Empire Forestry Vol 1, 1922

Empire Forestry
Journal of
The Empire Forestry Association
Imperial Institute
London
MARCH
1922
l\fACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

ST. MARTIN'S S1'1~EET, LONDON
NEW YORK: THE l\iACMILLAN CO~IPANY
VOL. I. Price: 45. net

I Dollar
EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.
Patron:
H.M. THE KING.
President:
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES.
Chairl1zan:
The Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT NOVAR, P.C., G.C.M.G.
Vice- Chairl1tan :
Lieut.-Colonel G. L. COURTHOPE, M.P.
Gove1"nin~ Council:
The DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G.
The EARL OF PLYMOUTH, G.B.E., C.B.
EARL BUXTON, G.C.M.G.
VISCOUNT MILNJ£R, K.G., G.C.B.
Sir JOHN STIRLING MAXWELL, Bart.
LORD ISLINGTON, G.C.M.G.
Sir CLAUDE IIILL, K.C.S.I.
Sir FREDERICK HODGSON, K.C.M.G.
Sir GEORGE HART, I{.B.E., C.I.E.
The Hon. Sir GEORG,E PERLEV, K.C.M.G.
Lieut.-Colonel R. M. BECKETT.
Mr. ROBSON BLACK.
Mr. M. C. DUCH}4~SNE, F.S.!.
Mr. H. R. l\1ACKAY.
11r. W. S. MILLARD.
Mr. H. MORRISON, M.P.
Mr. A. H. ASHBOLT.
Mr. F. B. Sl\UTH, e.M.G.
Secretary.' Editor 01 Jour1tal.·

Mr. ]. S. CORBETT. Mr. S. M. EnwARDEs, C.S.I., C.V.O.
Hon. Treasurer:
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. REPORT OF THE INAUGURAL MEETING OF THE
EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION ••• 3
2. FORESTRY ·IN THE EMPIRE, BY R. L. ROBINSON ••• I I
3. WESTERN AUSTRALIA AS A PRODUCER OF FINE

TIMBER, BY C. E. LANE POOLE 35
4. FOREST FIRES IN CANADA, BY ELLWOOD \iVILSON 43
5. TIMBER TESTING IN INDIA, BY L. N. SEAMAN AND
R. S. PEARSON 47
6: SYLVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF EUCALYPTS, BY
G. E. BROCKWAY 52
7. THE AUSTRALIAN FOREST LEAGUE, BY W. RUSSELL
GRIMWADE ••• 66
8. THE DOUGLAS FIR FLAGSTAFF AT KEW, BY F. R.
S. BALFOUR... 69
9. THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FORESTRY
COMMISSION, BY DR. A_ W. BORTHWICK 72
10. TREE-WORSHIP IN INDIA, BY S. M. EDWARDES 78
11. EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA 87
12. REVIEW 110
13. LIST OF FORESTRY PUBLICA.TIONS FOR 1920 AND

1921 ••• 116
14. TRADE RETURNS, 1920 AND 1921 .•• 12 5

THE BRITISH EMPIRE FORESTRY CONFErmNCE, 1920. (From Le/t to Rig-ht.)'
STANDING.-A. Henry, A. D. Hopkin~on (For. COJll11l.), L. Palfreman (Sierra Leone), H. R. Mackay (Victoria), H. M. Thompson (Ni/(eria), D. ]. Davies
(Newfiundland), V. F. Leese (For. C011l11l.), Wm. Dawson (Ca1JZbrid~e), Sir Claude Hill (India), W. F. Perree (India), R. L. Robinson (For. C011lm.),
E. Battiscombe (East Africa), Sir lames ConnoUy OVest Australia), A.]. Gibson (India), A. N. Glover. ]. D. Sargent (Ceylon), The Lord Clinton,
(Por. Com1lZ.), The Lord Lovat (For. COlllJll.), W. H. Lovegrove (For. C011l11l.), Clyde Leavitt (Canada), A. Bedard (Quebec), Ellwood Wilson (Canada),]. D
Crozier (For. Comm.), W H. KiILy(Canada), R. F. C. Osmaston, N. C McLeod (Gold Coast), ]. M. Purves (Nyassaland), Lord Bleddisloe, Col. B. W. Petre,
R. R. Grundy (IJ.'Ielbourne), H. ]. Elwes, Robson Black (Canada), M.C. Duchesne, P. Groom, Sir Peter McBride (Victoria), K H. Finlayson (Canada).
SITTING.-C. S. Rogers (T,inidad), B. W. Adkin, D. K. S. Grant (Tanganyika), C. E. Legat (S. A/rica), Hon. F. D. AcIand (For. Comm.), L. S. Osmaston"
(For. Comm.), Hugh Murray (Por. Comtl1.). C. E. Cubitt (P. M.S.), M. A. Grainger (British Columbia), P. H. Clutterbuck(India), R. S. Troup (India and
Ox/ord), C. O. Hanson (For. Com11l.), O. ]. Sangar (Secy.), R. Fyffe (Uganda). [Frontispiece.
EMPIRE FORESTR Y.
REPORT OF THE
INAUGURAL MEETING OF
THE EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.
HELD IN THE COUNCIL CHAMBER, GUILDHALL, CITY OF
LONDON.
On Wednesday, Novelnber 16, 1921, at 3 p.1n.

1
THE Chairman, Alderman and Sheriff H. J. de Courey

rvloore, opened the proceedings by welcoming the
Inernbers of the Empire Forestry Association on behalf
of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of
London and congratulated them upon the grant of (,l
Royal Charter. After referring to the interest which the
corporation has always taken in forestry matters and to
his own personal connection with a large body of
Cal)adian Foresters during the late war, the chairman
assured the melnbers of the Empire Forestry Association
of the whole.. hearted support of the City of London to
their policy of developing the timber-trad~ of the Empire.
He then invited Lord Novar to address the meeting.
Viscount NOVAR, P.C., G.e.M.G.: The Association,
which we are inaugurating to-day, owes its origin to a
Resolution moved by Mr. Lane Poole, the distinguishe4
Forestry Officer of Western Australia, at the Forestry
Conference presided over by Lord Lovat last year.
Its object is to federate in one central organization
voluntary associations, individuals, and corporate bodies
engaged or interested in the growth, marketing and
utilization of timber throughout His Majesty's Dominions.
The promoters of the Empire Forestry Association are
naturally imbued with the sense of the practical need fOf
4 EMPIRE FORESTRY
such an association, and of its significance as a new and

very effective link of empire. They are no less alive to
the fact that the extent of the undertaking and of the
co-operation needed to ensure adequate success requires
no ordinary measure of public support.
We have first to record our deep sense of gratitude
to H.M. the King for graciously granting his royal
patronage, and also to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales for
the honour he has conferred on the Association by
accepting its presidency (applause). To the Lord Mayor
\ve are much indebted for kind hospitality, and to you,
sir, for taking the chair. We would further acknowledge
the ready and sympathetic aid given by departments of
State throughout the Empire, by the ~"'\orestry Com-
Inission, the Colonial and India Offices, and the High
Commissioners and Agents-General to H.M. Overseas
Governments. Some may be sceptical of the value and
usefulness of voluntary effort, but at any rate all have
consented to co-operate.
It is not necessary perhaps to dilate in the City of
London on what can be achieved by the initiative and
effort of private individuals and voluntary bodies, more
especially in these days when we have learnt by experi-
ence that Government-run business suffers from the lack
of personal initiative and from inability to take quick
decisions or to secure economical administration. At
the same tilDe we must freely admit that in no industry
can governments more hopefully participate than in
forestry; in fact, forestry is in a peculiar degree an
industry in which Government, voluntary organizations
and individuals can most usefully co-operate. The
Empire Forestry Association should prove a useful inter-
mediary between all these agencies, and should be in-
strumental in levelling up the knowledge and methods of
conservation and afforestation in all the different centres
of the Empire. Government departments cannot inter-
fere with one another. None \vould brook being told by
another, however tactfully, that its methods were un-
scientific or out of date. But within one great voluntary
organization such as the Empire Forestry Association,
every society and department can pool its knowledge,
make known its methods, and make use of the informa-
tion and experiences of its fellow-members without even
INAUGURAL MEETING OF THE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 5
acknowledgin~ any obligation. There are knotty points

to be solved, and I say with conviction that a quickening
of interest in forestry and a general advance in know-
ledge will be best secured through the co-operation of
those who have an intilnate experience of local policy and
conditions in all British lands, and it is such persons
who will form the membership of the E. 14'. A.
Sylviculture, with all its subsidiary manufacturing
processes, is the most perennial wealth-producing and
employment-giving industry. It can be carried on in all
parts of the world, and involves no destruction of capital
as does mineral exploitation. Yet it is the Cinderella
amongst industries. Although arboriculture be~an in
the Garden of Eden, and timber was in demand at the
building of the Ark, less is known about it, less science
and less money have been applied to its development
than to any of the more modern processes of manufac-
ture, such as the growing of cotton and sugar-cane, or the
production of rubber and wool.
The forest record of the British race is a poor one.
Backward at hOlne, we have destroyed the timber of
every continent into which we have penetrated, and the
virgin forests in the possession of our race go as rapidly
to decay as the stately parks of England. In this country
pioneers in forestry have had, from lack of all sources of
information, to learn by costly experiment and failure,
and the planting career of most of ns can be traced from
tnany an ill-assorted mixed plantation to the gradually
evolved plots on the hill-sides. The English and
Scottish arboricultural societies have through their work
and publications spread much enlightenment, and tije
planting owners of to-day need make none of the'
egregious errors of the pioneer. But these societies are
local. They cannot extend their influence to other
countries; and though elsewhere there are excellent
institutions doing similar scientific work-such as the
'Technological Museum of Sydney, New South Wales,
which has made most interesting researches into the
properties and uses of the oils and timber of the
eucalyptus-yet that work is scarcely known throughout
Australia, and is probably unheard of in South Africa or
in any other part of the Empire. .
In the same way, the accumulated experience of the
6 EMPIRE FORESTRY.
Forest Service of India and the fine work it has done, is

shu~ up in their own sphere of operation, and not oneaf
the societies has been hitherto a lamp to the feet of the
pioneer sylviculturist.
The losses already incurred are incalculable. The war
has accelerated the destruction of our reserves and those
of Europe, while the neglect of natural regeneration and
unscientific planting have aggravated the situation. Now
that the whole world is awakening to the importance of
making good the sins of the past and of developing
tilnber resources, now that there is a prospect of much
public and other money being expended here and every-
where on forestry, it is imperative that all available
knowledge and the result of all scientific research and
experitnent should be made accessible to the world.
(Applause.) It is in order to pool experience, to gather
up knowledge and render it easily accessible, to stimulate
inquiry, research and experiment, that the Empire
F'orestry Association has been created. Its business will
be that of culling information from all parts of the
world, from all experts everywhere, and giving it out
again to the associated private owners; to institutions
and societies, and to central government departments.
A good deal of spade work has been already done.
Affiliation with national and local societies is far
advanced. Melnbers have been enrolled under the
terms agreed upon, and now that we have our Charter,
the first number of the ]out'nal of the Association, which
is to become the mediuln of the exchange of information,
will shortly be issued. The Committee appointed by the
Timber Trades Federation is actively co-operating with
the Empire Forestry Association, in making known its
requirements for the development of research, of testing
and classifying commercial timbers. It will also help us
to ascertain the quantities of timbers available, cost,
freight, and so forth. This Committee has inspected the
Teddington Laboratory, the Imperial Institute, and
anticipates valuable assistance from Professor Faber's
new department at the Imperial College of Science and
Technology.
The cost of the central society, including the journal,
salaries and expenses, works out at £1,500 a year, not an
extravagant charge, but of course we enjoy, as always
INAUGURIAL MEETING OF THE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 7
happens in voluntary work, the free use of the experience
and knowledge of men having qualifications which
money cannot always buy. Thanks to Sir Claude Hill,
Colonel Courthope, !\tIr. Ashbolt, and other overseas and
horne representatives, the scaffolding of the new organi-
zation is complete and its foundations ,vell and truly laid.
Our confident anticipation is that this Inaugural Meeting
will, with the help of the n1embers, attract attention and
support from all tree growers and those who deal in
timber or manufacture it, as ,veIl as from those who
desire to promote and develop a great source of wealth
and employment in every part of His Majesty's
Dominions.
The Hon. E. F. L. WOOD, ~I.P. (Under-Secretary of
State for the Colonies), congratulated the Association
on having secured the distinguished patronage of H.M.
the King, and the support of H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales, and emphasized the great value to the Associa-
tion of the wide personal experience of forestry matters
possessed by the Chairlnan of the Association, Lord
Novar. He attributed the backwardness of England
and the Empire generally in developing their natural
forest resources to the very immensity of the forest and
timber areas under their control, and also in some
measure to the occasional lack of skiHed advice and
the absence of econolnic outlets for their timber. On
behalf of the Colonial Office he wished God-speed to
the Empire Forestry Association, \vith the objects of
\vhich the Secretary of State for the Colonies was in
full sympathy.
Major-General Lord LOVAT, T{.T., K.C.M.G. (Chair-
Inan of H.M. Forestry Commission) briefly described the
genesis of the Empire Forestry Association and men
tioned the directions in which it is open to such a body
to supplelnent the normal activities; of official depart-
ments and bureaux. It is, for example, only by aggressive
propaganda throughout the Empire that the importance
?f forestry to the \velfare of the citizens can be adequately
Impressed upon the public mind. The Association can
do ~uc.h publ~ci.ty w?rk, ~hich lies outside the sphere
of official administration; It can collate and publish in
clear terms the results of experiments and researches
carried out by various local forestry organizations; it
8 EMPIRE FORESTRY
can circulate information of the efforts of private indi-

viduals; and by linking up all forestry and arbori-
cultural associations throughout the Empire, it can
render the work of these bodies, not merely of local
interest, but of general interest wherever the English
language is spoken. Then in regard to the transport,
logging and merchanting of timber, and all commercial
transactions, which are at present almost entirely in
private hands, the Imperial Forestry Bureau will act as
a clearing-house for information of the tests and results
performed and obtained by forestry authorities, while
the Empire Forestry Association will concern itself with
the direct transference of such information to the trader
and timber-merchant, enabling the latter to obtain in
the simplest and most direct form all that is known in
.regard to wood technology and volume of supply. After
referring to the comparatively small sum requisite to
maintain the Association in active existence and the
need fpr financial support in its initial stages, Lord
Lovat moved the following resolution :-
"That in the opinion of this Meeting a determined effort
is needed to secure the early extension in all countries of the
British Empire of a constructive forest policy, whereby the
natural sylvan resources of the Empire may be scientifically
conserved and prudently exploited for the mutual benefit of
the British Commonwealth of Nations; and further that
this Meeting recommends as eminently deserving of public
interest and support the newly inaugurated Empire Forestry
Association, which is pledged to supplement the normal
activities of official departments and bureaux by constant
education of public opinion in the matter of forest problems
and policy, by steady endeavour to stimulate the wider
utilization of the many valuable commercial timbers of the
Dominions, Colonies and Protectorates, and by the promo·
tion of mutual friendship and co-operation between forest
experts in all parts of the British Empire."
Sir GEORGE PERLEY (High Commissioner for Canada)
seconded the resolution and laid stress upon the great
need of educating public opinion on the subject of
forestry, and of the growth, preservation and proper
utilization of ti111 ber. He instanced the slow but steady
work performed by the Canadian Forestry Association,
which' is gradually disabusing the public mind in Canada
INAUGURAL MEETING OF THE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 9
of the belief that wholesale felling of forests is a matter

of little or no importance to the public weal. If the
Empire Forestry Association does no more than teach
the general public the principles and objects of forest
organization and management, it will have achieved a
lasting and notable success.
Mr. E. J. TURNER, C.B.E. (India Office), in sup-
porting the resolution, remarked that the central control
of forestry in India has now been largely delegated to
the various Provincial Governments, and that possibly
the direct financial interest in their forests now possessed
by the latter may generate an awakening of Indian
opinion and the formation in the future of forestry asso-
ciations suitable for affiliation to the Empire Forestry
Association. Meanwhile there is little doubt that the
broad outlines of the Resolution moved by Lord Lovat
'would command the approval of the Indian Government.
Mr. A. H. ASI-IBOLT (Agent-General for Tasmania)
briefly described the forlnation of a scheme for a museum
of the commercial timbers of the Empire, that is to
say of timbers which can be supplied in commercial
quantities at a price to meet foreign competition. It is
proposed to group in one room of the Imperial Institute
salnples of such Elnpire commercial timbers, with their
stresses and strains and their various uses carefully tabu-
lated, so that any official department or architect or
builder, desirous of substituting British Empire timber
for foreign timber, will be able, on visiting the room, to
see at a glance the classes of timber available and obtain
at the same tilue such complete data of speciHc gravity,
weights, stress and strain as will justify his replacing
foreign timbers with Empire produce. This is one of
the practical directions in which the Empire Forestry
Association proposes to commence its \vork; and as the
requisite testing plant is already in existence at the
Imperia~ Institute and t.he National Physical Laboratory
3:t Teddlngton, only a lIttle arrangement and co-ordina-
tion are necessary to place the scheine on a working
basis. He added that the Agent-General for Western
Australia had informed hiln that he would urge his
~o~ernment to give ~11 possible support to the Asso-
cIatIon and \vould himself become a subscriber and
member.
10 EMPIRE FORESTRY
A short discussion followed, in which Lord Novar

promised that in the proposed exhibition, referred to in
Mr., Ashbolt's speech, timbers from all' parts of the
Empire would be given equality of treatment. ''::'?
The Chairman then put the Resolution, which was
carried unanimously, and the proceedings terminated
with a vote of thanks to the Chair, proposed by Lieut.·
Colonel G. L. Courthope, M.P.
11
FORESTRY IN- THE EMPIRE.

By R. L. ROBINSON, O.B.E.
IT fell by chance to me to summarize in the Pro-

ceedings1 of the British Empire Forestry Conference the
Statements which were presented to that gathering. This
is, I fear, my chief justification in acceding to the request
to write this note.
Those who have read the Proceedings will recollect
that some thirty-three Statements in all, covering upwards
of five hundred printed foolscap pages, were received,
while a Statement for Ceylon was furnished subsequently.
The individual Statements had been built up \vith con-
siderable fidelity on an outline drawn up by the United
.Kingdom Forestry Commi~sion and issued to all parts of
the Empire in advance of the Conference. A word on
the outline itself may not be. out of place. The first five
sections dealt with the forests-their character, area and
products; the next five broadly \vith the relation of the
inhabitants to the forests-including ownership, State,
municipal and p~ivate activities, forestry societies and
education and research; the next three \vith the rate of
growth of the forests, the annual cut, forest industries and
imports and exports. The last section, entitled "Sum-
. mary and Outlook," brought together the main facts and
. detailed the steps which should be taken "to protect and
develop the forest resources of the country.11 There were
also appendices detailing forest literature of an official
character.
It will be convenient to deal with the subject under
these main groups, but it is necessary to state, at the
outset, that although the Conference undoubtedly brought
together in one place a greater volun1e of information
than had. ever before been asselnbled, there are still great
gaps remaining to be filled. This was unavoidable in a
first inquiry and the Conference explicitly recorded the
1 Proceedings of the British Empire Forestry Conference, London, 1920 ,
Published by ILM. Stationery Office, London.
12 E~IPIRE FORESTRY
fact in Resolution No. 2 (Survey of Resources) and

described (Annexure A to the Resolutions) the type of
survey required.
TABLE I.-AREA OF FOREST.
(Square miles.)
Forest
Agri- Total land

Country cultural Other land area
land Unprofit.
Merchant- able or in- Total
able accessible
--- ---- ---- - - - ----- ----- -----
United Kingdom 97,080 3,860 1,320 5,180 17,210 119,470
British India ...43 1,900 126,.110 125,160 25 1,47° 4°7,43° /,°9°,800
Canada (as a whole) 689,060 390 ,630 54 1 ,790 93 2,4 20 2,108,190 3,7 29,67 0
British Columbia 15,700 - - 149,300 188,000 353,000
Quebec.•. ... 4°,000 2°3,490 3 12 ,130 5 1 5,620 135,240 690,860
Australia-
Queensland ... 15,000 10,000 50,000 60,000 595,500 67°,5 00
New SouthWales - 17,190 - 17,190 29 2 ,270 3°9,460
Victoria ... 43,75 0 4,690 7,810 12,500 3 1,630 87,880
South Australia - 25° - 6,000 - 3 80 ,°70
West Australia 7/,830 4,77 0 21,000 25,77 0 87 8,3 20 975,9 20
Tasmania ... - 94° - I7,200 - 262/0
New Zealand ... 27,5 20 2,140 14,23° 16,370 59,690 1°3,5 80
South Africa 20,930 - - 2,360 449,8.10 473,JOO
(Union of)
Newfoundland - - - 10,000 - 42,000
British East Africa 47,17 0 3,600 1,5°0 5,100 19 2 ,790 245,060
Southern Rhodesia 2,210 18,3 00 73,200 9 1 ,5 0 0 8
5 ,79 0 15 2,5 00
Nyasaland ... - - - 3,000 -
43. 610
Swaziland ... Pra ctically nil 6,500
Uganda ... - - - 1,200 - 9 2 ,740
Gold Coast ... 10,890 1~,000 24, IJO 38,110 31,000 80,000
Nigeria ...100,800 5°,4°0 168 000 218,4001
16,800 336 J ooo
Sierra leone ... - - - I, 000 - 3 I ,ooo
Malay States ... 8,300 21,170 14,100 35,27 0 8,930 5 2 ,5 00
Trinidad ... ... 760 800 380 1,180 5° 1,990
Bahamas ... ... - - - 43° - 4,400
Jamaica ... ... - 50 I, 000 1,°5 0 - 4,200
Cyprus ... ... I, 890 630 50
3,600
680
6,000
r,OIO
1,9 6
3,5 80
~,ooo
British HOhduras 40 2,400 0
British Guiana ... 900 13,000 64,7 80 77,7'~0 10,800 89,4 80
Ceylon ... ... 4,870 4,820 15,540 20,360
-----
25° 25,480
----
1,857,5 20 9, 185,700
THE FORESTS.
Area.-The total area of forest, excluding British North
Borneo and the African and other colonies brought under
the Empire since the ~ar, is approximately 1,857,5°0
FORESTRY IN THE EMPIRE 13
square miles or 20 per cerlt. of the land area. The

proportion of agricultl1ralland is about 17 per cent. As
a criterion of forest resources area alone tells us little.
Merchantability of the timber and accessibility are what
count and on this basis it would appear that rather less
than 40 per cent. of the area or say 700,000 square miles
can be counted as U effective forest," the remaining area
of well over one million square miles being at present
" unprofitable or inaccessible." The picture, of course,
is not fixed; the "unprofitable and inaccessible" of
to-day may be "tnerchantable" to-morro,v. On the
other hand, some of the present" merchantable" forest
has rightly to make way for agriculture; some of it, as in
the past, will merely be converted into "unprofitable." No
doubt the area of effective forest must continue to shrink,
but there can he little disagreement on the essential fact
that provided the peoples have the will there is ample
area to grow the timber supplies that they are likely to
require.
'fhe distribution of forest area is very uneven. Canada
has about 50 per cent. of the total, India 14 per cent.,
Nigeria and the Gold Coast together 14 per cent., Australia
and New Z~aland about 8 per cent. The United
Kingdom, which is the greatest \\'ood consumer of all,
has less than one-third of I per cent
Forest Types.-It must be left to the practised forest
ecologist to co-ordinate the infinitely varied conditions
under which the forests grow and the manifold types of
forest. In this respect the Empire has been magnificently
endo\ved, not only as regards variety of forests but also
\vith types-such as the Douglas fir and Sitka spruce
forests of British Columbia, the eucalyptus forests ot
Australia and the l(auri forests of Ne\v Zealand, to say
nothing of the tropical forests-which for sheer magnifi-
cence are quite unmatched in the Old World. Mean-
while the main types, so far as they could be constructed
without reference to an expert, are stated on pp. 14-20.
If two main categories of forest be distinguished,
viz., coniferous and broad-leaved, it would appear that
about half the total area of forest belongs to each.
Most of the former is in Canada, while the bulk of the
latter is tropical in character. As important exceptions
to this generalization there are the coniferous forests of
,...,.
~
FOREST TYPES.
Main t}'pes Composition by species General distribution of types General growth conditions
U~ITED KINGDOM.
Oak, Querctls Robur; Beech, Fagus sJ'l-

