
studies which stress that in the case of fatigue caused by physical exertion, the athlete
should rest actively. Research [73,74] has shown that light exercises, applied after physical
exercise, can accelerate the recovery from muscle fatigue and is more effective than passive
rest. In a study [75], a higher rate of lactate decomposition was observed during active
recovery compared to passive rest. The authors explain this fact by the increased blood
flow that occurs during active rest, which in turn facilitates the removal of previously
accumulated lactate. Ahmaidi et al. [76] and Thiriet et al. [77] also found that low-intensity
active rest between repeated sets of intense exercise results in lower blood lactate con-
centration compared to passive rest. According to Bush et al. [78] whole body vibration
(WBV) induces small muscle contractions during which there is a change in muscle length.
Barnes et al. [31] believe that, consequently, muscles subjected to vibration massage are
forced to do extra work, which can be a form of active rest after exercise.

5. Conclusions
Based on the results obtained in the present study, it seems right to state that the use
of our vibration procedure, aimed at previously fatigued muscle groups, is an effective
method to accelerate the process of their recovery and regaining the lost motor abilities.
Properly chosen parameters of the vibration procedure during active inter-exercise muscle
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 12 of 15

recovery can significantly shorten the necessary breaks in training units and between
training sessions and improve training efficiency.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.C., P.P.; methodology, W.C., P.P.; software, W.C., T.A.,
Ł.R. and P.P.; validation, W.C., Ł.R., T.A. and P.P.; formal analysis, W.C., Ł.R., T.A. and P.P.; investiga-
tion, W.C. and P.P.; resources, W.C., T.A. and P.P.; data curation, W.C. and P.P.; writing—original draft
preparation, W.C., T.A., Ł.R. and P.P.; writing—review and editing, W.C., T.A., Ł.R., P.P. and T.A.;
visualization, W.C., Ł.R., T.A. and P.P.; supervision, W.C., P.P., Ł.R. and T.A.; project administration,
P.P.; funding acquisition, W.C., T.A. and P.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: Research procedures, project implementation, and open access funding were conducted
with the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education (Poland) under the name ‘Regional
Initiative for Perfection’ within the years 2019–2022, project No. 022/RID/2018/19.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Bioethics Committee (No. KB/245/FI/2020).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
authors. Some variables are restricted to preserve the anonymity of study participants.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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