UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA LEONE

FOURAH BAY COLLEGE

INTRODUCTION
Ideally, any geochemical survey should start with a planning and design stage, followed by sample
collection, sample preparation and analysis, scrutiny of data for reliability, results display and data
interpretation and, finally, recommendations for the next exploration phase if one is warranted. Survey
design should try to utilize all of the available existing bedrock geological, surficial geological,
geophysical, geochemical and logistical data for an area so that the optimum combination of sample
type, collection method, preparation and analytical technique can be selected to most reliably identify a
source of mineralization from the data.

Geochemical prospecting for minerals includes any method of mineral exploration based on systematic
measurement of the chemical properties of a naturally occurring material. The purpose of the
measurements is the location of geochemical anomalies or of areas where the chemical pattern
indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity.

The purpose of the measurements is the discovery of a geochemical "anomaly" or area where the
chemical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity. The broader science of geochemistry, as
originally defined by Goldschmidt and summarized by Mason (1952, p. 2), is concerned with:

1. The determination of the relative and absolute abundance of the elements in the earth.

2. The study of the distribution and migration of the individual elements in the various parts of the earth
with the object of discovering the principles governing this distribution and migration.
Geochemical Case Studies
A typical geochemical survey can generate a large amount of field and analytical information so that a
geochemist is faced with a challenging task when attempting to interpret this volume of data.
Geochemical models are one option to help deal with this problem by providing a framework of basic
principles (e.g. dispersion mechanisms) upon which data for specific properties (e.g. element values, pH)
can then be interpreted. Applied to mineral exploration, geochemical models can simplify the
information typically found in case histories by creating visual relationships between a mineral deposit
and the deposit geochemical response. All of the information describing the bedrock geology, surficial
geology, and features of the local environment, alteration and style of mineralization in an area with the
types of sample collected, sampling strategy and the results of the geochemical sampling must be
documented concisely to develop a model.

Geochemical Anomaly
An anomaly is any high or low element variation not explained by a natural geochemical variation. Key
to interpreting survey results is determining what is the natural variation or geochemical background for
different elements. The upper limit of natural background is termed threshold above which a value is
considered to be anomalous.

Primary Anomaly may be formed at depth by:

• igneous processes

• metamorphic processes

Secondary Anomaly are formed at the earth's surface by agents of:

• Weathering

• Erosion

• Surficial transportation.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Mineral deposits represent anomalous concentrations of specific elements, usually within

a relatively confined volume of the Earth's crust. Most mineral deposits include a central zone, or

core, in which the valuable elements or minerals are concentrated, often in percentage quantities,

to a degree sufficient to permit economic exploitation. The valuable elements surrounding this

core generally decrease in concentration until they reach levels, measured in parts per million

(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb), which appreciably exceed the normal background level of the

enclosing rocks. This zone surrounding the core deposit is known as a primary halo or anomaly,

and it represents the distribution patterns of elements which formed as a result of primary
dispersion. In general, it is formed at, or near, the same time as the central ore body.

Mineral deposits at, or near, the surface are subject to chemical and physical agencies of

weathering. Many of the ore minerals undergo decomposition or disintegration, and their

chemical constituents become dispersed into weathering debris, soils, ground water, and plant

tissue. Further dispersion, often over considerable distances, may ensue due to the agencies of

glaciers or stream and river systems. Abnormal chemical concentrations in weathering products

are known as secondary dispersion halos or anomalies and are more widespread. All of these

halos afford means whereby mineral deposits can be detected and traced; they form the

geochemical anomalies which are the objects of search of all geochemical prospectors.

1.2 SURVEY DESIGN

The degree of success of a geochemical survey in a mineral exploration program is often a

reflection of the amount of care taken with initial planning and survey design. This phase of

activity is often referred to as an orientation survey; its practical importance cannot be

overstressed.

Orientation Survey

When a geochemical prospecting survey is contemplated, four basic considerations must be

addressed: the nature of the mineral deposits being sought; the geochemical properties of the

elements likely to be present in the target mineral deposit; geological factors likely to cause

variations in geochemical background; and environmental, or landscape, factors likely to

influence the geochemical expression of the target mineral deposit. Elucidation of these factors

in an orientation survey will permit design of a geochemical prospecting survey that is most

likely to prove effective under the prevailing conditions.

Wherever possible, an orientation survey should include a study of the geochemical

expression of a known mineral deposit similar to that which is the target of the proposed

prospecting program, and which occurs in a geological and environmental setting similar to that

of the proposed search. The geochemical expression of such a deposit should be determined in

detail. Normally this will include comprehensive sampling of soils, stream sediments, vegetation,

and water over and around the deposit. This will be followed by multielement analyses of the

samples, and the result will be a thorough picture of the nature, intensity, and extent of the
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secondary geochemical dispersion train which indicates the presence of the deposit. From this

information, deductions can be made as to the type of sampling medium, sample spacing, and

analytical processing most likely to yield a positive indication of another such mineral deposit in

a previously unprospected area. Estimates of time and cost likely to be involved in the proposed

survey can also be made.