(1) Broadleaved high forest S. and.S.W. of England. Chil- Heavy soils; Chalk.
vatiea tern Hills
(2) Coppice ... Oak, Quereus Robur; Chestnut, Castanea S. and S. W. counties ... •.. Heavy soils, old oak forests.
vesea; Ash (F. cxedsior)
(3) Mixed Conifer, broad- Oak, Quercus Robur; Scots pine, P. sylves- l\1idlands and S. and 'V. ... Old woodland areas.
leaved tris; Larch~ L. curo/tEa .•. ...
(4) Conifers ... Scots pine ... ... .... ... General. Ir.adigenous in Scotland Sandy soils, S. and E. coast.
Larch, Spruce (P. exre!sa) and various General... ". ... ". Replacing old hardwoods.
exotics
BRITISH INDIA.
(I) Evergreens Numerous spp., e.g., Calophyllum E~gellia, W. Coast, Assam, Burma, Anda- Tropical. Even high temperature,
Flcus, Garci1zia, ~fangij,ra, J.lessua man Islands, E. Bengal High rainfall and relative humidity.
(2) Deciduous Numeruul;spp., e,g., Ttak, Teetonagrandt's; Common type in remainder of Rainfall, 40-70 in. Mean tem-
Sal, Shorea roburta; Clz/oroxylon Pttro- Peninl;ula, Burma, Sub- Hima- perature approximately Soo F.
ca,tu.) layan district and Gangetic plain
(3) Dry Bombax, Bulca, Acacia and others ... Punjab, W. Rajputana and Silld Rainfall, IS in. Temperature, 25 0 -
1250 Fe.
(4) Hill Pt",:US loltgifolz'a,. Plnus excelsa; Deodar, Himalaya, &c. ... Rainfall generally exceeds 40 in.
Cedrus deodara; Abz"es Webbia1za; Que'reus High relative humidity.
spp,
(5) Tidal Mangrove, e.g., Rhizopnol'a, Bruguiera, Sundarbans, Andamans, Burma Between high and low water.
Heri#cra tomes, &c. Coast
(6) Riparian Aeada arabiea; Dalbergia Sissot'; Lager- R. Indus and tributaries Ganges, Ahundant ground moisture by per-
stroemt'a Flos Reginae; Tamarz'x &c. colation.
CANADA.
I. Padfie FIJrests ... Predominantly coniferous Mainly West of Rocky Mountains

(I) Coast type Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), 28 per Vancouver Island, Queen Char-\ Moderate temperature and heavy
t.)
cent. ; Red ce::lar (Tkuya plicata), 28 per lotte Islands and opposite coast rainfall.
cent.; hemlock (Tsuga heterophyl/a), 2S of mainland
per cent.; Sitka spruce and others
(2) Interior Dry Belt Western yellow pine (P.ponderosa), Douglas Plateau and minor mountain Dry well-drained soils, 1,500-
fir; Western larch (L. ocoidmtalis) ranges East of the Coast moun- 2,500 ft. elevation. 14-25 in.
tains rainfall.
(3) Interior Wet Belt Western cedar, hemlock and Engelmann Rocky Mountain system Rainfall, 20-60 in.
spruce (P. Engelmanni). To the South Note. -The spruce-fir-Iodge-
Engelmann and White spruce (P. Cana~ pole pine sub-type of the N.
densis) and Lodgepole pine (P. con/or/a) extends across the Rockies
and others. To N., Engelmann spruce into the foothills of Alberta
and Alpine fir (A. laszaearpa)
11. At/antic Forests Chiefly coniferous but with certain regions Roughly from the Eastern Northern climate, heavily glaciated
of broadleaved species Rockies to the Atlantic coast country with numerous lakes and
and NewfoundJand swamps.
(I) The Northern Forests White spruce, the most important species Northern Prairie Provinces, Climatic conditions severe, improv-
with Black spruce (P. mariana) , Jack pine northward to a line joining the ing from the Arctic limit of tree
(P. Banksiana) , balsam fir (A. balsamea), mouths of the Mackenzie and growth southwards.
Aspen (P. tremuloides) and Poplar (P. Churchill Rivers, the Hudson
balsamifera) and tamarack (L. laricina) , Bay and the Labrador Peninsula
as associates accordinJ:{ to local conditions excepting the N. E. corner .
(2) The Eastern Forests "To the South and East as conditions improve the other components of the (Northern Forest) type improve in
(several types not growth, and in a mixture of White spruce and Balsam fir form the great pulp-wood resources of Eastern Canada,
very clearly differ- extending along the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Newfoundland.
entiated) South of the height of land this type changes as it enters the St. Lawrence basin with the inclusion of White pine
(P. Strobus), Red pine (P. ,.,sinosa) and cedar (Tkuya occidelttalis), and the more valuable hardwoods such as
Yellow birch (B. lutea), Maple (Ace,. spp.). • • • In the Maritime Provinces and Quebec the Red spruce
(p. rubra) is found as a component of the coniferous forests of this type. This is the most important timber-
producing region of Eastern Canada."
The older part of Ontario, where the soil and climatic conditions are unusually favourable, was originally an almost
pure bard wood forest: Tulip (Liriodend,.on tulipifera), Oak (Quel'cus spp.), Hickory (Carya spp.), &c. These
forests have largely disappeared to make way for agriculture.
'\
FOREST TYPES.-Continued.
Main types Composition by species General distribution of types General growth conditions
NEWFOUNDLAND.
Coniferous ... IWhite spruce, Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) I Valleys of large rivers and banks I
' I of lakes
AUSTRALIA.
(I) Softwood Forests-
(a) Araucaria type Hoop and Bunyapines (Araucaria cun-I Queensland and Northern New I High rainfall (30 to 100 in.)
ninghamii and Bldwilli), associated with South Wales fringing the coast.
Flindersia spp. and others
(0) Jungle or Brush Numerous spp., e.g., Flindersia, Agathis, Queensland and Northern New Generally similar but moister con-
Cryptocarya South Wales ditions than (I) (a).
(c) Cypress pine Calitris spp. ... W. of coastal ranges, Queensland: Rainfall 15 to 30 in.
New South Wales
(2) Hardwood Forests Predominantly Eucalyptus. Very numerous Chiefly coastal ranges of E. Rainfall appears to be limiting
spp. adaptable to wide ranges of conditions Australia, S. Australia and factor.
S.W. of West Australia
(3) Scrub Various Eucalyptus (Mallee) and Acacias Chiefly away from coastal ranges Scanty rainfall.
(Mu/ga)
SOUTH AFRICA.
(Plantations omitted).
(I) Forest Podocarpus spp. and various hardwoods, Flanks of mountains facing the I Sufficiency of moisture.
e.g., Sneezewood (Plaeroxylon utile) Ocean
(2) Scrub Proteaceae, Ericaceae and others South-western coast region of A region of winter rains and hot
the Cape dry summers.
(3) Bushveld ... Acacia spp. and others (a) S. W. African Protectorate
(6) Basin of the Limpopo and
its tributaries
(4) Palm Belt PhQ?nz"x r6clitla/a: Hyplzaene (rinita and Littoral melt from East London
others northwards
NIGERIA.
(I) Littoral Forests-
(a) Fringing Forests ..• 'Similar to (2) ••• Vicinity of streams .. . ... Moist situation.
(b) Freshwater Swamp Lophira jJrotera, Mit1'agyne mac1'opnylla Near the coast and along large Permanently wet soil.
Forests and others rivers
(c) Mangrove Forests Rhizophora spp., Avicennia ... Along coast generally ... Between:high and Jow water mark.
(2) Tropical Evergreen Mahoganies (Khayas, Entandrophragmas) Belt 50 to 100 miles wide from High rainfall and tropical con-
Forests Chlorophora excelsa and many others coast ditions.
(3) Mixed Deciduous Forests Species very numerouS, e.g., Afrormosla Generally inland from (2) Well-marked dry season.
laxijlora, Terminalia superba
(4) Savannah Forest Numerous species, e.g., Khaya senegalensis t Inland Hot, dry winds alternately with
Pseudocedrella Kotscny; swampy conditions.
(5) Thorn Forest Acacias, e.g., A. verek, A. seyal Northern part of country Dry.
:. GOLD COAST.
(Generally similar to Nigeria.)
BRITISH EAST AFRICA.
(a) Mangrove Swamps Rkiflophora, Bruguiera, &c•.. Creeks and inlets of the coast
Between high and low water mark.
(6) Coast Forests Afzelt'a Cuanzensis and others. Coastal belt Under influence of the moisture-
laden winds from sea.
(c) Nyika Forest Thorn bush, Acada spp. and others I
Vast areas between coast and Waterless arid country.
highlands
(d) Plains Forests .. Brachy/ana Hutdu'nsU, Croton Elliotlanus Below the main mountain forests Limited to laterite soil.
and others at 5,000 to 6500 ft.
(e) Mountain Forests-
(M~iti) species, Oc~tea Usambarensis I}
{I Su~~ect
(a) Muzaiti Numerous Mts.KenyaandElgon. Slopes (a) He,,:vy rainfall: .
(6) Cedar Forests lunipe1'us jJrocera, Podocarpus spp.... ... &c.
of Aberdare Mountains 'conditions.
(b) to periodic dry weather
FOREST TYPES.-C"ntintlta.
Main types Composition by species General distribution or types General growth conditions
UGANDA.
No classification by types "" PodocarjJus spp. Juniperus jwocera... ... \ Rewenzori and Mt. Elgon Forests have not yet been thoroughly
Entandrophragma spp. Khaya spp. ,.. Vicinity of Lake Victoria I explored.
NVASALAND.
( I) Coniferous Widdringtonz'a Why!ei Mlanje mountain, 4,000- I Gullies and ravines. Rainfall, 50-
7,000 ft. 85 in.
(2) Broadleaved KlzaYQ senega/ensis .,. Vicinity of streams, 1,000-
4,000 ft. elevation
(3) Scrub Uapaca Kirkiana, Brachystegi6 spp., Acada J General throughout the country
spp. and others I
SWAZILAND.
No classification. Reference I List of useful trees includes Sideroxylon
made to High veld (practi- inerme, Curtisia faginea and others
I
cally without forest). Low
veld (chiefly wooded bush)
SOUTHERN RHODESIA.
(I) High Forest Two sub.types- Narrow mountain range on Annual rainfall, 50-80 in.
(a) With Khaya nyasz'ca Eastern border
(6) With Cusson;a umbellifera and
Eugen,:a spp.
(2) Savannah Very numerous species, e.g., Baill;lEa pluri-I Greater part of the country
juga, Copaifera mopani, Bra&hystegia spp.
MALAY PENINSULA.
(I) Littoral-
(a) Mangrove Swamp ... 1 Rh':zopnora spp., Bruguiera spp.... } Between high and low water mark.
(6) Dry... ... ", Casuarina equlsetifolia, Hibt."scus, ~D01Z- I Along the sea coast
gamia and others {I
Above high water mark.
(2) Inland
(a) Freshwater Swamps I PandatlUs spp., Zalacca spp. and others "'1 Water-logged soil, 4-5 ft. of peat
(0) Lowland ... 50 per cent. Dipte1"ocarps, Complex flola -.. Up to 2,000 ft. elevation ... Warm equable moist climate.
(c) Hill .. . Agalnis spp., Dacryditlm, Podocarpus ... Hilly country
CYPRUS.
(I) Coniferous "'1 Pinus kaiepensis,
Cedrus ieoani
Pi,IUS nigra var. iaricio, I Mountainous country generally I
(2) Broadleaved ... Pia/anus, Quercus sPI. •.• ... ... Fairly wide distribution ...
BRITISH GUIANA.
A. Easily accessible-
(I) Swamp Forest. severall RlI.izoplzora, Avlcennia, Crabwood, Carapa Low-lying country Type varies with nature (salt or
sub-types ruianenst."s~· 'Vallaba, Eperua spp.~· Mora fresh water) of inundation.
exceisa; and numerous other species
(2) Hill country. Several Greenheart, Nectandra Rodiet."; Wallaba, Chief commercial forests of the I Soil the most important factor in
sub-types. Forests Eperua spp. " Balata, Mimusops spp. and easily accessible area determining type.
known by name of others
ruling species, e.g.,
Greenheart, Wallaba
and Balata Forests
B. Not easily accessible-
tion not complete others
I
Two sub-types. classifica- Mora; Greenheart; Cedreia Mora/a, and Hinterland or mountainous coun-
try lying W. and S. of the
easily accessible area
FOREST TYPES.-CtmtinUld.
CltYLON.
(I) Montane Zone-
(a) Forest Callopkyllum Walkeri; Gordonia seylanica I South Central tableland Above 4,000 it. elevation, rainfall
and others; in course of replacement with 75-200 in. per annum.
exotics (Cupressus, Eucalyptus, Pinu! and
Atalia spp.)
(b) Patana Grass lands forming forests but destroyed
by shifting cultivalion and fire; suitable
for afforestation with soft woods
(2) Wet ZIme-
(a) Endemic Very numerous spp. dipterocarps predomin-I South West and all the foothills Rainfall 100-200 in. and over j
atinf:t; Dipterocarpus zelanicus, Doona up to 4.000 ft. fine soil, heavy rainfall and tropi-
ztylanica; DiospJlros fJuaesita cal warmth.
(b) Intermediate Few characteristic species, MIlia dubia ... Narrow strip surrounding wet Rainfall 75-100 in.
(3) Dry Zone- zone
(a) Arid •.. Scrub, low jungle and semi-desert Two-thirds of the Island and Rainfall 20-50 in.
nine-tenths of the Forest area.
Two strips on N. W. and S. E.
coasts
(0) Dry Zone proper I
Very varible in consequence of shifting culti- Largest zone of vegetation in the Rainfall so-So in.
vation ; Hemic)'clia Sepiaria, Terminalia Island
glabra, Satinwood (Ckloroxylon swieten-ia),
Ebony (DiospyYOS ebenum) and many
others
(c) Park Country Formerly forests now valueless; Terminalia Eastern Province and U va round
cnebula and others the foothills
(4) Lit/oral ... ~fangrove Swamps (Rhizophora, &c.) Heri-
I tiera littoralis
No classification by types was made, and it is impossible to construct them from the evidence in the statements in the cases of New
Zealand, British Honduras, Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermuda, Hong Kong and Weibaiwei.
FOREST TYPES.-Ct'ntinu,d.
CRYLON.
(1) Montane Zone-
Ca) Forest Callophyllum Walkeri; Gordo1Zia seylanica I South Central tableland Above 4,000 It. elevation, rainfall
and others; in course of replacement with 75-200 in. per annum.
exotics (Cupressus, Eucalyptus, Pinus and
Acacia spp.)
(b) Patana Grass lands forming forests but destroyed
by shifting cultivation and fire; suitable
for afforestation with soft woods
(2) Wet Zone-
(a) Endemic Very numerous spp. dipterocarps predomin-I South West and all the foothills Rainfall 100-200 in. and over;
atin~; Dipterocarpus zelanicus. Doona up to 4.000 ft. fine soil, heavy rainfall and tropi-
z6ylan'ica; .Dios/Jyros quaesita cal warmth.
(b) Intermediate Few characteristic species, Melia dubia ... Narrow strip surrounding wet Rainfall 75-100 in.
(3) Dry Zone- zone
(a) Arid ... Scrub. Iow jungle and semi-desert Two-thirds of the Island and Rainfall 20-50 in.
nine-tenths of the Forest :trea.
Two strips on N.W. and S.E.
coasts
(b) Dry Zone proper ". Very varible in consequence of shifting culti- Largest zone of vegetation in the I Rainfall 50-80 in.
vation ; Hemicyclia Sepiaria, Terminalt'a Island
glabra, Satinwood (Ckloroxylon swietenia),
Ebony (Dlospyros ebenum) and many
others
(c) Park Country Formerly forests now valueless; Termt'nalz'a Eastern Province and U va round
chebula and others the foothills
(4) Littoral .,. .M:angrove Swamps (Rhizophora. &c.) Heri-
I tiera lit/oralis
No classification by types was made, and it is impossible to construct them from the evidence in the statements in the cases of New
Zealand, British Honduras, Jamaica, Bahamas, Bermuda, IIong Kong and Weihaiwei.
TABLE 11.-- CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST AREA BY OWNERSHIP. (Square miles.)
State
Country Corporate Private Total
Dedicated to Other forest Total Bodies Individuals
timber production
------- 1- 1 1 1 1_
United Kingdom .
British India .
110
126,310
30
125,160
14°
25 1 ,470 '-
50
8.000 y
I 4,990
77,0001J
5,180
336,470
~69,920 93 2 ,420
Canada (as a whole)
British Columbia
Quebec ...
'0'
234,340
14,700
192 ,080
635,580
115,000
312,140
1 29,700
5°4,220
3,900
2,030
62,500
I 15,400
9,370
149,000
515,620
Au!\tralia- '------.------'
2
Queensland ... 6,25 0 46,880 53,130 9,370 62,500
New South Wales 7,880 4,620 12,500 4,690 17,190
Victoria ... 6,500 5,500 12,000 19° 3 1o 12,500
South Australia 2.50 25° 6,000
West Australia . 10 4,600 4,610 310 4,9 20 3
Tasmania . 94° 94° I7,200
New Zealand . 16,370 16,370
South Africa (Union of) 880 4° 1,440 2,360
Newfoundland ... IO,QO()
British East Africa 2,200 2,800 5,000 100 5,100
Southern Rhodesia
Uganda... ...
36,600
,I 36,600
1,200
18,300 36,600 9 1,500
1,200
Gold Coast ... 38,110 } Native 38,110
Nigeria ... ... 3,14° I 3-:;4 0 21 5,260 Communities { 218,400
Malay States . 3,200 28,570 I 3 1 ,770 2,500 1,000 35,270
Trinidad . 33° 830 I 1,160 20 .,ISo
Bahamas . I 430 43°
Jamaica... ... I 1,050 1,°5°
Cyprus ... ... 630 50 I 680 680
British Honduras.. I 6,000 6,000
British Guiana ... ."'1
.. 77,7 80 I 77,780 77,780
Ceylon ... ... 4,220 11,300 I 15,5 20 4,680 160 20,360
I 1,402 ,S;;- 1,920,170
I This area is included in "Other Lands" in Table I.

J In process of clearing for settlement purposes, which may explain differences for total area of forest in Tables I and 11.
• Mercbantable forest only.
for the whole Empire. India leads with 50 per cent.,
Canada is near the average, Australia varies from 63 per
cent. in New South Wales to one-fifth of I per cent. in
Western Australia. The proportion generally is low in
the Crown Colonies.
The area belonging to Corporate bodies is greatly
swollen by the inclusion of over a quarter of a million
square tniles in the possession of native communities in
Nigeria and the Gold Coast. .. .
Legislation.-The sum total of legIslatton relatIng to the
forests of the Empire is very considerable, hut it seems
possible to divide it roughly into two classes: the first of
the familiar Crown Lands Act type regulating the user
of the forests, and the second tnaking provision for a
more or less definite forest policy. Gradually the second
class must supersede the first, but although the present
day policy of India dates hack in its essentials to 1878
it must be confessed that in the rest of the Empire
constructive forest legislation is of quite recent origin
and as yet for the most part tentative in character.
Perhaps I may be allowed to digress at this stage
and pay a small tribute to the share which India has
taken in shaping the course of Empire Forestry. The
beginnings of Indian Forestry were perhaps incidental
to the assumption of the white man's burden, the forests
were there and had to be administered in the interests
of a teeming and apathetic people. The growing
success of the work over nearly half a century is a
concrete reminder that forestry is not merely the fad of
a few enthusiasts. But more than this the work-
administrative, executive and literary - of men like
Schlich, Brandis and a number of lesser known foresters
has introduced and expanded before the people of the
Empire totally new conceptions of the true role of forests
in national economics.
To revert to constructive forest legislation: From
1906 onwards when the Canadian Forest Reserves and
Parks Act ·was passed by the Dominion Government,
there was more or less activity in nearly all the Parlia-
Inents. Then catne the war and very soon a keener
public appreciation of the value of forests. Almost for the
first time the half-told tale of the forester fell onsym-
pathetic ears, and a number of Acts were passed em-
EMPIRE FORESTRY
bodying new legislative principles such as financial

provision over a term of years (United Kingdom); the
reservation of a given area of State forest within a definite
period of time (New South Wales); and the drawing up
of working plans (Western Australia). We are now
entering the period of reaction, and there are not lacking
signs that VOVlS made in the hour of danger are already
losing something of their poignancy.
The Forest Depa1tments and their Work.- There are
almost as many kinds of forestry departments in the
Empire as there are States, ranging from the highly
organized Imperial and Provincial Forest Services of
India, through the compact South African Department,
the somewhat loosely connected Dominion and Provincial
Services of Canada, the 1110re newly established Com-
missions, Directorates or Conservatorships of the United
Kingdom,. Australia and Ne\v Zealand and the Crown
Colonies, down to the lov."ly forest officer preparing the
way for a department in some backward country. Never-
theless it is possible to trace some common factors in
their activities. 'fhe first is the large proportion of time
expended in adU1inistrative as against technical executive
work. The areas are so large and the number of trained
forest officers so small, that this is unavoidable. Next,
U10st departments are striving to get effective control of
the forest areas, for \vithout it continuity 6f policy, which
is the sine qUll non for efficient forestry, is impossible.
Before effective control can be secured, Parliament has
usually to be satisfied that the land is not required for
agriculture and much time has consequently to be spent
in land classification and forest demarcation. Fire pro-
tection is another activity in comtTIon, and in Canada ""and
Australia at least, probably the essential and possibly the
only effective large scale measure which is feasible under
the present conditions of ,extensive working. Side by
side with fire protection is the effort to secure regenera-
tion of cut-over forests by natural lTIeans. Over and
above all this, the average forest department has found
time ,to do some planting and to encourage others to
plant and to experiment with exotic trees (and especially
with conifers where the demand for soft woods cannot
be met from indigenous forests), but it is broadly true to
say that in the great field of sylvicultural procedure the
ground has hardly been touched.
FORESTRY IN THE EMPIRE
A few exceptions are to be noticed.. Extensive planta-

tions to be reckoned in thousands of acres are now being
made annually in South Africa, the United Kingdom and
India. Experiment and resear.ch work on sylviculture
has received a great impulse in India and the United
Kingdom, and there is promise of greater activity with
regard to the investigation of forest products in Canada,
Australia, South Africa, India and the United Kingdom.
Private and Corporate Farestry.-Beyond remarking
that private forestry has played the most prominent part
in British forestry and that corporate bodies of all kinds
throughout the Empire are displaying more interest, it is
not intended to deal with this subject. It would appear
that the Association has in this direction a \vide field for
its activities.
Forestry Education. - Systelnatic forestry education
within the Empire dates froin the establishtnent of the
course at Coopers Hill by the India Office in 1885.
There are now courses for training the higher or adminis-
trative forest officer at various British and Canadian
Universities and courses for the subordinate officer at
a number of places in the United Kingdom and in India,
at Tokai (South Africa), Chisv.rick (Victoria) and else-
where. Besides these there are courses of an inter-
mediate character in the United Kingdom, Canada and
Australia. The splendidly equipped Indian School at
Dehra Dun is the centre where Indian provincial forest
officers are trained.
It is perhaps a healthy sign that the training of forest
officers has given rise to a great deal of controversy. The
issue in the United Kingdom under existing financial
conditions is broadly bet\veen having one school of the
highest excellence attainable and a number of mediocre
schools. Since the Conference the question has been
further considered by a Committee presided over by Lord
Clifton.' As far as the practising forest officer is
concerned there is at least unanitTIity of opinion. We
want the best possible training that can be given. We
lnay differ in detail as to what constitutes that best, but
we are convinced that we have not yet got it.
1 "Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Imperial Forestry

Education." Cmd. 1166. Published by If.M. Stationery Office.
26 EMPIRE FORESTRY
The research position is on all fours with education

and closely bound up with it. So little has the Empire
been disposed to encourage investigation or to afford
individuals opportunity to become efficient in specialized
lines that it has become the rule rather than the exception
to look for non-British subjects to fill specialized posts.
THE TIMBER SUPPLY.

I now come to questions which are most difficult to
answer convincingly, viz., U How do the EmpIre as a
whole and individual members of it stand with reference
to their present and prospective timber supplies? " The
current position can be gauged by considering the factors
home production, import and export. Into the prospec-
tive supply come a number of factors, some of which are
assessable, others a matter of conjecture. Among the
factors which, on paper at least, are assessable are the rate
at which the forests are being cut, the rate at which they
are growing, and the quantities of standing timber of
different ages. If these data are known for a given forest
area, it is possible to say what the legitimate out-turn should
be from period to period. Among the conjectural factors
are the growth of population and industrialization and the
kinds of timber likely to be in demand. Here we can only
argue from the past. We have to assume a great expansion
of population and increasing industrialization if our parti-
cular type of civilization is to endure. If the experience
of Britain is a fair guide the consumption of timber per
capita increases with the degree of industrialization-in
1913 it was three times as great as in 1853- The statesman
who visualizes an industrial future for his country will in
fact find in the recent experiences of the United Kingdom
striking illustrations of the importance of safeguarding
the future timber supply. As regards the kinds of timber
we know that it is increasingly the coniferous forest on
which the demand falls. .
Now the Conference statements showed most clearly
that a convincing assessment of rate of growth over vast
forest areas is an extremely difficult task, and in a number
of them it was preferred to make no estimates whatever.
It is impossible therefore to make as yet a reliable forecast
of the position as a whole and I will restrict myself to
generalities and a few illustrations.
I nlports and Exports.- It·is very desirable that figures of

inter-empire and foreign trade should be tabulated year
by year. The Conference figures did not all relate to the
same period; in some cases they were pre-war in others
war or partly one and partly the other. Details are given
in Table Ill.
As a hazard I would say that for the \vhole Empire the
total imports of wood and timber probably exceeded the
exports by IS0 million cubic feet per annum just before
the war.
That the Empire with its large forest area should even
at this stage of development find its balance on the
wrong side cannot be regarded as other than unsatisfactory.
There are two main reasons for this state of affairs: the
greatest importer (the United Kingdom) gets most of its
timber from outside the Empire, while the greatest ex-
porter (Canada) finds her largest and most convenient
ll1arkets in the United States. Apart from Canada and
the United Kingdom, we can, on the evidence of the
Statements, classify India, Australia (as a whole, but
omitting 'fasmania), South Africa, British East Africa
(as regards values), Southern Rhodesia, Malay States,
British Guiana, and various slnall countries as net
importers and Newfoundland, British East Africa (as
regards values), Gold Coast, Nigeria and British Honduras
as net exporters. '
The United Kingdom drew (19°9-1913) 88 per cent. by
volume and 83 per cent. by value of her imports from
without the Empire. Three main regions of supply may
be differentiated, viz., Northern Europe (Russia and
Scandinavia) furnishing 65 per cent. by volume of the
total imports, South-west Europe 48 per cent. of the pit-
wood imports, and North America 18! per cent. by
volume of the total imports. The imports not accounted
for above came from a large number of countries and
consisted chiefly of special woods, e.g., teak from India,
Eucalyptus CJ arrah, &c.) from· Australia, and African
mahogany from the Gold Coast and Nigeria.
The imports from Canada into the United Kingdom
amounted to 1,058,000 loads valued at £3,525,000. On
the other hand, the destination of all the Canadian
exports is not stated. The whole of the pulp-WOOd
(approximately 103 million cubic feet) goes to the United
TABLE IlL-AvERAGE ANNUAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. (Quantities and Values in thousands).
Exports Imports Balance plus or minus

Country
(1)
Quantity
(2)
! Value,(3)f.oob. Quantity
(4)
Value, c.iof.
(5)
Quantity
Col, 2-COI. 4
Value
Col. 3-Co1.S
United Kingdom (19°9-13)-

Wood and timber .•. Izo'810ads £1, 01 5'5 10,204'3 loads £27,561'4 - 10,083'5 loads - .£26,545'9
Wood manufactures '" - £2, 2110 9 - £2,695'2 - £483'3
Pulp of wood '" ". 15'3 tons £12z'8 859'5 tons £4,°5 8 '5 - 844'2 tons - .£"3,935'7
British India (1914-18)-Timber '" 1,647'9 cub. ft. £395,9 4,373'2 cub. ft. £53 1 '9 - 2,725'3 cub. ft. - 136 '0
Canada (1914-18) (as a whole)-
Sawn lumber ." .,. .., 35 6 ,689'4
" $3°,7 6 5'5 99,°7°'9 $10, 603'6 + 257,6[8'5 + $20,161'9
Pulpwood .. , ." ." ... 102,933'3 $6,4[Z'5 Nil " - + 102,933 3 0
+ &6,4 1Z '5
British Columbia·' (1919)-Overseas ,.. 9,07Z'7 " Not avaiJable Negligible Negli~ible + 9,07 2 '7 Not a vai lable
Quebec (1918) .. , ". .., 13 2 ,19 2 '3 " $I4,877'4 - $746 '5 + 13 2 ,19 2 '3 + $I4,I30'9
Australia :~ "
Queensland--Timber ." .,. . 2,000'0
" £5°0'0 6'0 cub.ft £1'5 + 1,994'0 " + £498 '5
New South Wales (19IO-I8)-Timber .. 1,633'7 £201'1 12,241 '5 £1,04 60 4 - 10,60 7'8 " - £84S'3
Victoria (I9I3-I7)-Timber ... ,., 74'9 " - [0,365'5 " - -10,29°'6 "
West Australia (I909-I9)-Timber ,.. "
181'3 loads £689'1 "
18'2 loads £97'8 + 163'1 loads + £59 1 '3
South Africa (U"ion of) (1913)-
Unmanufactured .. , .., £3'3 15,618'0 cub, ft. '£980 '8 - £997'5
Manufactured .. , ... £5'7 3,882'0 " £577'7 - £57 2 '0
Newfoundland (1909-12)-Timber 3,677'3 bd. ft. $71'1 1,632'4 bd. fto $53'9 + Z;0~4'9 bd. ft. + $17'2
British East Africa (1913-18) ... 327'4 cub. ft. £11'9 159'6 cub. ft. £16'7 + 167"8 cub" ft" - £4'8
Southern Rhodesia (1913-19) Timber 34'1 £10'5 258'1 £4 2 '5 - 224'0 - £3 2 '0
Nyasaland (1917-19) Nz"1 £0'8 - £0'8
Uganda (1913) ... £3"2 - £3"2
Gold Coast (I909- 18)-Timber 1,383' 5 cub. ft. £159'7 346'2 cub, ft, £45"0 + 1,037"3 cub. ft. + £114'7
Nigeria (1912-13)- Timber 1,3 88 '7 £9 2 '3 5 22 '8 £64"2 + 86 5'9 + £28'1
Malay States (1913-18)-
Firewood ... $1'7 $59°'5 - 95 88 '8
Planks $1,53 1 '3 $383'2 + $1,148 '1
Timber 3164'0 $1, 183'6 - th,019'6
Trinidad (I906-18)-Timber 152'0 cub. ft" £17"8 889' 5 cub. ft. £65"3 - 737'5 cub. ft. - £47'5
Bahamas (1907- 1 3)-Lumber 293"S £11'2 71"4 £5"2 + 222"4 + £6'0
Bermuda (1919)-
Lumber ... ... 46'4 £5'5 - 46 '4 -.£5'5
Manufactured wood .£18'8 - £18'8
Jamacia (t9I4- 1S)-Lumber ... 8,90 5 '9 bd. ft" £5 0 'S - 8,905'9 bd. ft. - £5 0 'S
British Honduras (1914-19)-Timber 8,305'9 bd" ft. $739"0 1,447'9 " $ 4 1 '6 + 6,85 8'0 " + $697"4
British Guiana (1915-19)-Timber 122"7 cub" ft" £15"0 337"7 cub. ft. £4 1 "9 - 215"0 cub" ft, - £26"9
Cyprus (1910-14)-Timber.~. ... ;£21"7 - £21'7
Ceylon (ten years average)-Timber 43 6 "9 RS.254· 1 541"3 cub" ft. Rs" 794"1 - 104"4 cub. ft" - Rs. 540'0
Manufactured timber RS.2,085·5 RS.2,43 2 •6 - RS·347· 1
NoteS.-(I} The United Kingdom exports include 87,500 loads, which are re-exports valued at £795,200.
(2) The Statements for the following countries give little or no information: South Australia, New Zealand, Swaziland, Wei-hai-Wei,
Seychelles, Leeward Islands, Windward Islands and Hong Kong"
(3) The above quantities are those given in the respective statements. For rough comparative purposes the following figures may be
used: I load = 50 cb. ft"; I ton = 30 to 50 cb. ft. according to species and degree of dryness; 1 broad foot = y\-th cubic foot;
I cord = I~8 cb. ft" of piled wood and contains approximately 90 cb. ft. of solid wood.
3° EMPIRE FORESTRY
States, and presumably the bulk of the sawn timber not

taken by the United Kingdom. The British Columbia
export of 9,073,000 cubic feet (1919) included approxi-
mately si million cubic feet to the United Kingdom and
the Continent, and 1,432,000 cubic feet to China. It will
be observed that while Canada is the chief timber exporter
of the Empire, she is also the second importer. Rough
lumber, oak, cherry, hickory, &c., and pitch pine are the
chief ilnports.
The Indian imports consist chiefly of railway sleepers
and Jarrah timber (from Australia) and deal and pine
timber. Teak represents about 85 per cent. of the
exports.
As regards Australia the Queensland exports are to
other States of the COlnmonwealth, while the imports
are overseas. The New South Wales exports are princi-
pally to New Zealand, the Pacific Islands and the East.
The Victorian imports are chiefly soft woods from
Scandinavia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand.
Rather more than one-third of the vVestern Australian
exports go to the Eastern States; India, the United
Kingdom, New Zealand and South Africa in that order
being the next best customers. The United States
supplied approximately one-half of the imports and
Scandinavia rather more than one-sixth.
As regards the South African imports of unmanu-
factured timber, Scandinavia supplied 10,452,000 cubic
feet, the United States 2,632,200 cubic feet, Australia
440,5°0 cubic feet, and India (teak) 92,900 cubic feet.
The imports of manufactured timber, £1°3,592, came
chiefly from Scandinavia.
Actually the movements of tinlber are far more COln-
plicated than it has been possible to indicate in the short
sketch above. It is amazing how fastidious or conserva-
tive the consumer of timber can be. Thus the broad
stream of soft woods which issues from the organized
forest countries of Northern Europe not only supplies
the nearer markets of the United Kingdom, but trickles
away to corners of the Empire where growing timber is
accounted of no value whatever.
The Drain on the Forests.-In the preceding section I
have attempted to show briefly from what sources other
than home forests some of the individual countries were
getting their timber supplies. \Ve have now to consider

what is the effect on the forests themselves.
In the United Kingdom, before the war, the annual cut
probably did not appreciably exceed th~ .annual grow~h
or increment. To that extent the posItIon was satis-
factory although the relative quantity of middle-aged
timber,' and the proportion of conifers were both far too
low. The home supplies did not meet more than ten
per cent. of the t?tal consumptio.n. The e~traordinary
cuttings made during the war fell, In the first Instance, on
the mature coniferous timber, which largely disappeared,
and on the timber of pitwood size, and then on the better
class hard woods, i.e., for the most part on the least
abundant classes. On the other hand, large areas of
inferior hard woods, which will never improve, were
left untouched. However energetically an afforestation
policy be pursued, it must, therefore, be many years
before the pre-war supplies of growing timber can be
replaced.
India is now reaping the benefits of half a century of
constructive forest policy, and it is stated that there
should be no difficulty in meeting the probable timber
requirelnents due to industrial development.
The quantity of tilnber cut for lumber in Canada has
decreased since 1912, and is still decreasing, while the
annual felling of pulp-wood is increasing rapidly as
supplies are exhausted in the United States. The outlook
appears to be assured in British Colulnbia and Quebec
with a reasonable system of fire protection. It is pre-
ferred to give no estimate of the duration of supplies for
Canada as a whole. New Brunswick intends to limit the
utilization to the amount of the increment so S0011 as
the latter can be determined.
As regards Australia, the Queensland forests are
apparently being overcut to the extent of more than
double the increment. The Hoop-pine resources of
New South Wales will be exhausted in twelve years, the
Cypress pine forests can apparently maintain approxi-
. Inately the present supply, while the hard wood forests
(under management) could maintain their present out..
turn indefinitely. Victoria has still 2,000,000 acres of
~ard wood forests ~ntouched, and a large bal~nce of
Increment over felltngs. It is safe to say for South
3
32 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Australia that the consumption far exceeds the incre..

ment, but it is anticipated that with the coniferous
plantations already formed, or about to be formed, the
State will ultimately meet its own requirements in soft
woods. The Western Australian Statement makes the
following comment: "Western Australia is going to
leeward at the rate of 500,000 loads a year over the rate
of growth of her Forests." It is estimated that fifteen
years will see the shutting down of the large Jarrah mills.
No information is given in the respective Statements
as regards the position in New Zealand and Newfound-
land.
The accessible indigenous forests of ,South Africa will
probably be more or less worked out in the next ten to
fifteen years,after which the supply of virgin timber will
be reduced by 50 per cent. unless forests at present in-
accessible are opened up. In the meantime the planta-
tions of exotic species will be developing and can be
relied on to give a steadily increasing output.
The Gold Coast and Nigeria, with ordinary care, should
maintain their out-turn of African mahogany. In British
East Africa the accessible forests are being overcut, and
satisfactory regeneration is not being secured. The in-
crement as a whole, however, exceeds the fellings, and it
should be possible to keep the position right. Southern
Rhodesia is drawing on its forest capital to the extent of
nineteen million cubic feet per annum, and in view of
possible developments, the position is considered serious.
The Malay States are developing so rapidly, and so
much forest land is being diverted to other purposes, that
it is difficult to make a definite forecast. It is stated,
however, that the outlook calls for the exercise of great
care.
The forests of Ceylon have been exploited during the
last century" from an utterly utilitarian point of view."
They can continue, with an efficient system of transport,
to supply the island with fuel for an indefinite period,
and with hard woods for possibly ten years. As regards
the supply of soft woods, on which the tea and rubber
trades depend, the total quantity of standing timber is
equivalent to only 204 days' consumption.
An even more depressing report is of Sierra Leone,
where it is stated that lack of a forest policy is resulting
not only in the rapid di~appearance ?f th~ forests, but
also in such consequentIal changes In sot! and atmo-
spheric humidity that agriculture is seriously affected.
CONCLUSION.
This picture of Empire Forestry is on the whole
gloomy. That is not to say that it is of uniform drab-
ness, but when one considers the wonderful resources
with which the Empire was originally endowed and the
prodigality \vith which they have been or are in process
of being dissipated without adequate replacement, it is
difficult to paint in bright hues.
Forestry will not flourish until it is accepted as a matter
of course by the community, that is, until it is recognized
that with forests, as with other things, there is a limit to
the process of getting something for nothing. And the
something which has to be given to the forest in return
for a continuing supply of timber is cultivation. It is
true that forest cultivation is of a different order from
agricultural cultivation, and for that reason less easily
comprehended by the lay mind; but just as modern
agriculture has from very modest beginnings become a
highly specialized industry, so in due course will forestry
develop. The advent of intensive forest cultivation is,
for most countries, merely a question of time.
The student of German forest literature is well
acquainted with the fact that in industrial countries, at
least, it pays to cultivate forests. It IS interesting, there-
fore, to find within the Empire itself-in the State forests
of India-proof that the same principles hold good with
less intensive systems of sylviculture. The gross revenue
of the Indian State forests for the five-year period, 1864-
1869, was £249,000, the expenditure £159,000,and the
surplus £90,000. Up to the five-year period, 19°4-19°9,
from 55 per cent. to 64 per cent. the gross revenue was
expended on the forests, while the surplus gradually
expanded to £773,000 per annum. For the abnormal
period, 1914-1919, the figures were: gross revenue,
£2,47 6,000; expenditure, [1,408,000; surplus, £1,068,000.
Personnel charges account in considerable measure for
the incleased expenditure. The strength of the Imperial
Forest Service has grown from about eighty in 1874-1879
34 EMPIRE FORESTRY
to 220 in 1913-1914, while the cost of the Forest Depart-

ment establishment increased from £27,000 in 1864-1869
to £406,000 in 1904-1909, and £576,000 in 1914-1919.
It may seem grotesque even to think of cultivating our
vast forest areas at a tilne when the few hundreds of
technical officers in the Empire are able to devote casual
attention to a mere fraction only of the more important
parts. But what is to happen to the remainder? It is
not practical politics to ask that it shall be exempted from
exploitation. The timber is often badly wanted while the
forest itself represents so much inert capital, the annual
growth just about balancing decay. Neither may it be
practical to ask for the expenditure of sufficient money on
technical staff and labour to secure adequate cultivation
concurrently with exploitation. There remains, there-
fore, only the alternative of exploiting the forest in such
a way that its potentialities as a forest are conservep. It
may not be possible to utilize those potentialities imme-
diately, but they should be there and ready to respond
when called upon. If this principle is accepted a two-
fold obligation arises, first on the State to be content with
something less than the full amount which could be ex-
tracted from the forest at the time of exploitation and,
second, on the forester to devise and administer wise
exploitation regulations.
I believe that from the technical point of view the
advance of Empire sylviculture will be by way of increas-
ingly intensive cultivation of the more accessible forests
and rational exploitation of the less accessible. Both
call for an immense alTIOunt of experimental and research
work.
The Inost pleasing feature is that although the forestry
movement in the Elnpire is still young, it is already
gathering considerable momentum, which in due course
should carry it over all ordinary obstacles.
35
WESTERN AUSTRALIA AS
A PRODUCER Of' FINE TIMBER.
By C. E. LANE POOLE.
THE British Empire Forestry Conference of 1920 was"

happily inspired when it suggested the formation of an
Empire Forestry Association. Forestry experts all the
world over clearly recognize that tpeir efforts must fail
of the most fruitful results, if they are not supported by a
sympathetic and enlightened public opinion on the great
matter of forest conservation. The experts themselves
can do a great deal, but from the nature of the position
which they occupy they are debarred to a very large
extent from making that close and continuous a,ppeal to
the public which is essential for the full success of their
efforts. The making of this appeal rightly belongs to
such organizations as the Empire Forestry Association.
Under the Southern Cross societies of a similar nature
have done yeoman work on behalf of the forests. It is
only within quite recent years that forestry in Australia
and New Zealand has becolue a subject for public discus-
sion. The immense forest wealth with which both the
Commonwealth and the Dominion have been dowered,
and the readiness with which timber of local growth
could be obtained for every purpose, had the effect of
engendering in the minds of a great section of the public
the idea that the forest '\vealth of the country was inex-
haustible, and this unfortunate and erroneous belief was
fostered by the readiness with \vhich those in authority
alienated vast tracts of heavily-timbered land for agricul-
tural or pastoral purposes. Settlement in Australia and
New Zealand, in short, has been accompanied by a
tremendous wastage of forests. The object of the settlers
in every case was to get rid of the timber in the quickest
'possible way, so that the land on which fine timber had
grown might be available for crops. It can readily be
understood, therefore, how there arose in the popular
EMPIRE FORESTRY
mind a belief that timber was of no value, and was indeed

an excrescence on the face of nature and a hindrance to
farnling.
The Australian Forest League and kindred Associations
have done a good deal in the way of correcting popular
misapprehension on the subject of forestry; but the in-
grained prejudice of generations is hard to eradicate, and
in many quarters still-and in quarters too where one
might reasonably look for enlightenment-there is a good
deal of apathy on the subject, and efforts to improve
forestry conditions are often looked upon with little
favour. If the Empire Association assists in dispelling
the cloud of prejudice and misunderstanding that still
hangs over forestry affairs in Australia, it will have earned
the gratitude of all lover~ of forests and of everyone who
is able to recognize the serious nature of the economic
questions involved. In no State of the Commonwealth
do more valuable forests of the finest hard \voods exist
than in Western Australia; in no State has exploitation
proceeded at a more rapid rate, and in none until within
very recent years has less been done to repair the damage.
The part which the forests of Western Australia have
played in the country's development is unique among
the States of the Commonwealth. It may be justly as-
serted that early settlement was made possible only
because of the existence of great forests of prime tim-
hers. In 1829 when the pioneer settlers landed at the
Swan River, they found themselves in a thick forest
which grew close to the seashore and along the banks of
the rivers. There were no open grass lands that called
merely for the labour of ploughing and sowing. Every
acre to be cultivated had to be won from the forests.
The for:sts, too, provided timber for house building and
for numerous other purposes. The early settlers were
none of them wealthy, and the abundance of magnifi-
cent titnber at hand seems to have suggested the idea
of export to the Mother Country. The earliest official
record of the export of timber dates from 1836; but
from other sources of information it is clear that speci-
mens of the timbers found in their new home were sent
to England by the pioneers \vithin a couple of years
of their first landing. In those early days the word
" jarrah" as applied to the State's principal timber was
HAULING A JARRAH LOG IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA BY MEANS OF A "WHIM" AND TEAM OF HORSES.
(The wheels of the" whim" are sometimes over I I feet in diameter, and the logs vary in weight froUl 5 to 25 tons.)
WESTERN AUSTRALIA A PRODUCER OF FINE TIMBER 37
unknown. The first settlers, struck by the similarity of

the timber .they found in their new home to the product
of the West I ndies, called it "mahogany." I t was
almost a generation later before the native name for the
tree, H jarrah," came to be applied.
The export of timber was a ready means of obtaining
money, while land "vas being cleared and cropped, and
the business of exportation once begun was never aban-
doned. Jndeed, it has proceeded steadily ever since,
and Western Australia rernains to-day, as it was three
quarters of a century ago, the great timber-exporting
State of the Commonwealth.
Early estilnates of the extent of the forests of jarrah
were remarkable for their liberality, and it is very
evident that these estimates included the vast areas
of sclerophyllotls \voodlands, which cannot rightly be
termed H forest," and, as these estimates were 111ade at
a time when exploration was singularly tentative and
incomplete, their unreliability becomes all the more ap-
parent. It was not until the closing decade of the nine-
teenth century that some effort was made to ascertain
the extent of the forest areas. Mr. Ednie Browne, Con-
servator of Forests, discusses the matter in his report of
1896, and estimates the total area of forest country at
20,400,000 acres.
These figures include a considerable area of country
which cannot be designated as "merchantable forest."
But in the quarter of a century that has passed since
these figures were published, a thorough survey of our
forest estate has been made, and this has shown that at
the 010St we never possessed more than 3,000,000 acres
of first-class milling timber. The timbers in regard to
which conversion has been most systematically carried
out are jarrah and karri. These have been milled regu-
larly for a generation, and to-day there are eighty mills
cutting them. The forest survey shows the areas covered
by these two timbers as comprising, roughly, 2,500,000
acres for jarrah (lnd 250,000 for karri. The heavy con-
version by saw millers has been allowed to continue
with little or no restriction, with the result that the
whole of the prime jarrah belt is now held under saw-
milling tenure, and it can only be a matter of a decade
or so before \ve see the last of the virgin jarrah forests.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
Besides jarrah and karri, the main export timbers,

there are two other valuable woods which are used
locally for the construction of railway rolling-stock and
for wheelwright work. These are tuart and wandoo .
Tuart, according to the early figures, covers 200,000
acres. This would certainly seem to be an over-statement,
for tuart is rigidly confined to a narrow limestone belt
running for some distance in from the coast, and at no
time would there appear to have been so large an area
occupied by this tree. At the present day prime tuart
country under the control of the Crown measures slightly
more than 5,000 acres, and part of this area consists of
land that has been alienated but has been repurchased,
in order that it may be reforested. The export of tuart
grown on Crown lands is now prohibited. This pro-
hibition, of course, does not apply to timber grown on
alienated land. In regard to jarrah, karri and tuart, the
forests department is vigorously pushing on schemes for
regeneration and reforestation.
Wandoo is found over a very large region, but with the
exception of an area so small as to be negligible, it no-
where assumes the quality of a forest. It is a valuable
timber and has not been exploited owing to the abun-
dance hitherto of jarrah and karri. It is likely, however,
that, with the gradual decrease of the existing supplies of
the two last-named timbers, wandoo will receive more
attention in the future than it has in the past, and will
continue to receive that attention until the reforestation
work in the main forests has borne fruit.
Jarrah and karri are well known to timber experts in
Great Britain, but the wide range of their usefulness has
not yet received the appreciation which it deserves. It
is unfortunate that in the past the principal uses found
for these timbers in Great Britain have been as paving
blocks, railway sleepers, and, to a lesser degree, the
manufacture of railway rolling stock. Yet both these
timbers are worthy of use for products of higher grade.
The Empire Timber Exhibition of 1920 contained many
examples of the highest class of furniture and decorative
work in jarrah and karri, particularly the former. It is
in these directions that British appreciation should mani..
fest itself. There is no finer furniture timber in existence
than jarrah, and one has no difficulty in understanding
WESTERN AUSTRALIA A PRODUCER Olt" FINE TIMBER 39
why the early settlers called it "lnahogany." It possesses