A further important element of an orientation survey is establishment of background

against which geochemical anomalies can be compared. This is generally done by collection of a

substantial number of samples (perhaps 100) of the materials to be used in the geochemical

survey (such as soil or stream sediment but excluding mineralized material) over a considerable

area. Further important aspects of orientation work are an assessment of variations in landscape

conditions, or geochemical environment, within the survey area, their likely effect on

mechanisms of geochemical dispersion, and the probable geochemical expression of a mineral

deposit. In some cases landscape may vary greatly, perhaps from rugged mountain terrain with

little soil or overburden cover and preponderant mechanical dispersion, to low-lying swampy

terrain with thick overburden obscuring the bedrock where geochemical dispersion is chiefly

chemical. In such a case geochemical prospecting methods suitable for one environment may be

quite inappropriate for another, since the geochemical portrayals of a mineral deposit may be

markedly different. Only experience and careful orientation work will permit these differences to

be identified and assessed.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Representivity is of paramount importance in geochemical sampling. It is essential that adequate

samples be taken that are representative of the material sampled at any given locality. These materials
may be rocks, waters, gases, soils, stream sediments, or vegetation. Wherever possible,

sampling should be confined to one type of material for any particular survey, such as one rock

type in litho-geochemical surveys, one horizon in soil surveys, or one plant organ and plant

species in biogeochemical surveys. If, through necessity such as landscape variations, diverse

materials have to be sampled, correlative factors must be applied to the results before the
geochemical patterns can be effectively interpreted.
FIELD ANALYSIS

Analytical techniques for on-site sampling of water, soil, stream sediment, and lake sediment are

usually based on colorimetry; they utilize a specific selective organic reagent, such as dithizone, which
produces a characteristic color in the presence of a given metal in solution. The reaction of

dithizone with zinc, which produces a range of blue, violet, and red shades, is commonly utilized

in field geochemical prospecting. Field analytical techniques generally determine loosely

bonded, or exchangeable, metal ions, which are extracted by a citrate, acetate, or dilute acid.
LABORATORY ANALYSIS

When it is desirable to determine the total content of a given metal in a sample, analysis

is generally performed in a laboratory. A wide range of techniques may be used, but the most

common are emission spectrography and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The latter

technique is particularly suitable for routine geochemical analysis since it permits a large number

of samples to be analyzed relatively quickly and inexpensively to an adequate standard of

precision. Sample digestion prior to atomic absorption analysis frequently involves a hot mineral

acid or mixture of acids; one of the most common digestion agents is a mixture of nitric and

perchloric acids.

Other geochemical analytical procedures include:

• x-ray fluorescence spectrography, chromatography, polarography

Geochemical extractions. Three main extractions are used in this book: total
dissolution for a complete composition, a weak hydroxylamine hydrochloride (HA) extraction

to digest elements bound in the amorphous Mn oxide fraction (Chao, 1984) and a Bacterial

Leach (BL) partial, unselective extraction. The BL extraction was believed to be a

partial digestion, with no consistent phase preference, although recent work suggests that it

has a preference for amorphous Mn oxides similar to the HA extraction (Noble, 2007).

Data treatment

3.3.1 Element indices. Various pathfinder and target element concentrations have been used

to improve definition of anomalies related to ore systems. The BL used the following element
indices (EIs) provided by the proprietor to enhance the identification of anomalies:

Element Index 1 = (Ni * Cu * Ga * Ge * Se * W * Bi) / 1x107

Element Index 2 = (Element Index 1 / (Ti * V)) * 1x106

Element Index 3 = (Ni * Cu * Se * W * As * Sb * Te) / 1x108

Element Index 4 = (Element Index 1 / V * Cr)) * 1x10

Whilst some of the elements (Ni, Cu) are pathfinders for sulfide ore systems, others are

used as lithological discriminators, and were tailored by the proprietor to the Kewell

orientation survey over Au mineralization. Some of these elements are considered an

oxidation suite by Clark (1996), suggesting the following elements can migrate as halide

volatiles or halogen gases: Cl, Br, I, As, Sb, Mo, W, Se and Te. Others were used to

differentiate weathering environments and rock types (Cr, V and Ti).

For comparison to other methods of interpretation using multiple components, the

following index are also used:

Arsenic (or other pathfinder elements) / Mn

This is used for the HA extraction, which targets the amorphous Mn oxide fraction.

The CHI*6 index (As + 3.56*Sb + 10*Bi + 3*Mo + 30*Ag + 30*Sn + 10*W + 3.5*Se)

was developed by Smith and Perdrix (1983). It has been effectively used to detect anomalous

corridors of chalcophile elements in Western Australia (Anand et al., 1989; Cornelius et al.,

2008; Smith et al., 1989) using laterite residuum. This index is the weighted sum of important

pathfinder elements and removes some of the bias associated with a simple summation. The

CHI*6 index is, however, influenced by extreme single element concentrations (Cornelius, et

al., 2008), as is the case with many other multi-component index, and was empirically

customized for use with lateritic residuum.

Hypergeometric probability. Hypergeometric probability statistics based on the work of

Stanley (2003) and Stanley and Noble (2007, 2008), are used to give a quantitative

comparison between the geochemical extractions and to assess the predictive accuracy

References
Anand, R.R., Smith, R.E., Innes, J., Churchward H.M., 1989.Exploration geochemistry about the Mt.
Gibson gold deposits, Western Australia; progress to 31 March 1989. CRC LEME Open File Report
(October 1998), 35:93 pp. Anand, R.R., Williamson, A., 2000. Regolith evolution and geochemical
dispersion in transported and residual regolith – Bronzewing gold deposit. Australian Institute of

Geoscientists Bulletin, 32, 333-350.

Arne, D.C., Stott, J.E., Waldron, H.M., 1999. Biogeochemistry of the Ballarat East goldfield,

Victoria, Australia. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 67, 1-14.

Aspandiar, M.F., Anand, R., Gray, D., 2006. Mechanisms of element dispersion through

transported cover: a review. CRC LEME Report 230R, CRC LEME, Perth. 81 p.