all the richness in colour of the Honduras product, it
takes a very high polish, and its durability is equalled by
few woods grown in or out of the Empire. Its main
physical properties indicate beyond question its eminent
suitability for building construction. These properties
may be tabulated thus : -
Weight per cubic foot (green) ..• 68 lb.
At 12 per cent. moisture 55 "
Transverse strength 15,000 " per sq. inch
Tensile strength... 15,5°0" " "
It is not absolutely resistant to white ant when in the
ground, but it possesses a higher degree of immunity
than do most tilnbers. Indeed its remarkable durability
has earned for it in South Africa, to which it is largely
exported, the name of " everlasting" wood.
~arri has all the qualities of jarrah and is somewhat
heavier, and it is capable of serving all the purposes for
which jarrah may be used. But it is not durable in or
on the ground. The physical properties of karri are as
follows :-
Weight per cubic foot (green) ... 72 lb.
At 12 per cent. moisture 58 "
Transverse strength 17,300 " per sq. inch
Tensile strength.. . 18,750" " "
Both these trees-in particular karri-are capable from
their size of producing lengths and sections of unusual
dimensions, and in the country of their origin and else-
where they compete with iron and steel in building con-
struction. It is upon jarrah and karri that the reputation
of Western Australia as a producer of the primest hard
\voods depends, and it is the object of the operations of
the Forests Department to uphold that reputation in
permanency.
The great forests of Western Australia lie in the south-
western portion of the State, between about 3 10 30'
south latitude southward to the Southern Ocean and
from the Indian Ocean eastward to about 1190 east
longitude. It is from the region named that the whole
of the timber exported has been dra\vn, as well as the
vast bulk of that used locally. Outside these limits also
~MPIRE FORESTRY
there is abundance of timber, but nowhere is it found in

quantities deserving- of the name of "forest." Sandal-
wood, for instance, is a timber which at one time was
abundant i.n the pt ime forest region, but it has long ago
been cut out : and the export supplies, as well as those
used locally for the manufacture of sandalwood oil,
come from districts lying from 400 to 500 miles eastward
of the capital and from that division in the north-\vest of
the State known as Gascoyne. For the last ten years the
average export of this valuable timber has exceeded 6,000
tons per annum, almost the whole of it being absorbed
by the Chinese market. The'sandalwood oil industry
has received recognition within this State by the reserva-
tion of an area of 75,000 square miles in the Gascoyne
division, where the wood can only be cut for the manu-
facture of oil within the State.
Western Australia is one of the great gold-producing
countries of the world, and its status in this respect is very
largely due. to the fact that in the auriferous regions there
is abundance of timber for all mining purposes. Indeed
it is this wealth of timber that has contributed more than
anything else towards the development of the great gold
industry. The timbers represented are eucalyptus, casua-
rinas and acacias, and the latter COlTIe under the vernacular
name of "mulga." Noneof the trees reach the dimensions
of their affinitie~ in the south-west portion of the State,
although here and there \vandoo of fairly representative
size is to be met. The great gold mines on the" Golden
~I Be" near Kalgoorlie, the chief centre of the Eastern
Goldfields, at the time they were opened out, drew their
supplies of timber from their own immediate neighbour-
hood, but such supplies have long been exhausted, and
to-day tramways run into the" mulga" for 100 miles or
so on each side of the centre, and from the end of these
spur lines firewood is drawn to the mines. It is estimated
that half-a-million tons of timber per annum are used as
fuel and for other purposes on the gold mines of Western
Australia.
In that vast portion of the State north of the 32nd
parallel· of south latitude, there are to be found many
varieties of fine timber, but nowhere apparently does it
exist except in savannah form. No adequate forest survey
of this part of the State has yet been made, nor has there
WESTERN AUSTRALIA A PRODUCER OF FINE TIMBER 4. 1
been any effort towards exploitation, except by settlers

for their own requirements. Cypress pine, a wood with
many fine qualities, exists in the north and north-west,
but the extent of the area covered by it has yet to be
determined. In so vast an area as that of Western
Australia (975,000 square miles), with climatic conditions
varying from the tropical to the temperate, and a rainfall
ranging from a very fe\v inches to 40 inches or more,
sharp contrasts, incongruities and apparent anachronisms
in forest contents occasion no surprise. Within the
borders of the State are to be found survivals from remote
geological time, as well as the highly developed species of
more recent ages as represented by the eucalyptus, the
acacias and other families. Such curious growths of the
south-west as the blackboy (Xanthorrhcea Preissii), the
grass tree (/(ingia Australis) and the zamia palm (~lacro
zal1tia Fraseri) speak of ages buried in the remote
geological past; and in the forests of the State these
evidences of the vast age of the country are found
growing side by side with nlodern trees.
From an imperial point of vie\v, the economics of the
forests of the various Dominions have as intimate a
relationship \vith the whole question of forest conservation
as the varieties of timber grown. So far as the develop-
ment of the State of Western Australia is concerned, it
may be said with perfect justification that no item of the
State's great heritage of natural assets has played a more
important part in its onward march than its forests. The
plain figures relating to the matter are illuminating.
When the various items are gathered together, we find:-
The total value of timber, sandalwood and
mallet bark exports amounts to ... £21,212,892
Total value of timber products used locally 9,200,000
Mining timber, estimated at ... £27,9°0 ,000
Total ... £58,312,892

It can be readily understood that the odd 21 millions
representing the export of prime forest products had a
determining effect in establishing credits for Western
Aus~ralia in the markets abroad, particularly in those of
IndIa, South Africa, and Great Britain. A continuance
of the export trade, it follows, must have an equally
EMPIRE FORESTRY
important bearing on Western Australia's relations with

outside countries, as it assists very materially in reducing
the debit against her for imports. Economically, there-
fore, its forests have been a factor of the first importance
in the State's commercial progress. This view of the
question is fully recognized by the leaders of popular
opinion in Western Australia, and the Forests Act of
1918 is a concrete endeavour to give expression to that
opinion in a manner that will conserve the forests for the
future as a valuable source of interchange.
From the imperial standpoint, Western Australia's
hard wood wealth-and for this matter the same may be
said of other States of the Commonwealth-offers to the
Motherland a source of supply of the very finest timbers,
capable of fulfilling every purpose to which wood is put.
In fact, the hard wood forests under the Southern Cross
can provide almost everything in the way of hard wood
that in the past has been imported from foreign countries.
If recovery from the disastrous wastage of war is to be
speedy, we are assured by leaders in the political and
economic spheres that the Empire must in future be
more self-dependent than it has been in the past. If this
economic theory be not translated into practice, the
default will be due largely to lack of knowledge rather
than to lack of patriotism on the part of British buyers.
Among all the agencies that are being, and will in the early
future be, employed to disseminate precise information
as to the capabilities of the various dominions, there is
every reason to believe that the Empire Forestry Associa-
tion will occupy a forelnost place. Its propaganda will
enlighten the British public in regard to Elnpire timbers
and with that enlightenment, it cannot be doubted, there
will gradually grow up a preference for the tin1bers of
the Empire.
43
FOREST FIRES IN CANADA.

By ELLWOOD WILSON,
Forester, Laurentide Co., Ltd.
QUEBEC has experienced the driest spring and early

sUffitner for many years. For over six weeks scarcely a
drop of rain fell and the woods became so dry that on
rocky slopes, where the soil was thin, the trees died
entirely. The soil in the forests was like so much tinder,
and any fires which started sprang up again and again,
after they were extinguished, and even after heavy rains
had fallen. The fire would get into rotten logs or duff,
creep along under ground for unbelievable distances, and
reappear again after everyone thought the danger was
over. Owing to a large number of men being without
regular employment, many persons were fishing in the
woods, and to them the Inajority of the fires can be
directly attributed. The railroads showed a very great
improvement in the matter of setting fire to forest, notably
the lines under the control of the Canadian National
Railway, which has been the worst offender in the past.
The number of fires caused by farmers was greater than
ever owing to carelessness in enforcing the pertnit law
and in the issuing of permits, but the damage was mostly
confined to their own wood-lots. The employees of
lumber and paper companies, working on drives and so
forth, showed a marked improvement. Many fires were
caused by people driving along country roads and throw-
ing matches and lighted cigarettes into the bushes.
When the character of the weather is taken into con-
sideration, the total losses are surprisingly small, and this
is due in great measure to the fire-fighting aChvities of
the co-operative protective associations. The cost of
fighting fires will run to a very large amount.
There are two very striking lessons to be learned from
the spring season. The first is that measures which are
entirely adequate in ordinary seasons break down in
44 EMPIRE FORESTRY
exceptional ones. The second is that the old lnethod

of patrol by men in canoes is practically useless. Travel-
ling as they do in the river valleys, they cannot see smoke
until a fire has assumed large proportions, and the only
way forest fires can be controlled is by putting them out
almost immediately. In spite of the cost, look-out towers
connected by telephones must be installed, or better still,
an aerial patrol must be established. It is absolutely
impossible for the man in charge of fire protection over
an area of say 15,000 square miles to handle it intelligently
and properly by travelling round in a buggy and canoe.
He should be at all times in personal touch with the
situation, and should not be dependent on the reports of
others. If it takes two or three days ot fatiguing travel
to get from one part of hls district to another, when he
might do the same journey in an hour and a half, he is
obviously wasting time and energy. During a dangerous
season reports are coming in all the time of new fires,
and many of these are false or exaggerated. They worry
and annoy a man exceedingly, and often lead him or his
men on wild-goose chases. If he travelled by air he
could at all times make the circuit of his district and see
every fire in one day and get back to headquarters the
next night. Being able to see just what was going on,
he could layout and direct his work much more effectively
and intelligently, a,nd save much worry and exertion.
Having all his inspectors and rangers absolutely under
his eye, they would be much more efficient, and also
people would be more careful about setting fires. In
a patrol carried out by the Laurentide Company this
spring, a daily report was received of all the fires in
a territory ([)f 10,000 square miles. The report covered
fires previously burning, with sketches and photos showing
the iareas burnt to date, new fires, giving locations exactly
eveh to the number and range of the lot, and whether
they were being attended to or not. With a plane, fires
can be reported when the first wisp of smoke rises, and
it is perfectly possible for a plane to land a man or men
at a lake near a fire to put it out and then go back and
report, and, if necessary, bring men and a gasoline pump
to the fire. With wireless, the report would be even
quicker. A report by plane would at the most mean
only one-and-a-quarter hours' flying. It is unfortunate
FOREST FIRES IN CANADA 45
that the protective associations will not employ planes.
The cost of fire-fighting alone this season would have
installed many planes and the men necessary to operate
them, and the timber lost would have paid for such
services for many years.
The fire situation in British Columbia and the Prairie
Provinces seems not to have been bad this year, as few
reports of fire have come in. In Ontario the fire-protec-
tion system instituted a few years ago seems to be working
much better than last year. Some complaints have been
luade, but the efficiency seems to be increasing. In Nova
Scotia the season has been a very bad one. This province
has been urged for a long time to appoint a forester and
to organize a proper protective system, but nothing has
been done, with the result that much damage has been
caused this year. In New Brunswick there is an efficient
fire-protection service, but this seems to have broken
down on account of exceptional weather conditions and
much damage has been caused both in the forest and by
the burning of settlements and summer resorts.
Much of the damage caused this year has been due to
fishermen. Many of these seem to be men who were out
'of work and having nothing else to do went fishing.
There seems to be only one answer to a problem of this
kind and that is to compel every man who goes into the
woods for any purpose to obtain first a permit from the
local fire-ranger. 'fhis would cost no money and would
work no hardship, and it would at the salne time make
people more careful, as there \vould be absolute proof
that they were in a certain locality. If a fire started there
they would be charged with causing it. The Quebec
Government was urged by the lunlbermen two years in
succession to pass such a law, but they refused on the
ground of the possible political consequences. The
holders of licences to cut Crown timber were told that
they had all the rights of tenants and could forbid anyone
to enter on lands under lease or make the taking out of a
permit a requisite. Of course the individuallumbermen
and even the protective associations hesitate to take such
a step, as disgruntled individuals might resort to incen-
diarism. If such were the law, no one would think
anything of it and the associations could see that it was
enforced. Strong pressure will be brought to bear on
EMPIRE FORESTRY
the Government during the coming session of the legis-

lature to enact such a law; and it is hoped that it will
be successful.
Mr. G. C. Piche, Chief Forester of Quebec, and Mr.
Edward Beck of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Associa-
tion, have just returned from a trip to Scandinavia,
France and England, where they have been looking over,
forests and into forestry conditions. Mr. Beck has
written a very interesting series of articles for the Canadian
papers, which have been widely published and which
have been read with great interest.
There are rumours of a reorganization of the Forestry
Department in Ontario. This is badly needed and it is
to be hoped that men will be chosen who have not only
technical but business ability and who will be free from
political leading-strings. This Province has great natural
wealth; but the conduct of its forest policy leaves much
to be desired. What is needed is a Department of
Forestry, free in all its branches from political patronage,
with a continuous and consistent policy. It is imperative
also to revise the method of tilnber sales and the collec-
tion of dues on timber cut on Cro\vn lands. A Com-
mission is now investigating this subject; and much
carelessness has come to light, which must have meant
a large loss of revenue to the Province. Scaling regula-
tions need to be changed and the scalers to be freed from
dependence on the lumbermen. The fire-protective
system needs to be much improved, and the excellent
ideas of the Premier on reforestation should be put into
operation without delay.
Almost all the wood-using industries are overstocked
with wood and there will be very little cutting of timber
this winter. Many men who earn their living in the
woods will be without work this winter and there will
be a considerable decrease in the revenue of the Provincial
Governments.
August IS, 19 21 •
47
TIMBER TESTING IN INDIA.

By L. N. SEAMAN, M.A., B.Sc., A.M.E.I.C.
WITH A FORE\VORD
By R. S. PEAHSON, C.I.E., F. L.S., I. F.S., Forest Economist.

Dehra Dun, 1lzdia.
THOUGH the necessity of ascertaining the strength of

timber was recognized in India as far back as 1825, it is
only quite recently that much interest has been taken in
the subject. Former tests were generally carried out
spasmodically, as necessity arose, at centres of engineering,
in machines and with devices suitable for testing iron,
steel, concrete, &c., but not so for testing such a variable
material as timber. Moreover, due to the harder and
more uniform composition. of steel, iron and concrete
as compared with \vood, the supporting devices, foot-
press and instruments for reading deflections, used for
the former were not really suitable for carrying out tests
on the latter. Then again, when testing timber, the
moisture contents and head-speed of the machine are
factors of great iluportance, a point not fully realized in
India until quite recently.
The tendency in the past has been to carry out tests on
timbers not c01l1monly on the Inarket, in order to com-
pare them with such well-known timbers as Teak (Teetona
~randis) and Sal (Shorea robusta), and this with the hope
of creating a demand. On the other hand, from "vant
of standard methods of testing such as are adopted in
Europe, America and Canada, it has not been possible
to cornpare the results obtained with those for foreign
timbers, thus limiting the chance of creating a successful
export trade.
In India we have some 2,500 species of timber of which
not 10 per cent. are on the market, \vhile in spite of the
large demand in the country itself, provided we can
certify amongst other factors the physical and mechanical
4
EMPIRE FORESTRY
properties of our timbers \ve sho~ld be able to establish a

considerable export market.
The position of affairs described above was realized
,some years ago by the Indian Forest Department, and
was prominently brought to notice by the war, so that
as soon as war ceased steps were taken to send an officer
to study the .question in the English, Canadian and
American laboratories, with the result that five testing
machines were purchased for the Forest Research Insti-
tute at Dehra Dun, .and two similar machines procured
for the Burlna forest officets, while the chief of the
section of timber testing to the Canadian Dominion
Government was engaged to start and develop the timber
testing section at Dehra Dun.
It is greatly to be hoped that this important question
of testing timber will be seriously taken up by all British
Colonies, and that a standard method of testing will be
adopted throughout the Empire, not only to develop
the splendid resources of our forests but also to put
us in a position to draw strictly cOlnparable conclusions
from our tests and so make the very best use of our
timbers.
R. S. PEARSON.
THE practice of timber testing the world over has been

of gradual growth, and in this respect India is no excep-
tion. It has grown out of necessity, and, as th.e world's
store of useful timbers has been cut into, at first extrava-
g~ntly and recklessly, Inore rec.ently under the threat of
starcity and the sobering effect of higher prices, with
some judgment and attempt at economy, the importance
of reliable testing has become more and more evident
to those concerned with the production and use of
timber.
It is known that timber testing was practised in India
very early in the nineteenth century. In Gamble's
"Manual of Indian Timbers," we find authentic records
of tests made at Cossipore as early as 1825- True, these
were somewhat crude tests, and for a long time the many
factors affecting the apparent strength of timbers were
not realized: nevertheless they were carefully made in
the light or what was known of such work in those days,
and the results have been, and till more reliable data are
TIMBER TESTING IN INDIA 49
available, will continue to be most useful. As a rule
they err on the side of indicating too high a value, but
may be taken as giving a rough comparison bet\veen the
species tested in the same way, and, by the application of
suitable safety factors, as an aid in design.
As the work proceeded the investigators began more
and more to appreciate the difficulties that surrounded
any efforts to establish reliable strength data for timber,
and to endeavour to overcome them. Many tests had to
be made and the average taken; the moisture content
of the wood had to be taken into account, conditions and
location of growth, and treatment subsequent to felling
proved to be important factors, as also did the rate of
growth. The variations due to these and to other factors,
if results are to be reliable, must either be removed or
allowed for.
Prior to the work done by Professor W. H. Everett,
Professor of Engineering, Sibpur College, the results of
which were published in 1906, little, if any, attention was
paid to the moisture content of the wood tested, beyond
a rough distinction between "green" and "seasoned"
timber. Professor Everett's work covered a period of
three or four years, during which time thirty-eight
species were tested. A few moisture determinations
were made, and the report states broadly that the
material tested contained about 10 per cent. moisture.
Each species was tested for shearing strength alon~ the
grain, crushing strength along the grain, and transverse
bending, the last-named test also including a determina-
tion of stiffness. The tests were carefully and accurately
made, and the results as far as they go are very reliable,
but the great weakness of this report lies in the small
number of tests carried out-only one to four specimens
of each species-and the fact that no account is taken
of rate of strain to which the specimen was subjected.
This latter factor, indeed, was not considered at all by
any investigator in India till about 1918, and then only
imperfectly by Mr. R. S. Pearson, in tests undertaken in
connection with aircraft ti mbers.
From 1911 to 1918 considerable testing was done by
Mr. Pearson, first in co-operation with Sibpur College
and assisted by Mr. Ballantine of that institution using
the loo-ton universal testing-machine of the College, and
5° EMPIRE FORESTRY
later at Dehra Dun with a small machine designed and

built by the Sibpur Engineering College in India. This
work marks a distinct advance in Indian timber testing,
and more nearly approaches modern standardized testing
methods than any other investigations carried out in this
country up to the opening, early this year, of the
thoroughly up-ta-date testing laboratory which now
forms a part of the Forest Research Institute at Dehra
Dun. In Mr. Pearson's work a large nunlber of species
were tested, and the number of tests from .which the
average for each species ,vas determined was, though
still small, considerably larger than in Professor Everett's
work. Of particular interest are two reports on the
relative strength of natural-grown and plantation-grown
teak, published in 1911 and 1913 as ~""\orest Bulletins
No. 3 and No. 14. The same investigator in 1918 re-
ported on forty-three different s,t)ecies of wood for air-
craft purposes, and also suggested a number of species
as possible substitutes for black walnut as rifle stocks.
These species were made up into rifle stocks at the
Government Rifle Factory at Ishapore and subjected to
service tests at the School of Musketry, Pachmarhi, C.P.
Professor W. H. James, Principal of Madras College
of Engineering, is another investigator who has contri-
buted largely to the present available data on the strength
of Indian timbers. Under his direction eight separate
lots of teak and twenty-four other species were tested
and the results published in 1916. This, like other work
of its kind done in India, lacks conformity to standard
practice. The moisture determinations, while more com-
plete than Professor Everett's, were still insufficient, and
the effect of rate of strain was neglected. The number of
tests made on each species was also small.
In 1918 the Forest Economist was deputed to study
the progress made, and methods employed, in timber
testing in the United States, Canada and England. As
the result of his work a new laboratory has now been
opened at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
Methods which have now been thoroughly standardized
in the two former countries, which have the oldest and
best timber testing laboratories in the world, have been
exactly followed, and their machines, appliances and
instruments duplicated. In addition to this, the machines
TIMBER TESTING IN INDIA
used at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, have

also been duplicated, and the writer, who was one of the
original staff of the Forest Products Laboratories of
Canada, at McGill University, Montreal, and till recently
the chief of the division of timber testing in that Institu-
tion, has been engaged to inaugurate and take charge of
the new laboratory. Thus equipped, India is now in
a position to produce results strictly comparable wilh the
published results of many thousands of tests conducted
in Canada and the United States, and to make direct
comparisons between these results and those obtained by
the Royal Aircraft Factory. Already considerable work
has be'en done of great value to the country, and the
laboratory will pay for itself many times over in increased
revenue from forest sources directly attributable to the
data which it is daily making available to the timber-
using industries.
L. N. SEAMAN.
THE SYLVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF
THE MORE IMPORTANT TIMBER-
PI<.ODUCING EUCALYPTS. l
By G. E. BROCKWAY.
INTRODUCTION.
IN dealing with this subject we have numerous diffi-
culties with which to contend, arising in many cases
through lack of reliable data. As in most other young
countries, there was no sound forest policy framed, nor
indeed was there any thought of conservation of timber
in A ustralia. Before reliable data were obtained on the
subject of our titnber wealth most of the people regarded
our Eucalypt forests as of unlimited extent. They did
not think it possible that in a little over a hundred years
from the time when the first of these forests were opened
up for cutting, our timber would be practically exhausted,
and the various forest departments would be doing all in
their power to restore these forests to a normal state again.
Nevertheless such is the case.
:Furthermore, up till quite recently the forests were
regarded by a great many people as simply a mass of
lumber which must be removed from the land as quickly
as possible, in order to make room for crops that yield
quicker returns. As a result of this idea very little pressure
needed to be brought on the various State Governments
to cause them to hand over their forest land to selectors.
As a result, no\v that forest demarcation has been com-
menced, it has been found that most of the timber lands
which can now be reserved without the incurring of great
expense, are either on very poor soil, or are situated in
localities where difficulty of transport prohibits any
operations being undertaken at present.
1 This essay was awarded by the Council of the University of Adelaide

tbe special prize given by the Right Hon. Viscount Novar. It is bere
reprinted by kind permission of the authorities of the University.
TREATMENT OF TIMBER-PRODUCING EUCALYPTS 53
It was not, however, the land selectors alone who
profited by the lack of foresight, but the timber millers
also. They obtained land at a ridiculously low rental, and
timber at a royalty which was equally low, while no thought
was given to the insertion of clauses in the agreements
which would ensure a good regeneration of timber.
As a result of the various evil influences at work, the
forests over the greater part of Australia are in a most
abnormal condition. ·The forester has many difficulties
to contend with in dealing with the regeneration of these
forests, and perhaps the greatest obstacle of all in his path
is the difficulty of winning public opinion to his side.
As regards the abnormal conditions of the Eucalypt
forests, the first, and probably the worst condition, is to be
found on areas taken up by some settler who has ring-
barked all the timber in the hope of obtaining food for
his stock. The result in heavily-timbered country is
disastrous both for the forester and the farmer. The
ever-recurring bush fires pass through and sweep awa.y
the crop of regrowth which almost invariably follows the
ringbarking, and in a few years the forest yields place to
dense scrub, while great clumps of unhealthy stool-shoots
occupy the place of the original trees. As an example of
this type of forest-condition we might cite the twenty
thousand acres of jarrah country around the Mundaring
Weir (W.A.) \vhich was ringbarked some eighteen years
ago. Recently the folly of this act became apparent, and
the Forest Department was called upon to restore the
forest to a normal condition; but this can only be done
at great expense, and after the lapse of a very great
number of years.
The second type of abnormal condition which now
detnands attention is by far the most common. This
occurs in places where the forest has been leased to saw-
millers and hewers who have taken out all the good
timber, leaving only small trees and over-mature or
otherwise faulty trees. (This is not the place to deal
with the evils of the minimum girth felling system, &c.)
This state of affairs, although very bad, is preferable to
that first cited, for at least two reasons. Firstly, because
the standing timber left has suppressed most of the under-
scrub, and secondly, because it is possible to obtain
natural regeneration.
54 ~MPIRE FORESTRY
Lastly, we must mention the virgin forest, comn10nly

known as H maiden bush." The extent of this type of
country is diminishing before the onslaught of the saw..
miller. It is satisfactory to note that what little of this
country is left is being treated somewhat better than it
would have been some years ago. Nevertheless the
system leaves much to be desired, as many of the n1ilIers
have a fairly free hand and work under conditions drawn
up many years ago. Certainly the best way to treat this
type of forest \vould be to work it under some for111 of
group systelu or selection system, in \vhich the ~arking of
trees rested \vith the forester and not with the saw-miller.
In fact, the minimum girth systeln is nothing luore
nor less than a faulty selection systeln, in which the
selection is left largely to the tilTIber-getter. By this
method many trees which are putting on good increment,
although over the minimum girth at breast height, are cut,
while many stunted trees which are belo\v this liluit, but
which should be removed, are left standing.
LOCALITY.
When we speak of locality we have to deal with quite
a large number of subjects, the chief of which are soil,
slope of the land, cliluate, rainfall and its distribution
throughout the year,. winds and atmosphere. There
appear, however, to be other factors besides the above
which govern forest gro\vth, as it is not uncommon in
many of our Eucalypt forests to find two patches of land
~djacent to one another bearing different species of
Eucalypts, although the land appears to be the same in
every respect.
In assessing the quality of a locality for planting we
have to deal with Inatters not included in the list given
above. For n1any years to come the greater part of the
sylvicultur~l work to be carried out in our forests \vill deal
with trees indigenous to the locality in which the work
is being carried out. There is not the same risk of failure
incurred as when introducing exotics,as one is able to
judge lar~ely from the original crop what class of crop
should be expected. Here, again, we are partly held up
by. lack of data, as very little of the land that has been cut
lover was classified, so that it appears at first rather diffi-
TREATMENT OF TIMBER-PRODUCING EUCALYPTS SS
cult to judge what the original crop ,vas like. Fortunately
the luore valuable Eucalypts are very durable, so that the
stump and top lie for many years on the ground, often, of
course, being considerably burnt about by bushfires. By
taking into account these stumps and tops, the foresters,
who do the classifying, are able to make an approximate
calculation of the timber originally on the land.
Another factor which is made use of to some extent is
the association of trees with various types of scrub. It is
a very noticeable fact that certain plants are found always
on the saUle types of soil, and usually associated with one
another. This should prove a fairly reliable guide, but as
yet such data as are available are scanty and in many
cases contradictory.
With scientific forestry in its infancy in this country,
we cannot afford to make many mistakes, because, firstly,
with the present grants allowed to the departments, every
penny lnust be put to good use, and secondly, any failure
is liable to arouse public antagonism.
The method at present employed for the restocking of
large areas is to pick some area which is known to have
carried a good crop of timber, and using that as a nucleus,
to work away from it. Of course as the '''ork proceeds
one is able to obtain much of the necessary data and so
can pursue the work with an increasing amount of
confidence.
SOIL.
As there are about 220 species of Eucalypts known, and
possibly eighty of these are producers of tilnber, it is not
to be wondered at that we find one or more species
attaining its finest development in each type of soil in
the continent.
In countries in which the rainfall is distributed over
the greater part of the year, the surface soil is of greater
importance than the subsoil, but the reverse is the case
in Australia. The Eucalypts are xerophytic in their
structure, and very few of them are found in marshy,
undrained localities. There are, of course, exceptions to
this, e.g., Euc. rostrata and Euc. robusta.
Those Eucalypts \\-hich grow in the drier regions are
noted for the great distance to \vhich their roots penetrate,
but those which are found in the damper localities usually
have their roots nearer the surface.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
Coming back to the questton of subsotl and moisture,

we find that Eucalypts usually thrive most where the soil
is retentive, and holds a good store of moisture. If the
bedding in the subsoil is somewhat inclined it is better
than if· it is horizontal, as in the latter case the roots find
great difficulty in penetrating it. If the soil above the
subsoil is deep, and perm:ts the passage of water through
it, so much the better, as less evaporation can take place
through it; furthermore, the root-system of the tree
penetrates farther, which means stability for the tree. It
is a noticeable fact that trees which thrive on a shallow
soil, where there is a plentiful rainfall, need a much
deeper soil where the rainfall is not so heavy.
Some interesting notes were recently published in the
Forestry Journal, in which the authors revealed some
rather interesting facts regarding the deep-rooting nature
of the Eucalypts. Examples were given showing the
great amount of importance that is attached to subsoil
moisture.
(1) It was pointed out that in Queensland, in districts
with a 3S-in. rainfall, the forests of Hoop pine almost
invariably flourished over a dense jungle undergrowth.
The effect of this undergrowth was mainly to form a
thick mulch on the ground, and so preserve the surface
Inoisture. rrhe ironbark (Euc. paniculata) forests growing
in the vicinity had very little besides grass growing close
to the ground. It was noticed, however, that wherever
the jungle spread in amongst the ironbark, the latter tree
appeared to deteriorate. This is due to the jungle, which
conserves the moisture in the surface layers of the
ground, depleting the moisture in the subsoil, and so
robbing the Eucalypt.
(2) As a further example the Murray river red gum
(Euc.rostrata) was cited. It appears that the surface soil
is often washed away in flood time but the trees are not
affected. In the hot weather the surface soil bakes hard
and cracks, but the trees still remain healthy, showing
that they must be depending on the subsoil for their
mineral salts and moisture.
However, with all its deep-rooting qualities the
Eucalypt, we must admit, is not the ideal forest tree for
dry areas. It appears as a general rule that the quality of
the Eucalypt forests increases as we pass to regions of
heavier rainfall. This does not necessarily mean that we

must always approach the coast to see a good forest,as
very often high altitudes, as in parts of New South
Wales, cause a greater deposit of moisture at some parts
of a district than at others.
The sugar gum and the blue gum (E. globlllus) give
the best results in the dry areas, but even these leave
much to be desired, as the following data compiled at
Bundaleer (20-in. rainfall) show : -
Species Age Vol. of timber per acre
Pinus insignis 26 years 6,000 cubic feet
Euc. globulus 30 " 3,000" .
Euc. corYllo-calyx 30 " 2,4°0 "
The pines were healthy and appeared to be putting on
good growth. The blue gums had become "stag-
headed," while the sugar gums which seemed past their
prilne had a crop of grass three feet high growing under
them.
Sugar gums when planted fairly densely on dry areas
often put on phenomenal growth for a few years and then
suddenly show signs of dying off. This is due to their
extracting the water \vhich has been stored up in the sub-
soil, and when that water has been used up they have to
exist solely on the annud.l rainfall.
As a tree for a damp climate the Eucalypt presents a
much more pleasing picture. On Fraser Island (Old)
which has a rainfall of about 60 in., but a very poor soil
consisting mainly of drift sand, Euc. pilularis (blackbutt)
has reached a height of 60 ft. and tallowwood (Euc.
microcorys) 50 ft. in six years. During a period of five
years the most successful conifer reached a height of
22 ft.
The Eucalypts are not a genus which improves the soil
to any extent. Their o\vn leaves make very poor humus
and where the rainfall is scanty they prevent any under-
wood from gro\ving and forming a mulch. In the
damper localities, e.g., Gippsland, Tasmania, S. W. of
Western Australia, there are a great many shrubs forming
an underwood, which supplies the ground with a mulch.
In these forests the deep-rooting nature of the genus
becomes rnuch less apparent, and it is not unusual to see
uprooted trees, whose roots have not penetrated more
than about 2 it. into the ground.
EMl'IRE FORESTRY
Furthermore the Eucalypts, except during their early

life, offer very little shade. Their tops are naturally
.sparse, especially if they are planted closely, and the sun
has almost free play on the surface of the ground.
With regard to the effect of wind on Eucalypt forests,
as yet very little research has been carried out. However,
one is quite safe in saying that the general principles in-
volved are the salne for Eucalypts as for any other genus.
Some Eucalypts thrive in the most exposed situations on
high poor land, while others are found only in well-
protected gullies. Only by a study of each individual
species is one able to arrive at the amount of exposure
which it is able to stand.
With regard to the atmosphere, we again have great
variation. A microscopic examination reveals the fact
that the Eucalypt leaf is typically xerophytic in its struc-
ture. The stomates are very well protected. The manner
in which the leaves of a species are suspended often act
as a fairly reliable guide to the average humidity of the
air, in the district in which it is found. Those which
grow in very hot dry areas offer as little leaf surface as
possible to the sun, and hence you find the edges of the
leaves usually facing the direction from which the sun
strikes them with the greatest intensity.
Impurities both gaseous and solid in the air, which one
almost invariably finds in big cities, have a very serious
effect on Eucalypts. As a result those trees which are
found near towns are very often unhealthy.
Another factor governing the quality of a locality is the
slope of the land. Most Eucalypts prefer sloping ground,
because it is well drained, but those trees grown low
down on the slopes are usually in better soil, and grow
more rapidly than those higher up the slope. Some
authorities state that the trees prefer the southern and
western slopes, which are cooler, but this must vary with
the district, as the prevailing winds would play a great
part in modifying such conditions.
COl.LECTION OF SEED.
Whenever a species ot Eucalypt or In tact any plant is
to be taken to another locality at some great distance
away, the usual method is to take the seed. The question
now arises, how is this seed to be obtained?
The procedure is as follows: The seed capsules are

collected before they have c0111menced to dehisce. They
are then piled on a piece of tarpaulin or some form of
cloth which is not so coarse that the seed can pass
through it. After a fe\v hot days the capsules open and
the seeds fall on to the cloth. It is said that there is a
larger percentage of fertile seeds towards the top of the
capsules than at the bottom, so that the seed first collected
should be the best.
The great drawback to this method lies in the fact that
it is usually tpe short and bushy trees which have the
greatest amount of seed capsules, and even if the good
timber trees bear seeds they are very difficult to obtain.
From this it follows that if some species of tree be tried
without very much success in a locality, one may be led
to believe that the locality may be at fault, \vhereas the
\vhole trouble may be due to some hereditary defect in
the trees themselves.
The only remedy is to obtain seed capsules from timber
trees which have been felled. If felling operations are
not being carried out, it is possible to spread out a piece
of canvas under the tree and catch the capsules as they
fall. This method, however, could not be used for
collecting seed on a large scale, as the capsules do nut all
fall at once, and only a s111all percentage which do fall
can be collected in the canvas.
Furtherlllore, some of the capsules dehisce while still
on the trees, and so the seed is blovvn away and the
capsules are left useless.
Owing to the lninute seeds possessed by many species
of Eucalypt one lnust take care that they are not blown
away by wind. As a rule, the larger the tree, the
smaller are its seeds, so that there are about 10,000 seeds
in an ounce of cleaned Euc. globulus seeds.
RAISING SEEDLINGS IN A NURSERY.

Nursery work is not of very great importance with
Eucalypts, as they do not lend themselves very kindly to
transplanting. This is due to the quiescent stage of trees
in this climate being uncertain, both in season and
~uration, and also to the dry nature of the air, making
It dangerous to expose the tender roots, except during
the wet weather.
60 EMPIRE FORESTRY
I have not heard of Eucalypts being raIsed successfully

on a large scale in open nursery beds. This is due not
only to the reasons above stated, but also to the fact that
they form long tap-roots, which are usually broken when
the plants are lifted. It might of course be possible to
remedy this to some extent, as is done sometimes with
conifers, firstly, by not planting in deep loose soil, and,
secondly, by cutting the ends off the roots by means of a
spade some time before the transplanting is to take place.
Another difficulty would be met when it came to the
question of bedding back trees left over after the year's
planting operations had ceased. By the next season the
trees would probably be too big to do anything with
at all.
We are now left with two methods of raising Eucalypt
seedlings in a nursery :-
(I) Raising in vessels such as flower pots.
(2) Raising in bamboo tubes.
These methods, especially the former, are very expen-
sive, and are of more interest to growers of ornamental
trees than to foresters. The second method is the less
expensive, but trees raised in this way show poor root
development. In fact, trees grown in this way may
remain stunted all their life as a result.
(I) RAISING SEEDLINGS IN FLOWER POTS OR IN

SHALLOW PANS.
These should be about 3 in. in depth, with a layer of
some porous material, e.g., charcoal, at the bottom. The
soil is pressed down firnlly and seed is sprinkled on it.
If small, this seed should be pressed in, but with larger
seed a covering of earth about three times the thickness
of the seed itself is required.] One of the advantages of
this method of planting is that watering can be carried
out by standing the pots in water, thus preventing the
surface being broken. Secondly, if the plant is removed
carefully, it suffers no set-back when transplanted. As
we mentioned before, the reason why this method is not
in more general use is that it is very expensive.
I No/e.-Only one plant should be left in a flower pot. If there are more
than one the roots become tangled and break when trees are separated.
(2) RAISING SEEDLINGS IN BAMBOO TUBES..

This method originated in India, but was introduced
into the State about forty years ago. The great difficulty
in the early days was to obtain supplies of bamboo.
This difficulty was overcome by using the stems of a
certain reed which had been introduced from Southern
Europe. The reeds were cut into lengths of about 3 in.,
and were left for at least a year to rot partly, before seeds
\vere planted in them. In arranging the tubes the
following method is used.
A shallow box is made not more than 4 ft. in width,
with sides about 5 in. or 6 in. in height. This may be
any length required. The bottom may be either of board
or of concrete.
About 2 in. of loaln is no\v placed in the box, and the
tubes, standing on end, are packed tightly on top of this.
They are all beaten down until all their tops are level.
Soil is then sprinkled through a sieve into these tubes,
and this is forced in tight by beating it with the back of
a spade. Several seeds are then placed in each tube and
covered over. Some form of covering is placed over the
beds at a height of a few feet. This should be made of
calico, or similar material; it prevents the direct rays of
the sun beating down on the bed. In very rainy weather
dri ps are liable to fall from the covering on to the tubes,
and splash the seeds out, so that it becomes necessary to
cover the beds temporarily with a piece of tarpaulin or
such material as is used for tent-making. The sowing
should be so timed that the seedlings are about half an
inch in height by the middle of March. They can then
be thinned out, leaving one healthy one in each tube.
If any roots protrude through the bottom of the tube,
they should be broken off. As the plants grow older,
they should be exposed for longer periods each day, and
so become hardened. By July or August they should be
ready to plant out.
TRANSPLANTING FROM NURSERY TO OPEN GROUND.

Those plants which have been gro\vn in pots should
be removed without breaking the earth about their roots.
If it is noticed that the root has become too long, and
EMPIRE FORESTRY
has coiled around the bottom of the vessel, it should be

straightened out, or if it is far gone, the coiled end should
be cut off. If carefully transplanted the trees should
suffer no setback.
Plants grown in bamboo tubes must be H hardened off It
before transplanting. The whole tube is put into the

ground with its top just above level with the surface.
After a time the tube rots and splits and the trees are
freed. Any time during the wet weather will suffice for
planting operations, unless frosts, &c., prevent them.
Of far greater importance than the methods just dealt
with is the raising of the seedlings in the places where
they are to grow into forest trees. The amount of seed
required per acre varies \\Tith the species (it is usually
about 2 lb.). The method of obtaining natural regenera-
tion will be touched on when we deal with the various
sylvicultural systems employed.
When the seed is sown broadcast, it must be mixed
with dry sand, on account of its Ininute size. It may
then be so\vn by hand, through a drill, or by means of
an atitomatic broadcaster. When seed is planted in this
\vay, it is often advisable to plough the land first. This
should not be done if it is considered too expensive, nor
where the ground is light and snuffy.
Dibbling may also be resorted to. This consists of
loosening up small patches of soil, and sowing a few
seeds in each. This sowing should never be too deep.
Very often it has been found advisable to broadcast
wattle seed throughout the area. The young wattles
grow at an enorn10US rate, and act as nurses, i.e., they
protect the young Eucalypts from frosts, winds, &c. The
sowing of these must not be so dense as to suppress the
more important trees. At the end of about six years the
wattles may be stripped, and so provide a small return
from the forest.
Sowings of these acacias nlay be made throughout the
rotation. In lnost of our forests a light underwood of
wattles is all that the Eucalypts will stand. Most shade-
bearing species appear to do more harm than good in the
Eucalypt forests, except in those situated in regions of
very high rainfall.
Observations made in the extra-tropical forests of
Australia point to the fact that, in most cases, the forest
must be purely of one species of Eucalypt, or a mixture

'Of two or more species of the same genus. Owing to the
limited· supply of water available, surface-rooting trees
are usually out of the question. Occasionally one finds
·a sparse underwood of Banksia or Casuarina, but these
:are of no importance. It is only in the very wettest parts
that dense scrub is found, such as one encounters in the
karri forests of Western Australia.
It may be mentioned that the late Sir David Hutchins
advised the planting of Pinus pinaster amongst the jarrah
forests. As the experiment has not yet been tried, we are
unable to give any further information on the subject.
Possibly the capacity of the soil for storing water would
influence such a forest to a great extent.
EFFECT OF FOREST CONDITIONS ON THE EUCALYPTS.

There are some genera which when planted very
sparsely retain their great height-growth, while other
genera show a marked tendency to form a large spread-
ing crown. In the first type we find the Araucarias, and
in the second we find the Australian cedars (Cedrellas).
The Eucalypts form an intermediate class. Some
species, especially those found in dry areas, show a slight
resemblance to the first class.
Very few show a 'marked resemblance to the second
type, but the species Euc. rostrata may be regarded as
something of an exception. If grown in the open, this
tree develops a big crown and a short bole, and although
in such a state it is rather ornamental, it is of little use
froIn a commercial point of view.
By carefully regulating the density of a crop of trees,
the forester is enabled to produce trees of the type he
desires. He has to avoid overstocking, as this entails
weak trees and consequently a poor increment. On the
-other hand, he must avoid understocking, as most
Eucalypts, when grown in the open, produce short
boles.
SYLVICULTURAL SYSTEMS•
.Before dealing with the actual work of thinning, we
wIll mention the various systems under which timber
trees are grown.
5
EMPIRE I"ORESTRY
These are as follows :-

-A.-High Forest.
(I) Worked under the clear cutting system, with (a)
natural regeneration; (b) artificial regeneration.
(2) Regeneration (natural or artificial) under a
shelter-wood
(i) Compartment system.
(ii) Group system.
(iii) Selection system.
B.-Coppice. Worked under a clear cutting system.
C.-Coppice with standards. This may be regarded as
part way between A and B.
There are innumerable possible -modifications for any
of the above systems, depending, of course, on local
conditions. Possibly the most important of such sys-
tems is the It two storied high forest." In this there are
two species at least, and the mixture must include a fast-
growing light-demander and a slower growing shade-
bearer.
Then again we may have U high forest with standards."
The above systems will now be dealt with separately.
At the sanle time we must bear in mind that they are little
nlore than, names in this country.
A.-HIGH FOREST.
Clear Cutting System.
This system has been carried out in various parts of
Australia where the forests have been reduced to such a
condition that they contain practically no marketable
trees or no young trees which are likely to produce such..
When a seed year arrives the timber on the area is
felled, and as much of it as is of any.use is removed.
The tops are stacked, and usually a fire is sent through.
This burns off much of the litter and undergrowth, thus,
making a good seed bed. It also opens up the seed
capsules, and the seed is allowed to escape. Trees grown
under this system are practically all of the same age.
Although this system appears the simplest, and requires
less skilled supervision than others, we must remember
that it is not without its drawbacks. There is very little
" protection from extremes of climate, winds, &c.
For forests worked under this system fresh areas must
be planted up every year or every few years. With the
Eucalypts, unless one is going to the expense of artificial
planting, which is unlikely, regeneration can only be
carried out when there is a seed year. Thus, suppose
there is a seed year about once every five years, then that
period separates the ages of the different stands. Every
stand must represent an area equivalent to five years'
cutting.
It is, of course, possible to clear fell an area and sow
on it seed which has been previously collected. In this
case we run numerous risks. It is obviously not possible
to put as much seed in as would be deposited in a good
seed year, and so by the time the ants and other insects
have taken what they require, there may be very little left
to germinate. Then there is the chance that the seed is
inferior on account of age. We also pointed out pre-
viously that much seed which is collected is from inferior
stunted trees which hand many of their faults on to their
offspring. In the introduction of seed from other
localities we run the risk of its not being true to name,
as was the case with most of the Euc. rostrata seed (really
Euc. viminalis) which was introduced into California.
Lastly, we mllst not forget the extra cost incurred in
the collection and sowing of the seed.
(To bt Continued.)
66
THE AUSTRALIAN FOREST LEAGUE.

By W. RUsSELL GRIMWADE.
(President of the League.)
IN 1912 a small body of enthusiasts banded themselves

together in Melbourne under the title of " The Australian
Forest League," and entered upon a deliberate pro-
.gramme of forest education for the benefit of their
country, and in the eleven years that have passed since
then sufficient has been achieved to justify most fully the
labour and thought that has been expended upon the
movement.
The Australian Forest League was conceived and exists
.as a federation of separate corporate leagues existing in
each of the six States of the Common\vealth. Naturally
some of the branches are more active than others, but
each is the nucleus of a body which exercises a most
beneficent influence on the home policies of the State
Governments. Those who are interested in the forma-
tion of this body saw clearly at the outset that, if the great
question of forestry was to secure proper attention in
parliamentary debate, it was necessary to embark on a
-campaign of education and propaganda. This has been
the guiding policy of the various branches for the past
few years and during that period a very ready and quite
satisfactory response has been made by the general
-community.
It is natural that in the settlement of a new country
little attention is as a rule paid to the conservation of the
natural resources that abound on all sides. In the early
years of Australian history her forests were regarded, like
her mines, as property to be explored, exploited and
marketed with all expedition, without any thought for
the future. The total forest area of Australia is only
about 6 per cent. of its total area, but however low this
proportion is, compared to that of other lands, the abso-
lute area of forest is considerable, and is composed of
THE AUSTRALIAN FOREST LEAGUE 6'7
trees that yield timbers for all purposes, but especially
hard woods and cabinef-making timbers of magnificent
quality and unlimited adaptability.
So much public attention in the last few years has
been devoted to the question of Australian woods that
the average Australian has begun to ask himself whether
the quantity of this material is unlimited, and to learn
that it is not. Consequently the idea is becoming preva-
lent that Australia in the past has been living most
unwisely on her capital in forest products and so "out-
running the constable." This fact is responsible for the
prevalence of a desire to live on our interest. To do
this we must assess our capital and know our rate of
interest. In other words, we must have authoritative
surveys, we must know the areas which are unalienably
appropriated by the State Governments, .we must know
the annual growth per acre of these woods, and generally·
we must regard our forests exactly as we regard our
wheat fields, as a crop. That an annual rotation in the
one case becomes a rotation of two generations in the
other is merely a matter of degree. The main fact is
that the Australian communities are developing a proper
forest con~cience, which demands in the first case that
the nation's forests shall be controlled by experts in I
perpetuity for the COlnmon benefit.

To assist the progress of this ideal has been the object
of the Australian Forest League; and it is gratifying to
record that in the last decade happy relations have existed
between the League and the different Parliaments that
control the Forest Officers. Bv the dissemination of
various facts and figures, Australians are beginning to
realize that as a compensatIon for the small area of
wooded lands they have " whole" forests consisting at
most of two or three species of one genus. Three-
quarters of the vegetation in Australia is of the genus,
Eucalyptus; and natural forests extend in places for
hundreds of miles, composed entirely of two or three
species of this genus. There are over 200 species of the
genus that are well defined and characteristic in their
timber and growth. The various species yield woods-
all hard woods-of character and appearance varying
from that of mahogany to that of English oak, and the
worst that may be said of many of these intrinsically
68 EMPIRE FORESTRY
lovely woods is that they make fine sleepers and paving

blocks.
The policy of the League is to strive to focus attention,
and secure deliberation, upon forest matters in Parlia-
ment, believing that the national aspect of the subject
demands this, and to secure a control of forest areas that
shall be continuous and unbroken by the hazards and
chances of parliamentary elections. In some of the
States this has been most happily achieved by the forma-
tion of Forest COlnmissions, in which are vested the
control of the State's forests, which are free of party
politics, and which derive their revenue from the forests
themselves and are responsible for their own expenditure.
Such of the States as have established their own Forest
Commissions have reason to feel that they are on the
right road towards the conservation of the forest, and
towards the proper utilization of the country's great
natural asset
THE DOUGLAS FIR FLAGSTAFF
AT KEW.
By F. R. S. BALFOUR.
IN the spring of 1911 the writer was in British Columbia,

and while in Victoria he had an opportunity of meeting
the Premier of the Province, the Hon. Sir Richard
lVlcBride. He then made the suggestion to him that it
would be a graceful act on the part of British Columbia
to present a ne\v flagstaff of Douglas Fir to Kew, to take
the place of the' old one erected in 1861. The Premier
\Jvelcomed the idea, but no definite steps were taken in the
Inatter till the spring of 1914, \vhen Mr. J. H. Turner, the
Agent-General of British Columbia in London, wrote to
Sir Richard M cBride with the definite suggestion that a
fine spar be sent to Kew by the Government of British
Columbia, as the old one had been taken down in the
previous year owing to decay. The provincial authorities
took the matter up with alacrity, and after carefully
" cruising" the woods for a suitable tree, one was even-
tually selected growing some 30 miles North of Burrard
Inlet on the mainland. The intervention of the war
prevented the shipment of the tree till November, 1915.
On the ~th of that month the s.s. "Merionethshire"
sailed from British Columbia with an immense spar
stowed on deck. It had been loaded by crane and slid
on to the deck from the vessel's stern.
The original tree was probably over four,hundred years
old and must have measured 300 ft. to the tip of its
leader, but after th~ spar had been prepared by axe, saw
.and adze the dimensions were 220 ft. long and 33 in. in
diameter at the base; it was squared for the first 15 ft.
~n.d then made octagonal up to 157 ft., from which point
It. IS round to the top with a taper from 19 in. to 12 in. in
dIameter. The weight of the spar when discharged from
the" Merionethshire" into the Thames on December 29,
19 1 5, was 18 tons, the largest individual piece of timber
ever brought to Europe. The tree \vhen felled had a
EMPIRE FORESTRY
girth of 18 ft. at the base, and when it had been shaped

and all sapwood removed, the original centre of the
annual rings of growth was s! in. from one side of the
butt end. Of the rings as shown on the prepared butt it
was found that the tree had grown one· hundred years to
make 171 in. of lateral growth on the one side; the next
one hundred years added 7-1 in.; and the next one
hundred years only 3! in. Mr. J. S. Gatnble judged from
these measurements H that the tree was a dominant one
for about one hundred years putting on diameter incre-
ment; then the surrounding crop caught it up and
passed it, so that it increased in length to compete
with them at the expense of its thickness. It clearly
kept its place with them to the end and must have
been closely surrounded, but having had the advantage
of light when young was sturdier and stronger, and so.
was probably selected as the finest of the crop."
To anvone familiar with the wonderful close stands.
of Douglas Fir, "White Pine" (Pin us nlonticola), Western
Hemlock (Tsuga A lbertiana) , "'fideland Spruce" (Picea
sitchensis), H Red Cedar" (Thuya gi~al1tea), and the several
great Silver Firs of the forests of the North Pacific Coast,
the dimensions of the tree selected for the Kew Flagstaff
will cause no astonishment. These immense stems
growing on very deep humus, the accumulation of vege-
table matter through the ages, seem to have a normal
life of from three hundred and fifty to over five hundred
years. They are far surpassed in girth and age, though
not in height, by Sequoia gigantea of the Californian
Sierra Nevada mountains. The first botanist to see them
was Archibald Menzies who accompanied Vancouver in
his exploration of those regions in 1793. Thirty years
later another Perthshire man, David Douglas, the intrepId
botanical explorer sent out by the Royal Horticultural
Society, made his headquarters on the Columbia River in
1825-1827, and sent home seeds of all these conifers. It
\vas from Douglas' seeds we owe the many older specimens
of Douglas Fir and other Pacific Coast trees throughout
the kingdom. It would perhaps be \vell to mention here,
however, that the Wellingtonia (Sequoia gigantea) was.
not discovered till 1841, and seed of it was first sent to
England in 1853, by Willtam Lobb, Messrs Veitch's
collector.
f~
Reproduced from the Ke'w Bulletin, No. 10 of 1919, with permission of the Controller, H.M. Stationery Office.
RAISING THE FLAGSTAFF AT KEW.
Photo, Copyright by C. P. Raffi 11 , Kew.
THE DOUGLAS FIR FLAGSTAFF AT KEW ON ARMISTICE DAY,

NOVI£MBER 1 I, 1921.
THE DOUGLAS FIR FLAGSTAFF AT KEW 71
From the docks the Kew spar was towed by a tug up
the river and made secure to the south bank opposite the
end of the Sion Vista in the Gardens. During a provi-
dential high tide it was hauled to the-towing path and
eventually brought on rollers by a devious route to the
north side of tbe artificial mound in the Gardens,where
it was destined to be reared and where its predecessor
had stood.
For nearly four years it lay there raised on blocks and
admired by countless visitors to Kew, who compared its
immense proportions with the seemingly insignificant
older flagstaff which lay alongside, the length of which
was a mere 159 ft. with a weight of 4! tons. By the
erection of a derrick, over 100 ft. high, the spar was
raised successfully and on October 18, 1919, the work was
complete. It rests on a block of steel fitted into a notch
at the base and above a substructure of cement. En-
gineers of the Canadian Forestry Corps had set in the
ground four itnmense blocks of concrete some distance
from the base, and in these the steel hawser stays were
made fast. The flagstaff is stayed from two points, and
these stays are entirely responsible for its security as the
\vhole spar is above ground. The contractors· who did
the work were Messrs. Coubro and Scrutton, professional
mast riggers, who are greatly to be congratulated on the
complete success of their calculations. The accom-
panying photographs, for the use of which the writer is
indebted to H.M. Stationery Office, vvill clearly show the
method adopted of raising and staying this the greatest
flagstaff in Europe. Before erection it was carefully
treated with antiseptics. The hot summer of 1921 caused
some longitudinal surface cracks to appear, but these are
not thought to be serious and have closed up since the
break in the drought. On Armistice Day, 1921, a huge
Union Jack was hoisted, and spectators found it hard to
believe that this great flag measured 36 ft. by 12ft.; it is
the same size as the largest flag flown on the Victoria
Tower at Westminster. The flagstaff towers far above
the surrounding trees of the gardens and is the most
conspicuous object in the vvhole landscape.
FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
FORESTRY COMIVIISSION FOR THE
UNITED KINGDOM. 1
By Dr. A. W. BORTHWICK.
THE First Annual Report of the Forestry CommIssion

for the year ending September 30, 1920, was ordered by
the House of Commons to be printed on June J, 19 21 •
The Commission entered on their duties on Novem-
ber 20, 1919. The forest year ending September 30 was
adopted for the period of annual report as the financial
year terminates on March 3 1 when planting is still in
active operation, which makes it difficult at that date
to get final statements of costs. This being their first
Annual Report the Commission thought it desirable
to give a brief statement of the various phases through
which forestry has passed in the British Isles, and any-
one who desires to study the history of this important
industry in its historical and national aspects will find
an excellent resume and guide in the first twelve pages
of the report under the headings: (I) Period of Destruc-
tion; (2) Period of Private Enterprise; (3) Period
of Inquiry; (4) Period of State Action. It was deemed
necessary to give such a resume of the causes which
have combined to make a national forest policy inevit-
able, in the best interests of the country, as no more
convincing proof can be given of the necessIty for a
national forest policy than a clear statement of the facts.
This shows clearly and convincingly the financial burden
which the whole country has had to sustain and the
handicap to many important industries which the absence
of an adequate supply of home grown timber has caused.
Owing to the time which elapsed between the coming
into operation of the Forestry Act on September I, 19 1 9,
and the appointment of the Commission on Novem-
1 To be purchased through any bookseJler or direct from H.M. Stationery

Office, Imperial House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2. Price 9d. net.
REPORT OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 73
ber 29, 1919, they were unable to start work until the
planting season 1919-20 was well advanced, but thanks
to the preliminary arrangements which had been made
by the Interim Forest Authority under the chairmanship
of Mr. F. D. Acland, preparations had already been
made to ensure that the necessary supplies of seed, plants
and nursery ground would be available when required.
The Interim Forest Authority had no powers to hold
land; nevertheless they did valuable work in locating,
by Uleans of preliminary surveys, extensive areas where
forestry schen1es could be developed later. The Com-
mission were, owing to these arrangements, able to start
planting without loss of time, and at the date of the issue
of the Report the Commission were in possession of
103,100 acres of land and had planted approximately
8,000 acres. This must be regarded as a notable achieve-
ment. With no precedents and previous experiences,
no forest officer personnel, no body of foresters and fore-
Inen with State forest experience and customs and no
forestry code, the Commission had to start work when
housing, labour, fencing material, tools and all other
necessary things were scarce and difficult to obtain. A
good beginning has nevertheless been made and the
stock of plants in the nurseries has been increased to
meet the approved planting programme, which is a sure
indication that efforts are not being relaxed.
The national forest policy as defined by the Acland
Comlnittee, approved by the Cabinet and accepted by
Parliament, falls under two heads : -
(a) The UltiJnate Objective, which is the creation in
Great Britain and Ireland of reserves of standing timber
sufficient to meet the essential requirements of the nation
over a limited period of three years in time of war or
national emergency.
(b) The Immediate Objective, which is a ten-year scheme
based on a block grant.
To carry out this policy it will be necessary for the
State to afforest 1,770,000 acres of land previously un-
planted (1,180,000 being dealt with in forty years and
the whole in eighty years), and the COlnmission are
further charged to encourage and to secure the continu-
ance under timber with increased yield from the 3,000,000
acres of private forests which existed in 19 1 4.
74 EMPIRE FORESTRY
In support of the many reasons that exist for the'

adoption 'of the above policy, three cogent arguments.
are given in its favour which are applicable in time of
peace as in time of war.
(I) The timber consumed in Great Britain and by the
British Army in France bet\veen the years 1915-1920,
cost the country at least £190,000,000 more than a
similar amount of wood would have cost at 19°9-1913
prices. In the year 1920 the nation imported approxi-
mately one-tenth less wood and pulp than in 1914, and
paid over £80,000,000 more for their purchase.
There is no reason to suppose that the average annual
demands for timber for home construction, delayed
repairs, and industrial developments will be less in the
next decade than they were during the five years imme-
diately preceding the war. If this is the case, and the'
price of timber does not fall much below a figure mid.
way between the 1913 and 1920 prices, we shall have to
pay for the whole of the period 19 1 5-] 930 anything-
between £400,000,000 and £600,000,000 more for our
timber than we should have had to pay for a similar
amount at 1909-1913 prices.
It is not argued that if the planting plogramme now
adopted had been completed before the war, the price-
of timber \vould not have risen. It can, ho\vever, be
definitely stated that had these additional woods been
in existence, they would have competed with Scandi-
navia and Finland, and tended to keep prices of soft
.woods at a lower level. 1
(2) Labour for planting, maintenance and conversion,
accounts for some 80 to 90 per cent. of the cost of
forestry operations. It is argued that, even with the pre-
sent high cost of establishing plantations, State forestry
is one of the soundest, if not the soundest method
of giving rural employment, lowering adverse trade
balances, and ensuring that the best use shall be made
of shipping facilities in time of war and national
emergency.
(3) Within reasonable and easily ascertainable limits
1 In 19~O, fot im;tance, home-grown railway sleepers cost 38. each less
than imported sleepers. This item alone (whIch during State control of
rairways falls directly on the Treasury) represents a possible annual sa\'ing of
£500,000.
timber stores itself in the woods and, unlike other com-

modities, increases in quantity during the period of
storage.
The foregoing outlines the ultimate objective of the
~ational F'orest Policy and its main justifications. As
regards the imlnediate objective the Forestry Commis-
sion are charged with the following duties for a ten-year
period:--
(I) The afforestation of 150,000 acres of ne\v land by
the direct action of the State. .
(2) Assistance to Local Authorities an cl private owners
for the afforestation or reafforestation of 110,000 acres.
(3) rrhe purchase and reconstruction of hard wood
·areas.
(4) Education of forest officers, landowners and land
agents, working foresters and foremen.
(5) Research and experiment.
(6) Encouragelnent of forest industries.
The financial policy of the Commission has had to be
adjusted with the greatest care in order to ensure that the
tnaximum amount of the funds at their disposal might
be used in the actual planting of trees. The total grant
set aside for the work of the Commission was based on
pre-war figures, as no other information was available
when the :Forestry Sub-Colnmittee presented their report.
'The Commission have had no easy task in carrying out
the prescribed programme. A considerable amount of
saving was made in the acquisition of land. Thanks to
the untiring work of the Assistant Commissioners, and
in no small degree to the patriotism of landowners, some
of the best planting land in the kingdom has been
acquired at rates well below the original estimates. The
drain on the fund has also been reduced by increasing
the proportion of leased or feued to purchased land.
Leases of long duration up to 990 years have been
secured in England, and in Scotland land has been
acquired by feu in perpetuity of payment of an annual
feu duty. '
The policy of the Commission is to' plant as much
land as possible in the earlier years of the first decade in
order to relieve the heavy undertakings and burdens
towards the end of that time. The Report clearly indi-
cates that the Commission appreciate to the full extent
EMPIRE FORESTRY
the value and necessity of private co-operation, and they

are assisting to the limit of their statutory powers (subject
to the, it may be hoped, temporary exigencies of the
Treasury) this patriotic work on the part of individuals
and corporations, by the offer of grants and proceeds-
sharing schemes. They have also taken an active part
in the promotion of higher education and research, and
Woodman's schools have been established \vhich provide
a sound training in practical forestry. Bulletins and
leaflets have been issued on subjects of interest to
planters. l
J The following publications of the Forestry Commission are already

available : -
U Forestry in the United Kingdom." Price 3s., post free 38. 2d. A
statement prepar~d by the Forestry Commission for the British
Empire Forestry Conference, 1920.
" British Empire Forestry Conference, 1920." Price 7s. 6d., post free
7S•.·o!d. A report of the proceedings, together with the resolutions
and summary of statements.
cc Bulletin No. I: Collection of Data as to the Rate of Growth of
Timber." Price 4d., post free 5d. An explanation of the methods
employed in measuring timber for statistical purposes.
cc Bulletin No. 2; Survey of Forest Insect Conditions." Price IS. 6d.,.
post free IS. ,.id. The chief insect pests are described and illustrated
and suggestions are made for their control.
"Bulletin No. 3: Rate of Growth of Conifers in the British Isles."
Price 35., post free 3s. 2d. An investigatie-n into the factors affecting
the growth of conifers in this country. TabJes are given showing the
yield obtainable from various species.
cc Fllst Annual Report of the Forestry Commissioners, Year ending Sep~
tember 30, 1920. H.C. 128." Price 9d., post free Io~d.
cc British Yield Tables." Price IS., post free Is. Id. Rtproduced for
field use from Bulletin No. 3.
Copies of the above publications may be purchased through any bookseller,.
or directly from H.M. Stationery Office, Imperial House, Kingsway, Lon-
don, W.C.2.
" Leaflet No. I : Pine Weevils." A description of the life histories and
habits of the. pine weevilg, and of the methods..employed in combating
these enemies or young plantations.
cc Leaflet No.· 2: Cherme.r Cooleyi." An account of a CIt,.rmes which
has recently appeared in Grt'at Britain, attacking Douglas fir.
cc Leaflet No. 3 : The Pine Shoot Beetle/' A common pest in pine
woods.
cc Leaflet No. 4: The Black Pine Beetle." ,One of the most destructive
bark beetles.
"Leaflet .No. 5: Conifer Heart Rot." A common cause of decay in
larch and spruce.
"Leaflet No. 6: The Honey Fungus." A destructive pest in conifer
plantations.
fC Leaflet No. 7: Clzermes attacking Spruce and other Conifers."
cc Leaflet No. 8; Douglas Fir Seed Fly."
Copies of the leafltts may be obtained free of char~e on application to the
Secretary, Forestry Commission, 22, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W. I.
The Forestry Commission have not only to aid in the

extension and improvement of forestry within the British
Islands, but it also falls within their sphere of action
u to aid or aid in making such inquiries as they think
necessary for the purpose of securing an adequate supply
of timber in the United Kingdom and promoting the
production of timber in His ~Iajesty's dominions."
Important progress \vas made in this direction at the
British Forestry Conference which assembled in July,
1920, on the invitation of the Commission.
Under the provisions of the Forestry Act, consultative
committees have been appointed for England, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland; their duties are to assist the
Commissioners with respect to the exercise and perform-
ance of their powers and duties under the Act. The
constitution and activities of the Consultative Committee
are set out at the end of the Report.
The following are the names of the Commissioners and
Assistant Commissioners and their respective head-
quarter3 :-
Commissioners: The Rt. Hon. Lord l . ovat, K.C.M.G. t
K.C.V.O. (Chairman).
The Rt. Hon. If'. D. Acland, C.B.E.,
M.P.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Clinton, D.L., J.P..
Mr. L. Forestier-Walker, M.P.
Mr. T. B. Ponsonby, D.L.
Mr. R. L. Robinson, O.B.E., B.A.,.
B.Sc.
Col. W. Steuart-Fothringham.
Sir J. Stirling-Maxwell, Bart.
Headquarters: 22, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W.I.,
Mr. A. G. Herbert (Acting Secretary).
Assistant Commissioner for England and Wales: Mr.
Hugh ~Iurray, C.I.E., C.B.E.
Headquarters: I, Whitehall, S.W.I.
Assistant Commissioner for Scotland: Mr. John Do.
Sutherland, C.B.E., F.S.I.
I-Ieadquarters: 25, Drumsheugh Gardens, Edinburgh..
Assistant Commissioner for Ireland: Mr. A. C. Forbes,
a.B.E.
Headquarters: 9, Upper MountStreet, Dublin.
It is believed that any of them will at any time be very'
pleased to receive news or inquiries from overseas.
TREE-WORSHIP IN INDIA.
By S. M. EDWARDES, C.S.I., C.V.O.
THE worship of trees is one of the most \videspread

forms of popular religion in India; and examples of the
reverence paid to them by Hindus of all classes occur in
every village, town and city, from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin. According to Sir James Frazer this cult, of
which instances or survivals can be found in many
countries, arises in the first place from the widespread
primitive belief that trees have souls of their own like
men, that they feel injuries done to them, that the souls
of the dead sometimes animate them, and that the tree
is the h0111e of a tree spirit, which gives rain and sunshine,
causes crops to grow, makes herds multiply, and blesses
WOlnen with offspring. Thus, all over India one comes
across groves and clumps of trees which are firmly
believed to be the abode of spirits, and which no villager
will therefore injure or cut down. Sometimes these
spirits are regarded as benignant, as, for example, at
Rajkot in Kathiawar, where the spirits of a certain group
of trees cure children suffering from bronchitis, and are
in other ways beneficial to the community. Sometimes
they are regarded as the very reverse of benign, like those
\vhich inhabit the Odiner Wodier trees planted in the
backyard of houses occupied by the Kallans (a caste of
thieves) of the Tanjore district of the Madras Presidency.
The more malignant of these devils have to be propitiated
at least once a year by rites conducted under the trees
themsel ves. The fear inspired by certain trees was
brought prominently to my notice in 1903, when I was
touring in the Poona district of the Bombay Presidency.
On arriving one morning at a new camping ground, I
found that my tents had been pitched under a straggling
clump of trees which offered comparatively poor shade,
while about four hundred yards away was a splendid
pipal (Fieus religiosa) which would have amply protected
TREE-WORSHIP IN INDIA 79
them from the mid-day sun. On inquiring of the servants
\vhy they had not chosen the pipal, their spokesman
informed me that it \vas inhabited by a ntu1'lja (i.e., the
ghost of a Brahman boy who had died before being
invested \vith the sacred triple thread), of such fiendish
malignancy, that none of them dare venture near the
tree. To set up tents and carry out one's daily work
underneath it was, in their view, simply asking for
trouble; and though, they added, their sole object in life
\vas to carry out the Sahib's orders, they could not be
parties to an act \vhich any self-respecting tree-spirit
might reasonably regard as an act of trespass. So my
tents remained where they were, and the \vhole native
retinue rejoiced at their escape £ronl unknown cal~mity.
Another belief that the tree embodies or represents a
fertilizing spirit is responsible, as Crooke points out in
his " Folk-lore of Northern India," for the respect paid
in India to memorial trees, round which the people of the
village assemble, and which frequently serve as the
village-shrine or as the centre of the \vorship of the
village-gods. Fr0111 prehistoric times the village pipal
(Ficus religiosa) has been the hub of Indian village life;
and in some cases groups of village trees represent the
ultimate survivals of a primitive forest, H in which the
dispossessed spirits of the jungle find their last and their
only resting-place." The Indian peasant ascribes the
weird sounds of the forest by night to supernatural
agency and the tnysterious waving of leaves and branches
to the mystic powers of the trees. The tree, too, is an
emblem of life, for it reproduces itself in some strange
fashion with each recurring spring, and if it be an ever·
green, it is clearly the possessor of eternal life. Hence
comes it, doubtless, that tribes like the Khasis of eastern
Bengal lay the bodies of their dead in the hollow trunks
of trees, or like the Nagas of Assam, hang them in
coffins to the branches. Trees often develop into curious
and unusual forms, which compel fear or adoration; and
Crooke quotes from one of the ancient Sanskrit works
on lIindu ritual, \vhich expressly declares that trees
~hich have been struck by lightning, or uprooted by
Inundation, or which grow on a burning-ground or con-
secrated site, or which have withered tops, or contain
many birds' nests, are to be considered totally unfit for
6
80 EMPIRE FORESTRY
the manufacture of bedsteads, as they are inauspicious

and certain to bring disease and death.
Such being the general attitude of the people to\vard
trees, it is not surprising that Hindus regard the planting
of a grove as a work of great religious merit, and that
they perform various strange arboreal rites, such as the
formal marriage of trees to one another or to the well
from which they are watered. General Sir WillialTI
Sleeman, in his U Rambles and Recollections of an Indian
Official," published in 1844, mentions that the mango-
groves which he visited near Jubbulpore in the Central
Provinces had all been married. "Among the Hindus,"
he writes, "neither the man ,vho plants a grove nor his
wife can taste of the fruit till he has 11tarried one of the
mango-trees to some other tree (usually a tamarind tree)
that grows near it in the same grove"; and he gives an
instance of an old villager and his wife \vho sold all their
gold and silver ornaments in order to defray the marriage-
expenses of a grove which he had planted a few years
previously. It is, perhaps, needless to add that the bulk
of the money was spent in providing a feast and presents
for the Brahman priests who officiated at the ceretnony.
Trees of a particular species figure in variou~ primitive
ceremonies and festivals, such as the highly indecent
pantomime held in honour of Bhudevi Panduga, the
earth-goddess, by the Koyis of the Godavari district,
\vhich centres round a Terntinalia t01nentosa tree, or the
rites for the pacification of the cholera or small-pox
goddess, in which the ceremonial booth is invariably
erected under a nim (Melia azadirachta) tree.
The wide prevalence in India of Totemism, which has
only been brought to notice during recent years, largely
through the researches of certain members of the Indian
Civil Service, is another powerful underlying cause of the
reverence paid to trees. Everywhere can be found tribes,
classes, septs or other social g~oups, who believe firmly
that they are sprung from some object, animal, or tree of
a particular species, and who ascribe a sacred character
to that animal or tree as their totem. One of the best
examples of this form of totemism is the devak or family
guardian god of the peasantry of Bombay and Berar.
Among the Marathas of the Deccan and allied tribes and
castes, this family devak is often the jambul (Euge1'lia
TREE-WORSHIP IN INDIA 81
jal1tbulana), the ber (Zizyphus juiuba), the mango (Mangi-

fera indica) and the banian (Ficus Be11,gale11,sis), while of
specially common occurrence are the Kadamba (Nauclea
cadamba), the rui (Calotropis gigantea) , and the sha1ni
(Prosopis spicigera). :B""'urther south in the thickly-forested
Kanara district the same ancient system survives.
Divisions of castes or tribes, known as balis, are found,
which take their name from the pipal (Ficus religiosa), the
screw-pine (Pandanus odoratissil1tUS), the plantain (Musa
sapientunt) and the nagcha1npa (Mesua ferrea). These
eponymous trees the people worship on all solemn occa-
sions, such as marriage or the occupation of a new
'house; they rigidly refrain from cutting or injuring them
in any way; and finally they forbid the intermarriage of
persons having the same tree as their totem. Members
of the nagchantpa (~1esua ftrrea) group will not even
wear the flower of that tree in their hair. Occasionally
one comes across families whose devak or eponymous
guardian deity is the sunflower or the tamarind (Ta1nar-
indus indica),. and while there is no objection to a sun-
flower man marrying a tamarind girl, the very strictest
embargo is placed upon the union of a couple who both
worship one or the other of these plants. The Halepaiks
of Kanara, who \vere once freebooters, but are now
peaceful tappers of toddy-trees, are divided into two
groups, one dwelling on the coast and taking its name
(Tengina) from the coco-nut tree, and the other living in
the hills and calling itself Bainu, after the sago-palm.
Certain sections of the well-known Komati trading caste
of Madras have as totems the tamarind, the tulsi (Ocymum
sanctul1'l) and the betel-vine. ~Ioving northwards, we
find the wild Bhil tribes of the Satpura hills, the primitive
Gonds, and the Korkus of the Central Provinces, wor-
shipping all sorts of trees as their toten1S. The tribal tree
of the Kharwars of Mirzapur is the Karama, and nothing
will induce them to cut it : the Oraons of Bengal will not
eat the leaves of the vad (Ficus indica); the Rajputs pay
special reverence to the nim tree (Melia azadirachta), one·
of .their clans, the Raikwars, being forbidden to use its
t'Y1gS as tooth· cleaning sticks; while the Bansetti Binj-
hlyas, who take their name from the bamboo, refuse to
t~uc~ it even at a wedding. Among some castes the most
binding oath they kno\v is that sworn on the leaves of
EMPIRE If'ORESTRY
the bel (Aegle marntelos): it was this oath which Sumar

Singh, the murderer of the Peshwa Narayan Rao, was
made to take by Anandibai, the jealous aunt of that
unfortunate prince. Examples of this ancient system of
tree-tptemism can be multiplied froIn all parts of India;
and it is no exaggeration to say that not only are the
forests of India very closely interwoven with the traditions
and superstitions of its three hundred million inhabitants,
but that between the members of certain \vell-defined
social groups and particular species of trees there also
exists an intimate and altogether special relation, \vhich
in the religious sphere operates to place them in n1ystic
union with their particular guardian tree, and in the
social sphere directs the relations in which men and
women shall stand to one another. Thus the lives of
man and of the forest are indissolubly bound together.
The tree is an ancestor, meet to be worshi pped like other
more anthropolnorphic deities: to the tree the devout
Hindu turns on the important occasions of birth and
marriage; and when life has passed, it is the tree which
feeds his funeral-pyre.
Perhaps the most curious custom which prevails through-
out India is the marriage of ll1en and women to trees.
The practice is largely followed in the case of girls who
are to be dedicated to a life of prostitution, but is
frequently resorted to in other circumstances, to which
no shadow of disrepute attaches. In the Punjab, for
example, a Hindu cannot be legally married a third time.
So, if he \vishes to take a third wife, he is solemnly Inarried
first to a babul (Acacia A rabica) or to the akh plant
(Asclepia gigantea), so that the wife he subsequently
marries is counted as his fourth, and the evil conse-
quences of marrying a third time are thus avoided.
The same practice is followed by Brahmans in Madras,
who believe that a third marriage is very inauspicious,
and that the bride will become a widow. Among various
classes of Uriyas in Ganjam a bachelor who wishes to
marry a widow, or a widower wishing to remarry, is
obliged first to go through the ceremony of marrying a
sahada tree (Streblus asper), which is afterwards cut down.
In the Bombay Presidency it is a common custom for a
man who has lost two wives to marry a rui (Calotropis
gigatltea) before he tempts fortune with a third helplnate;
TREE..WORSHIP IN INDIA
or again, a man whose poverty prevents his marrying a

bride in the usual \vay, is similarly married to a rui and
then to a widow; and as the re-marriage of a widow
is, according to orthodox Hindu ideas, one of the most
calamitous and undesirable transactions, the \vedding of
the pauper bridegroon1 has to be performed at dead of
night under an old Inango tree. Very often, too, a Hindu
bride is discovered by the priests to have been born under
inauspicious planets, which may prove harluful to her
spouse; and this danger is averted by marrying her first
to a tree and afterwards to the bridegroom. Similarly in
Oudh, if the ruling stars of the youth form a lTIore power-
ful combination than those of his affianced bride, the
difficulty is surmounted by solemnizing a marriage between
the girl and a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa).
In Bengal, according to Dr. Buchanan, It premature
Inarriage is considered so necessary to Hindu ideas of
prosperity that even~ the unfortunate children who are
brought up for prostitution are married with all due
ceremony to a plantain tree, before the age when they
would be defiled by remaining single." The r~autiyas,
a large caste in that province, invariably go through the
form of marriage to a Inango- tree, before the regular
wedding; while among the Kurmis and one branch of
the Kols, both aboriginal tribes, the bride and bridegroom
are wedded, not to each other, but the bride to a mahua
(Bassia latijolia), and the groom to a mango. According
to Crooke, from whose authoritative work several of the
above instances have been taken, every girl of the Newar
community, who are agriculturists by profession, is
married during childhood to the fruit of the bel (Aegle
marmelos), which, after the CerenlGny, is thrown into
some sacred river. When she arrives at puberty a husband
is selected for her; but should the marriage prove un-
pleasant, she can divorce herself by the simple process
of placing a betel-nut under her husband's pillow, and
walking off. A Newar woman can never become a
widow, as the bel fruit, to which she was first married, is
assumed to be always in existence.
Among the special castes and classes whose traditional
occupation is prostitution, as also among certain other
castes hke the Billavas or toddy-tappers ot South Kanara,
who habitually permit prenuptial infidelity, the tree often
EMPIRE FORESTRY
plays an important part in the girl's initiation. Readers

of this article may remelnber Rudyard Kipling's story,
H On the City Wall," which opens with a description of
the courtesan Lalun. H Lalun's real husband, for even

ladies of Lalun's profession in the East must have
husbands, was a big jujube-tree. Her mamma, who had
married a fig tree, spent ten thousand rupees on Lalun's
wedding, which was blessed by forty·seven clergymen of
mamma's church, and distributed five thousand rupees in
charity to the poor." That description, with slight alter-
ations, might apply to many women in India \vho follow
the hereditary profession of thecourtesan. In western
and southern India, where these ancient customs still
flourish, it is not always a tree that is chosen as the mock
husband: it is very often a dagger, a sword, or even the
idol in some popular shrine. But in many cases a pipal,
a palas (Butea frondosa), a shanzi (Prosopis spicigera) or
some other well known tree figures as the pseudo-bride-
groom, marriage with which signifies the girl's permanent
inclusion in the ranks of the oldest profession upon earth.
What are the precise principles underlying the pseudo-
marriage with trees and shrubs, it is not easy to deter-
mine. "The popular explanation is that it is intended to
avert the curse of widowhood, the tree-husband being
always alive; the woman, even if her husband die, can
never be a widow, nor can the parents be liable to the
contempt which, according to popular Hindu belief,
awaits those who keep a girl who has reached maturity
unmarried." Some of the cases, however, which have
been quoted seem to suggest that the marriage may be
intended to divert to the tree some evil influence \vhich
would otherwise attach to the wedded couple. The tree,
in fact, acts the part of the scapegoat of the Old Testa-
ment, and gathers unto itself the evil influences which
threaten the life and happiness of the superstitious
Hindu.
In conclusion one may enumerate a few of the trees
to which special reverence IS paid, and which occupy a
very prominent place in the folk-lore of India. The
pipal (Ficus religiosa) has already been mentioned. It is
associated with the three great gods of Hinduisnl,
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva: it is worshipped on every
Saturday of the Hindu month Shravan (July-August) ;
TREE-WORSHIP IN INDIA
its marriage with the tulsi (OCYl11,U11~ sanct~t1n) is strongly

recommended; and its dry twigs must be used to feed
the sacred fire. Sir Monier WiJliams tells a story of
certain Banias (Hindus of the trading class) who objected
to pipal trees being planted in their bazaar, as they could
not carry on their roguery under the shade of so holy a
tree. But the story is now regarded as an invention for
the special delectation of the confiding European or
American globe-trotter. The banyan tree (Fictts indica)
represents longevity; it is believed to be haunted by
Vetal, the chief of the ghosts and goblins: women in
particular lllust worship it in the month Jesht (May-June),
for it grants long life to husbands and the fulfilment of
all wishes; the celebration of its marriage with durva
grass (Oynodon dactylon) ensures good fortune and a
plentiful progeny. l'he sal (Shorea robusta) is a very
holy tree, lnuch reverenced by the jungle tribes who
consider it the abode 'of spirits. The Bagdi and Bauri
tribes of Bengal are married In an arbour made of the
branches of the sal, after they have first been luarried to
a 1nahua (Bassia latifolia). ·Patches of this tree, accord-
ing to Crooke, are often reserved as fragments of the
primitive jungle, of which it must have constituted an
iluportant part. The shan1,i (Prosopis spicigera), known
in the Punjab as the jand, is very widely reverenced and
in western India is regularly worshipped at the Dasara
festival. It is commonly chosen to mark the abode or
shelter the shrine of some deity; rags are dedicated to it
as offerings; and it is employed in the marriage cere-
monies of many tribes and castes. Brahmans and others
perforn1 rites to it, especially at festivals connected with
domestic occurrences, and offerings are made to it by
the relatives of persons suffering from snlall-pox. The
nzahua (Bassia latifolia) is one of the main sources
\vhence the Indian jungle-tribes derive their food and
intoxicants, and is held in the highest respect by the
people of the central Indian highlands. It is the marriage
tree of the Kurmis, Lohars, Mahilis, Mundas and Santals
of Bengal; and some of the Gonds of Bengal follow the
custom of tying the corpses of adult males by a cord to
this tree, previous to burial. The aonla (Emblica
ojficinalis) is another sacred tree, worshipped in the
Inonth Kartik (December) and again in Phalgun (Feb-
86 EMPIRE FORESTRY
ruary), when prayers are offered to it for the fertility of

women, animals and crops. Mention has already been
made of the ni111 (J.lf elia azadirachta), in which the god-
lings of disease are supposed to reside and which, like
the Norse tree Yggdrasil, is closely connected \vith the
worship of snakes. So great is the power of the ni11't
over spirits and spirit disease that in Bombay, when a
woman gives birth to a child, nil1l leaves are placed at
the entrance of the lying-in-rooln, to ward off evil spirits.
The Jogis, a critninal tribe of Madras, reverence it and
brand their dogs with a representation of it. The
Banjaras or wandering carriers use it as a test of their
wives' fidelity.
Many other trees of great sanctity might be mentioned,
such as the sa11nali (Bo111bax heptaphyllum), the naral or
coconut (Cocos nucijera) , the Khair or mimosa (Acacia
catechu), the apta (Bauhinea t01nentosa), the palas or dhak
(Butea frondosa) and the ashok (Jonesia asoka), which is
supposed to bloom vigorously if kicked by a good-
looking young woman. But enough perhaps has been
said in illustration of the statenlent that tree-worship
plays an important part in the popular ritual and folk-
lore of India. The masses of India have little or no
sympathy with the forest policy of the Government or
with the plans of expert forest officers for the conserva-
tion and regeneration of the country's forests; and they
are disposed to resent the regulations and the prohibi-
tions which necessarily form a feature of enlightened
forest administration. Yet towards special groups of
trees, toward trees of certain distinct and widely-distri-
buted species, they cherish an attitude of deep veneration,
with which is blended a belief that between the living
tree and themselves there is an immemorial bond of
mutual protection, to be jealously guarded and con-
stantly confirmed by the performance of appropriate
ceremonies. Among educated and civilized people of
Western lands such sentiments and superstitions now
find no echo, save perhaps in the old fairy-tales and
legends which they tell to their children.
EDI'[ORIAL NOTES AND
MISCELLANEA.
As will be apparent froln the report of the inaugural
meeting in the opening pages of the Journal, the Asso-
The Empire ciation commences its career with the
Forestry benedictions of the British and Dominion
Association. Governments: and if the goodwill of official
departments, kindred associations, and individuals in
various parts of the Empire \vere the sole requisite for
success, its future would already be assured. To enable
it, however, to carry out its m'ain objects and sustain, in
particular, that" aggressive propaganda" which is widely
regarded as essential for the co-ordination and develop-
ment of forestry and the imperial timber trade, a large
and increasing membership must be secured. It is hoped
that all those who may receive copies of this first number
of the quarterly Journal of the Association, and who have
at heart the preservation and economic utilization of the
Empire's sylvan resources, will not only enrol their o\vn
names in the list of members, but will persuade others
also to join the Association. It is satisfactory to record
that the problem of office accommodation for the staff
and records, hitherto housed in decidedly cramped
quarters in Westminster, is likely to be solved by the
provision of suitable rooms in the Imperial Institute,
South !{ensington. In the latter buildIng will also be
located the complete exhibition of Empire commercial
tilubers, to which Mr. Ashbolt, Agent-General for Tas-
mania, referred in his speech at the inaugural meeting.
This project has arisen out of the deliberations of a
special Timber Trades and Technical Sub-Committee of
the Association, which visited the existing exhibition
?f Empire timbers and the testing machinery installed
In the Imperial Institute, and also inspected the tiulber-
testing machinery at the National Physical Laboratory at
Teddington.
The Committee are of opinion that the Imperial
Institute has sufficient machinery and a staff competent
8M EMPIRE FORESTRY
to carry Qut all tests required for ordinary comtnercial

purposes: but that the timbers now exhibited there
include a considerable number \vhich could not be
supplied in commercial quantities. The first step, there-
fore, is to concentrate in one department only such
timbers as can be supplied in commercial quantity, and
exhibit them in .the log, flitch and plank, with their
botanical and trade names attached to them. The second
step is the preparation by the technical staff of a record
of the strains and stresses of each individual wood, and
of a small pamphlet grouping together similar timbers,
giving the identification mark of each exhibit, and tabu-
lating the results of the various tests, the weight, measure-
ment, and, if possible, the average f.o.b. price of such
timbers. The scheme would involve an agreement on the
part of the Dominions and Colonies to pick out the com-
mercial timbers fro in the existing exhibits, or alternatively
to supply a separate exhibit for the purpose indicated; but
if this assistance is forthcolning, as no doubt it will be,
and the required information is prepared in succinct and
suitable form, the trader and timber-user, who desires to
substitute Empire timber for foreign products, will no
longer be able to declare himself handicapped by the
complete absence of the requisite information in an acces-
sible form. In the case of highly specialized reports
or tests, which lie outside the capacity of the Imperial
Institute, arrangements can be made with the National
Physical Laboratory, \vhere a highly-trained staff is pre-
pared to undertake the highest technical tests and prepare
reports upon them for a nominal fee. One of the first
tasks of the Association will be the COln pletion of this
collection of exhibits and the preparation of the technical
data, to enable traders and timber-users to estimate the
advantages of a wider use of the woods produced within
the Empire. The great ilnportance of this scheme will
be understood more clearly, if we bear in mind that at
this moment there is no single collection of Empire
commercial tin1bers available for the information of the
trade.
As regards the Journal, it has been decided for the
present to publish it three times during the year and to
convert it into a quarterly as soon as financial considera-
tions and the supply of literary contributions from all
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA 89
parts of the Empire justify the latter course. It is hoped

that volunteers may be forthcoming to act as regular
correspondents of the Journal and to assist the Editor by
sending information about the affairs and proceedings of
forestry societies, about promotions, transfers, resigna-
nations, &c., in forestry staffs, and by forwarding articles,
notes and queries of all kinds relating to forestry. The
Association looks with confidence both to forestry experts
and others interested in, or connected with, forests and
their products, to supply articles and notes for reproduc-
tion in its pages. These need not necessarily all be of a
technical character; for the Journal is intended to appeal
not only to the expert, but also to the· general public,
whose " forestry conscience" needs arousing. Notes on
the longevity of trees in various parts of the Empire, on
the lasting properties of woods, on plantations of exotics
of local ilnportance, on fire-prevention, on the character
and habits of the classes dependent upon the preparation
and marketing of various forest-products, in brief, on any
subject connected with the Empire's woods and forests,
\vill be welcomed by the Editor. In regard to some parts
of the Empire, much interesting information might be
supplied regarding forest folk-lore and superstitions.
This is particularly the case in India, where from time
immemorial the forests have played an important part
in the life of the people, and have a direct association
with strange customs and animistic'beliefs. Photographs
of all kinds will be greatly appreciated, as they operate to
popularize the Journal; and it will be an advantage if
those, who forward such photographs, will state whether
they have been previously published and if so, where.
The Association trusts that all parts of the Empire will
collaborate by furnishing a regular supply of articles,
notes and illustrations bearing upon their forest-posses-
sions and the work which is being done in them.
A question was asked at the inaugural meeting regarding
t~e possibility of organizing a social side of the Associa-
tIon's activities. The project of a dining club for the
forest-officers of the Empire has already been cursorily
discussed, and it is hoped to develop this idea, as the
As~ociation becomes more firmly established. Mean-
whIle the Association is anxious that all forest officers,
no matter in what part of the Empire they may be
EMPIRE }4"ORESTRY
serving, should realize that it desires to extend to them

the hand of friendship and support, and, so far as may
be feasible and consonant with constitutional practice, to
hear their "iews, to become acquainted with their diffi-
culties, and to offer them practical assistance. The
Council of the Association looks forward to the day
when the Empire Forestry Association will serve as
a centre of reunion for all those who spend their official
lives in the forests of the Empire.
MAJOR L. A. ANDREWS, District Forester, Vancouver,

has sent us a copy of an address which he delivered on
this subject, and which appeared in the
Forest Work by Canadian Forestr'Y Afagazine for October
Aeroplane. . '
192 I. The maln value of the aeroplane
lies in its ability to cover large areas of country rapidly
and at low cost. In the case of timber-land, informa-
tion as to percentage of species, density of stand, size of
timber, suitability of a tract for logging, &c., can be deter-
mined froin an aerial photograph. Where the stands
are fairly uniforn1, as in the cedar type round Drury
Inlet, Vancouver, species stand out very clearly and the
percentage at cedar is easily deterluined. In one instance
the aeroplane detected an additional area of 390 acres
of Crown land, which had escaped observation on the
ground. This was subsequently checked if" situ and
was found to contain about nine million feet b.m. of
timber.
Patrol trips by aeroplane were also organized in 1921
for detection of fires, and special emergency trips for fire-
fighting. In past years, thousands of dollars have been
expended in cutting trails and providing access to forest
fires, which the use of a single aeroplane would have
saved. On one Sunday only the aeroplane discovered
three fires on Vancouver Island and \vas instrun1ental in
getting fire-fighting crews to the spot on the same day,
with the result that the fires were reported safe on the
following day: at Menzies Bay and Half Moon Bay, the
aeroplane similarly discovered fires which had escaped
, the notice of the ground patrol, and thus enabled them
without delay to be brought under control; while in
other cases the aeroplane visited fires already reported by
the usual agency, in order to ascertain the progress made
in fighting the outbreaks, and assisted the officers in

charge of the fire-operations by taking them up to
exatTIine from above the contour and lie of the ground.
As regards reconnaissance of large tracts, one of the
chief achievements of the aeroplane in 1921 was a survey
of the damage caused to timber by the great storm of
January 29. Thirty hours' flying was performed, and
practically the whole area affected, measuring five million
acres, was covered. A subsequent partial check by
ground agency proved the aeroplane report to be
approximately accurate. Such a survey, carried out by
ordinary methods, would have lasted for months and
cost thousands of dollars. Similar work was carried out
in the OlytTIpic peninsula, where the flights covered
2,200 square miles, and 354 aerial photographs were
taken, from which a fairly accurate estimate was deduced
of the total dan1age caused by the storm.
Altogether sixty-four flights were undertaken in 1921 in
the interests of forest administration, the total time spent
in the air being 95! hours. Of these flights twenty-eight
were devoted to forest protection, fourteen to inspection
and su pervision of forest parties in areas lacking com-
munications, and fourteen to research work, such as the
estimation of the acreage and rate of growth, &c., of new
crops of timber on denuded lands. By Ineans of the five
patrol trips twenty-one new fires were located.
This record is interesting and app'ears to justify Major
Andrews' contention that for rapid transport, inspection
and supervision, in the case of large areas lacking
a developed system of communications, the aeroplane
has proved itself a very cheap and efficient auxiliary of
forest administration.
FOLLOWING the appointment of the Conservator of

Forests last year, the Tasmanian Government has dedi-
Tasmania. cated 12,000 acres of more or less waste
country on the West Coast for the purpose
of conifer afforestation. The Minister of Lands (Hon.
Alex. Hean, C.M.G.) has stated that he believes the area
of 12,000 acres might be increased to some 30,000. This
land, while of a sandy nature, enjoys the beneficent
and heavy rainfall characteristic of the West Coast, from
70 to 120 inches per annum; and this is particularly
EMPIRE FORESTRY
suitable for the cultivation of soft woods. The Minister

estimates that had this block of 12,000 acres been planted
25 years ago, its worth to-day would be not less than
£250,000,000, while the revenue to the State would have
been about £100,000 per annum. Even in the dry areas
of Australia considerable progress has been made in the
growing of soft woods. In South Australia 25 years ago,.
a State forest was commenced at Wirrabarra in the far
north. The trees planted were mostly Pinus insignis, and
for several years the forest has been worked to provide
wood for fruit cases.
THE Report of the Forests Department, Western

Australia, for the year ending June 30, 1921, gives the
area ef State Forests reserved for timber-
Western
Australia.
"
growing, as a I"1ttIe more t han 45,000 acres,.
which is small by comparison with the
acreage of reserved forest in New South Wales,
Queensland and Victoria. The gross revenue of the
forests amounted to £75,469, and the expenditure to
£19,159, leaving a net revenue of £56,310, of which two-
fifths is absorbed by the Treasury and three-fifths is
allocated to the Forest Department. rfhe description of
the jarrah forests is decidedly pessimistic. Seventy-five
years of practically uncontrolled cutting and wholly un-
controlled burning have greatly reduced their area, while
over the area thus denuded the percentage per acre of
sound young trees is practically nil. Unless immediate
steps are taken to increase the number of young trees and
protect them from fire, future generations will have no
jarrah timber at all. There are indications, however,.
that the public is beginning to realize the gravity of the
situation, as, for example, at Collie, where the residents
have spontaneously formed a forest fire protection society.
The condition of the karri forests is very much more
satisfactory, owing chiefly to the comparative infrequency
of fires. But even in this case much damage is done to
the young trees during the operations of felling mature
timber, and results in indirect financial loss to the State.
Another problem is that of the cutting of sandal wood
for the China market, which absorbs practically the
whole Australian supply. On the one hand the suita-
bility of the young sandal tree as a fodder plant militates
POWELLISING PLANT AT PEMBERTON, WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
(Nearly all the sleepers on the Trans-Australian railway from Port Augusta to KaJgoorJie (1,000 miles) were treated by this plant.)
against natural regrowth and is responsible for the paucity

of young plantations, while on the other hand the desire
for quick pecuniary returns has resulted in the over..
cutting of the mature trees and the consequent glutting
of the China market. To obviate these shortcomings the
forest authorities recommend some form of State Inono-
poly and control, whereby sandalwood workers may
obtain continuity of employment at fair rates, the State
may obtain the maximum benefit from a valuable forest
product, and the cutting of trees on Crown lands may be
so regulated as to render the present supply adequate for
the China demand until future plantations are ready for
working.
The recent establishment by the Council of Science and
Industry of the Federal Forest Products Laboratory in
Perth has paved the way for scientific forest research,
though up to the present, owing to lack of equipment and
of trained officers, work has necessarily been limited to
investigating the paper-making qualities of hard woods, to
tannin experiments, and to the problems of kiln-drying
and the preservation of timber. The results so far
obtained are of great interest, particularly in regard to
tanning, and jl1stify expectations of important commercial
developments. As Western Australia is commercially
interested in what is known as the Powell process of
impregnating wood, much attention has been paid to its
effect upon eucalypt timber. Its success has been demon-
strated by exhibits of U po\vellized" and" unpowellized 'I'
jarrah and karri, which had been placed in a coal mine,

\vhere the attacks of fungi were so severe that the un..
treated wood was reduced to punk in three years. The
" powellized" wood \vas as sound as on the day it was
placed in the mine.
The Report concludes with a note of warning regarding.
the future forest policy of Western Australia. " The
forest policy which governs the use by the present
generation of this vast national wealth must be based on
a sound legislative enactment, \vhich removes the forest
authority as far as practicable from political control. It
takes many long years for a tree to grow, and to borrow
pr. Addison's phrase, 'However much we may allow for
Justifiable expediency, the policy cannot safely rest on a
shifting opportunism to the neglect of conviction.' "
94 EMPIRE FORESTRY
THE Canadian Gazette (export section) of July 28,1921,

drew attention to the great part played by Canadian
timber in the maritilue traffic between the
S;ht~~~~~ Dominions and the United Kingdom. Prior
to the outbreak of the war, the long voyage
round Cape Horn prevented any appreciable quantity of
Pacific Coast timber being shipped to the United
Kingdom, though heavy consignments were, and still
are, sent to Australia and China. But with the opening
of the Panama Canal a new era dawned for the lumber
trade of British Columbia, the first mercantile vessel to
tra verse it being the Santa Clara with three million feet
b.m." of Douglas fir for the war zone. The Canal has
brought British Columbia many weeks nearer to England,
and will prove an important factor in developing the trade
in timber and shipping between British Columbia and
the mother country.
As is the case with other parts of the Empire, uncom-
fortable forebodings have l~tterly been circulated about
the probable failure of the timber supply. There are
indeed some who declare that the lumber-trade will have
ceased to exist in twenty years' time. These doleful
prognostications are, however, refuted by the l\tlinister of
Lands, who stated publicly in April last that the Govern-
ment is making special efforts through its forest-protection
service to place the timber industry on a really permanent
basis. He does not deny that some of the huge trees,
from 250 to 300 years old, which are now being felled
cannot be replaced, and that lumbermen of the next
generation will have to be satisfied with timber obtained
from trees of 75 years of age and upwards. Admitting
this, however, there is no reason why the present policy
of the Government, if strenuously followed, should not
result in a large supply being available for all future needs.
British Columbia is reported to be developing a new
industry, nalnely the supply of cascara bark. The world
demand in pre-war days was met by Germany, Japan and
the United States; and when the German supply ceased
on the outbreak of hostilities, the demand for American
supplies was so heavy that the shrub was almost exter-
minated in areas possessing facilities for transport. A
large supply of the bark is now fOl,lod in British Columbia,
where the shrub flourishes in the warm, damp climate of
the central valleys; and a company has been formed to

cultivate the shrub on pre-empted land and to supply the
raw drug to the wholesale drug-dealers.
THE charge laid against the Briton of squandering the

forest resources of the lands into which he has penetrated,
is ill ustrated by the history of the kauri pine
The Kauri
Pine.
in New Zealand. According to Maurice
H urst, who contributed an article on its
destruction to the World's Work a few months ago, the
kauri pine covers an extensive area in the northern portion
of Auckland, and is one of the largest timber-yielding
trees in the world, being estimated to give twice as much
timber per tree as oak, teak, mahogany and red cedar.
When organized settlement commenced in Auckland and
neighbouring lands, about a hundred years ago, reckless
clearing of the forests took place, and continued so stren-
uously for years that, according to a recent report, the
present rate of destruction, if persisted in, will finish
New Zealand's forests completely in thirty years. For-
tunately there is a brighter side to this picture of reckless
and ignorant destruction. A report of the situation was
drawn up a year or two ago by Sir David Hutchins, who
'Succeeded in arousing public opinion and alarm. This
was followed by the formation of a Forestry League, and
in 1920 by the creation of a separate forestry department
under expert control. Legislation was introduced and
empo\vered the Government to allocate 7,000,000 acres as
permanent State forest, which will be increased by a
further 5,000,000 acres during the next few years. This'
large reserved area will be scientifically managed for the
production of continuous timber crops.
ACCORDING to the Report of the Union Forestry

Department for 1919-20, a rapid dilTIlnution of the area
of unworked forest in the Midland Conser-
South Africa. vancy is causing anxiety to the experts, who
foresee a sudden stoppage of the supply of
virgin timber, unless steps are now taken, by curtailing
the yields and other measures, to guard against an inevit-
able cessation of output in the near future. It is clearly
the duty of the Government to take precautionary
measures 'without delay.
7
96 EMPIRE FORESTRY
In reference to official action and encouragement of

afforestation, attention may be invited to a speech made
by H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught, at Harrismith,
Orange Free State, on October 12, 1921 : -
U I am interested to learn," said His Royal Highness,
cl that on a portion of the Town lands granted by the

Municipality for the purpose, the Government has
established during the course of the past fifteen years a
flourishing plantation nearly 1,000 acres in extent. In a
country so poorly endowed by Nature with trees such
a plantation is of the greatest value, not only because of
the direct results it produces in the shape of timber and
fuel, but because it serves as a very practical object lesson
to the people of the district as to the best kinds of trees
to plant, the method of planting them, and the success
that may be expected to be achieved even in the some..
"vhat unfavourable conditions of the Free State.
H The Government has given a good lead in this matter,
and it would be well if each farmer and lando\vner would
endeavour to follow it and contribute to the general
improvement of the country by establtshing even a few
groves of trees on his property.
It In other countries, Great Britain, Australia, Canada
and America there exist Forestry Associations, whose
object is to foster the care of forests and the planting of
trees. In the Union I am told no such Associations
exist, although the need of trees and afforestation are of
pressing importance owing to the natural lack of timber
and the almost complete dependence of the country on
imported supplies. It seems to me such unofficial Asso~
ciations might serve a very useful purpose in stimulating
interest in the subject, by arranging meetings for discus-
sion of its various branches, by the dissemination of
literature of a popular character, and by organizing excur-
sions at intervals to some of the forests and plantations
of the country.
"Perhaps in the course of time, as the Associations
grow in strength and standing, they might exert a \vhole..
some influence on the national forest policy and by
linking themselves with kindred Associations in other
Dominions they would make sure of keeping abreast of
the latest developments in the science and practice of
forestry.
"I should therefore rejoice if any movement in this
direction were initiated in South Africa.
"Although my time table does not permit of me
visiting a plantation on this occasion, I look forward to
doing so when I nextvisit the locality."
Among mercantile enterprises dependent upon forest
products may be mentioned the Wood Chemicals Com-
pany, which has installed a plant at Seven Oaks, Natal,
for extracting Stockholm tar, wood naphtha, and charcoal
from wattle timber. The plant is capable of dealing
daily with about twenty-five tons of wood, which is
estimated to yield one ton of tar, five tons of charcoal,
and an appreciable quantity of wood naphtha. Should
the venture prove successful, it is hoped to commence
later the manufacture of acetic acid and chloroform.
Rhodesia is at present handicapped by the want of a
definite policy in regard to the growing of valuable soft
\voods required for her own domestic needs. In March,
192 I, the forest authority pointed out that Southern
Rhodesia does not possess sufficient supplies of tirnber
and forest products to meet the public demand, and that
the utilization of forest products and the destruction of
timber are taking place at a rate vv"hich not only endangers
future supply, but also must exercise an adverse influence
upon the climatic conditions which govern pastoral and
agricultural prosperity. Besides this, industries of great
importance to the country cannot be established owing
to tl~e lack of suitable timbers. Apparently there are no
natural obstacles to the creation of a domestic timber-
supply, for experimental plantings of a large variety of
exotic trees, undertaken in various parts of Rhodesia,.
have shown that the soil, climate, and general conditions
are suitable to the growth of lllany useful timbers.
THE Queen Charlotte Islands are reported to be eagerly

awaiting the visit of a fairy prince in the person of the
capitalist, to enable them to utilize their'
Queen Charlotte d orman t wea Ith·In t·lm b
Islands Id
er, coa an copper.
. Circumnavigated more than a hundred and
fifty years ago, the islands have not yet been fully pros..
pected, though of late years immigration has taken
place, urban sites have been plotted out, and a certain
amount of road-making has been completed. It was the
EMPIRE FORESTRY
'\Tar which directed attention to these little-known islands,

for they rejoice in the possession of a silver spruce (Picea
sitchensis), which is admirably suited for the manufacture
of aeroplanes. Hundreds of timber claims are now held
under licence, and the quality of the Queen Charlotte
silver spruce has deservedly earned a high reputation.
Capital, however, is greatly needed to convert the island's
forests to cOlnmercial uses. The establishment of saw-
mills and pulp-factories \vould provide employment for
many who now find difficulty in obtaining regular
employment. Several small ,filills already exist, the largest
of them being the property of the Massett Timber
Company at Buckley Bay; but there is ample room and
need for more, and also for two or three good pulp
industries at the northern and southern ends of Graham
Island. Logging can be cheaply carried out, as most
of the timber-bearing area lies \vithin a mile of the water's
edge.
IN spite of the achievements of the Indian Forestry
Service during the last fifty years, the value of Indian
timbers is little known to traders and com-
India. mercial users. The country, of which about
23 per cent. of the total area is forest land,
produces 2,500 indigenous species; yet, if we except teak,
the export trade is almost negligible. Bengal, Assam,
Burma and the Andaman Islands possess great industrial
potentialities, which must lie dormant until some closer
connection is established between the Indian Govern-
ment and commercial enterprise. The commercial
prospects of Indian timbers formed the subject of an
article in the Asiatic Review for April, 1921, which re-
corded inter alia the tentative employment by a few
building contractors in England of Indian laurel, silver
greywood, padouk and gurjun for the interiors of build-
ings recently erected in London and Birminghaln. But
wider publicity and much greater efforts are necessary if
India is to reap full commercial benefit from her valuable
forests.
According to a report of the Indian Committee of the
Imperial Institute, Indian bamboos and savannah grasses
are both capable of commercial development for paper
manufacture. It is estimated that Bengal, Burma, and
South-Western India could produce 10,000,000 tons of
pulp annually from bamboo, while Assam could give

3,000,000 tons from savannah grasses. The total cost
per ton of bamboo pulp on board steamerin Burma ports.
would probably not exceed £12, which in the case of
wood-pulp is approximately the cost ,of the raw material
alone; and allowing for freight charges, bamboo un-
bleached pulp could be delivered in England at a cost
not exceeding £16 or £18 per ton. The use of bamboo
pulp in England would, however, necessitate the scrap-
ping of much of their machinery by manufacturers, and
this prospect they are hardly likely to contemplate with
favour until more exhaustive and reliable data are avail-
able. For the present bamboo pulp will find a better
market in India itself, and possibly also in Australia,.
China, or South Africa.
The general question of the' commercial development
of India's forest resources depends upon the attitude-
adopted towards the forest administration by Indian
ministers and legislative councils. It is a well-known
fact that the masses of the people have never regarded
the forest department with favour; for they cannot
understand why they should be prevented from destroy,.
ing and burning the forests as their forefathers were
accustomed to do. The prohibitions against grazing
cattle on a large scale in reserved forest, against the reck-
less denudation of hill-sides to allow of temporary and
wasteful forms of agriculture, anq against the wholesale
destruction of trees for domestic requirements, strike the
average peasant as an objectionable form of official
tyranny; and in these circumstances it is greatly to the
credit of the Indian Forest Service that it has been able
to carry out its policy and secure observance of the laws.
with so little real friction. The attitude of the educated
Indian and politician has, so far, not been "vholly reas-·
suring. It is open to question whether they really com-
prehend the vital principles underlying forest protection
and conservation, while on several occasions in the past
twenty-five years the alleged oppressive character of the-
forest regulations has be~n adopted as a platform
grievance. At the present mOlllent the future of the
administration is rendered specially dubious by the'
violence of an anti-European political movement"
organized by extremist agitators, whose avowed object is
to drive the British out of India. This racial antagonism
100 EMPIRE FORESTRY
has been directly responsible for the wholesale destruc·

tion by fire of 250,000 acres of forest in Kumaon, United
Provinces, resulting in a loss to the Government of
thousands of rupees and in throwing out of employment
hundreds of penurious hill-folk who depended upon the
forest for their livelihood. It \vas likewise responsible for
the refusal of the Madras Legislative Council to sanction
funds for the erection of an up-ta-date saw-mill in the
Ganjam District, on the grounds that the management of
the mill and the m~rketing of the produce had been
entrusted to a European firm. Hopes are expressed that
this racial hostility may gradually die down, as the work-
ing .of the new constitutional reforms becolnes more
settled and the Indian members of the various executive
and legislative councils appreciate more fully their re-
sponsibihties. But assuming that these hopes are fulfilled,
the continuance of the admirable work performed by the
Indian Forest Service and the profitable comtnercial ex-
ploitation of the country's forest resources will still depend
upon the adoption by Indians theo1selves of a wider and
n10re statesmanlike grasp of forest economics and forest
·problems than is at present in evidence.
A CORRESPONDENT of the leading English newspaper in
lVIadras describes a strange ceremony which takes place
A Curious in Coorg, when one of the native forest
Forest rangers shoots a panther. The Government
Ceremony. gives a ranger a small pecuniary reward for
every panther shot, and a portion of this reward is devoted
to the expenses of the ceremony, which consists in
·formally marrying the ranger to the dead beast.
A rude shed is erected close to the village where the
ranger lives, containing a roughly made throne, flanked
by brass lamps from the village temple. The spectators
'Collect in a body round the shed, while from some
distance away a procession advances with hoots, yells
.and howls towards them. It is headed by two villagers
in gala dress, carrying the skin of the dead panther, which
has been clulnsily stuffed with straw and sewn up in rude
Jashion. Behind the panther, which represents the bride
at this mock wedding, walks the bridegroom in the
.person of the ranger who killed it. After him come the
best man, who holds aloft an umbrella, and the whole
village-men, women and children-all very excited and
noisy, all dressed in their best clothes. The ranger-

bridegroom takes his seat on the throne in the shed, while
the stuffed panther is propped up outside in a perpen-
dicular position with sticks and ropes.
One by one the villagers approach the throne and,
taking off their shoes, pOUf milk down the bridegroom's
throat and sprinkle rice over his head. The ·younger
men make obeisance to hiln; and then, after a general
distribution of money, the headmen of the village lead the
bridegroom out of the shed towards the panther. A
knife -is put in his hand, with \Yhich he cuts the ropes
holding the panther upright. Thus the ceremony ends,
(lnd is followed later by general feasting and jollification
in the village. Occasionally a ranger may be lucky
enough to kill two panthers; but this makes no difference
to the ceremony. Both panthers are stuffed with straw,
head the lprocession, and are propped up outside the
shed, and both alike fall ignominiously to the ground at
the conclusion of the marriage rites.
The underlying superstition seems to be that the
ranger, by his pretended marriage to the panther, will
unite himself permanently to strength and courage.
rrhere is also a belief that the spirit or ghost of the dead
animal may harass and do harm to the ranger, unless its
·malignity is effectively counteracted. Surely there can
be no better method of securing immunity than by re-
legating the panther to the position of unquestioning
obedience which the average Hindu bride occupies
towards her husband.
As an example of well-directed forestry propaganda the
following extracts from the Illustrated Canadian Forestry
P .. Magazine for October, 1921, are worth
ui~h~~~a':aork quoting: It Almost fifty thousand persons
. have visited the Tree Planting Car of the
Canadian Forestry Association during this season's tour
'Of the prairie provinces, and· at least fifty thousand
-citizens of the West have learned why it pays to plant
trees on the bleak, wind-swept prairies. Through the
energy of the Association's western lecturer, hundreds of
farlners and settlers have been visited at their own farms
'O~ homesteads, and their tree-planting problems dealt
'wIth on the spot. Scores of municipalities which have
approached the lecturer concerning the lay-out of pros-
102 EMPIRE FORESTRY
pective parks or boulevards have been ~upplied with

working plans, with detailed advice as to species of trees.
to plant, and complete instructions for planting and
maintenance, absolutely free of cost. .
U .Many of the visitors to the car came sceptical and
unbelieving, feeling it was unprofitable and even impos-

sible to grow trees successfully under their peculiar local
conditions, and that nature never had intended the
prairies to be anything but a bleak, barren expanse
devoid of the comforts and beauty ~afforded by the
presence of trees. :Few, if any, of these "doubting
Thomases" ever went away doubting.
H The interest shown everywhere by school children is
remarkable. In addition to the daily lectures there are,.

of course, 'movies,' real tree-planting pictures, showing
areas before and after planting, how to plant, &c. This,
proves in many instances a unique attraction for the
children. And after all it is the children we most want
to get. Their young minds are plastic, and it is not
necessary to knock out old and hard-set conceptions first
to make room for more rational ideas.
U Fortune smiled on the Association this season
through the courtesy of the Saskatchewan Government
in attaching the Tree Planting Car to the 'Better'
Farming Train,' which that Government sent out.
During the period that the car was attached to this train
an attendance of 32,774 was recorded.
U The tree planting policy adopted by the Canadian
Forestry Association is intended to bring practical

assistance and inspiration to the prairie farmer and
stimulate a love of trees in the youthful element 'of
Western Canada. The Association has now more than
four thousand members in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and
Alberta, and plans are afoot to secure a much larger'
membership."
MR. E. E. PESCOTT, F.L.S., has contributed SOlne·
remarkable facts about the Blackwood to the Gum Tree,
The Blackwood which are quoted in the Australian Forestry
(Acacia Journal for September, 1921. He states
Melanoxy/on). that Professor Ewart has successfully ger-
minated Blackwood seed which was 51 years old, while
Mr. R. H. Gambage, of Sydney, germinated seed which
had been immersed in sea-water for 1,192 days, or

3t years! Mr. Pescott himself has seen a young Black-
wood in a lVlelbourne garden grown from a seed that
\vas taken trom the crop of a migratory bird, which had
just arrived for the summer season; and he has grown a
young Blackw~od to the height of 10 ft. in two years
from the seedlIng stage. Others record the growth of
trees to the height of 20 ft. in three years.
RECENT Australian and Indian forest literature supplies

concrete examples of the evil consequences of reckless
The Evils of destruction of timber. The Mildura district
Fores~ in Australia once possessed many miles of
DestructIOn. pine woods: to-day, it has practically none.
Mildura will probably be a l~rge exporter of dried and
canned fruits and will require tilnber to make boxes.
At the InOinent this timber has to be ilnported, sent to
Mildura, and thence back again to the seaboard ,for
export. Had forestry regulations been introduced thirty
years ago, not only would these boxes be made froill
timber grown in the district, but the cost of building
houses would have been much less, as much of the
timber used in building Mildura was imported 16,000
miles, \vhen it should have been grown on the spot.
(V. B. Trapp, quoted in the Australian Forestry Journal.)
" Trowscoed" \vrites with something of the passion
of old Hebre\v prophets in the Indian }"'orester of
August, 1921 : -
"The forests where the Emperor Babar hunted the
rhinocerous have disappeared, and in their place is found
a waterless tangle of ravines, a nightmare land, accursed
to God and man. The beautiful country along the foot-
hills, a land of streams and cornfields and pleasant
luango groves, is washed away or buried under sand and
gravel like the ruined cities of Turkestan. The outer
hills are hideous and naked, scored with ravines, inter-
sected \vith cliffs, devoid of shade or perennial water;
and all so that man may graze his abo111inable goats and
destroy the forests at his own sweet \vill. The water-
courses of !{umaon are dry and choked with debris; a
pleasant country of well-wooded hills is turned into a
~terile waste by a race sunk in the abysmal depths of
19norance. With fire and axe they devastate their own
1°4 EMPIRE FORESTRY :
land, worse than any foreign foe. What care they for the
,morrow 1 'Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof.'
Within the memory of man hills once clothed with
forest 'are now bare and desolate, perennial streams are
dried up. Heat, dust and cholera pervade the lands.
In spite of the evidence of their own eyes, their self-
styled leaders, voicing the parrot cry of the mob, protest
against forest-management and fire-protection, and give
their support to those whose one object appears to be
the destruction of their own land with the utmost
possible speed, so that their children lnay have neither
water to drink nor wood to burn, nor fields to cultivate.
The voice of wisdom is as the voice of one crying in the
wilderness which none heedeth; the ClalTIOUr of fools
fills the air; and day by day the country passes along the
road leading to the abomination of desolation spoken of
by Isaiah the prophet."
It Arbores magnae diu crescunt, una hora extirpantur."
THE curious diversity of status assigned to Forest

Authorities in various parts of the Empire, coupled with
Forestry and the varying ~ondit!ons undel: which they
Democratic carry out theIr duties and objects, has en-
Government. gendered doubts whether Forestry can ever
attain its rightful position in the economic life of a nation
under a democratic form of government. The success
of Forestry in all its branches depends primarily upon
the preparation and adoption of a definite policy, in
which common-sense and imagination are happily
blended, and in the second place, upon the inviolable
continuity of that policy, despite the constant changes
affecting the Governments which control forest adminis-
,tration. These points received emphasis in an excellent
paper on Cl The Forest Authority," read by the Right
Hon. F. D. Acland, M.P~, before the Empire Forestry
Conference of 1920; and brief consideration of the sug-
gestions which he submitted to the general body of
delegates cannot fail, in our opinion, to interest those
who may not have had the opportunity of attending the
Conference, or of reading the published report of its
proceedings.
As regards the preparation of a policy, few Govern-
ments have ever evolved a really comprehensive and
EDITORIAL NOTES AND M.ISCELLANEA ' 105
careful scheme for the benefit of posterity,: except under

,pressure of circumsta~ces clearly indicating th: prospec-
tive'bankruptcy of theIr sylvan resources. ThIs was the
'Case in India, where the benevolent autocracy of the
East India Company suddenly became alarmed at the
wholesale destruction of forests, which had taken place
during the first half of the nineteenth century, and
appointed a trained forest expert to frame a definite
policy of conservation and advise on the establishment
'Of a regular service of professional experts. The measures
taken during Lord Dalhousie's viceroyalty marked the
,dawn of scientific forestry in India, and the policy then
promulgated has been faithfully followed to the present
day by Governments, which, though increasingly sensitive
to the pressure of Indian opinion, could not by any
stretch of imagination be descri bed as democratic. It
will be interesting to note what is the ultimate effect upon
Indian forest policy and administration of the more
-democratic constitution imposed upon India in 1919.
If Indian politicians lay themselves open to the charge
levelled against statesmen of other countries of seldom
possessing practical good sense or iluagination, and very
-seldom both, then the last state of India's forests will be
\vorse than the first. Whether these strictures on the
'capabilities of democratic statesluen are justified cannot
be discussed here; but we may remark that the history
'of forestry in England during the last three or four cen-
turies to some extent supports them. Between the
'sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, as Mr. E. P. Stebbing
writes in his Comn~ercial Forestry, the old forestry science
'of England originated and reached the zenith of its
utility to the nation; and then for various economic
-reasons it declined until, by the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, it ceased to be a factor in the life of the
people. In the latter quarter of the nineteenth century
·a few enthusiastic landowners tried to enlist the sym-
'pathy of the Government of the day in replanting
schemes and in the introduction of Continental systems
'of scientific forestry education; and in' response to this
'pressure the Government followed its invariable practice,
when faced with uncomfortable problenls that it does
n~t wish to decide, of appointing committe'es and com-
mIssions, which produced no real progress in afforesta-
J:06 EMPIRE FORESTRY
tion, and, for all the practical good they effected, luight
just as well have never been appointed.
As regards continuity of forest policy, few Governments.
of the democratic type realize the truth of the statement that
an afforestation policy must be uniform for generations,
and that to make it dependent upon extraneous Con-
siderations, such as the need of providing for unemploy-
ment, or upon the changing aspect of domestic politics,
is tantamount to rendering it wholly sterile. H Foresters,'''
writes Mr. Acland, "are the only class of the lay com-,
munity who, on week-days as well as Sundays, are con-
cerned not with the here, but with the hereafter. They
sow that others may reap. They must think not only in
terms of time but almost in terms of eternity. But he is
a long-sighted politician who thinks beyond the next
General Election. The moral is surely obvious." If
there be any truth in the observation of an English
\vriter that in highly-developed democratic States the'
really big men, possessed of imaginative and creative
tninds, show an increasing tendency to choose ~ommerce
as the field of their activities, and to relinquish pohtics
and ministerial careers luore and more to the professional
politician, the man of the loud voice and the one idea,
\vho can talk glibly from the platform, then possi bly we
,have the reason why a subject like Forestry, \vhich
lneans the gradual and laborious accumulation of a bank-
balance for generations yet unborn, rouses so little
interest and enthusiasrn in Governlnents of the modern
type. Even where a forest policy has been decided
upon, there is always a danger that pressure may be
applied by vested or other interests to the minister, whose
duty for the time being it is to safeguard that policy, and
that the principles which ought to be supreme in all cases
of difficulty and conflict may have to yield to the doctrine
of expediency.· Examples of this practice are not un-
known in connection with the administration of the
Empire's forests; and their occurrence, occasional
though it may be, disheartens the trained forester who
has devoted his whole energy to sowing that others may
reap, and causes dismay to the few men who regard the
future welfare of the Empire as more important than the
ephemeral successes of politicians and their party-pro-
gramme. A forest policy, once it has been laid down"
should be kept wholly outside the pale of politics, and

should be administered continuously by men who really
appreciate its meaning and realize its objects.
Connected with this matter is the question of finance.
Continuity of forest policy is seriously jeopardized, if the
funds required to carry it out have to be asked in the
form of budget grants every year, "\vithout any certainty
that the requisite amounts will be forthcoming from the
State exchequer. No business man would think of
initiating a large enterprise, spread over a long term of
years, without first having some assurance that funds to
finance it would be forthcoming at successive stages of
its development. Another important business principle,
which Governments are prone to forget, is that, where
pro-fits accrue, a considerable _portion of those profits
should be regularly returned to the business, to admit
of extensions and expansions of the concern. Even in
India, where the Provincial Governments have pursued
for fifty years an enlightened forest policy, complaints
have occasionally been tnade in the Press and elsewhere
of the neglect of this principle. The Forest Department
of a certain province shows a net profit, let us suppose,
of Rs. 50,000 in the year. The Government, which
declines to regard the forest adlninistration in the light
of a separate business, may sweep the ,vhole profit into
the treasury, and when preparing the expenditure side of
its budget, may allocate perhaps Rs. 20,000 only to the
Forest Department, and devote the balance of Rs. 30,000
to building new police- barracks or to opening primary
schools, or to some other quite laudable project totally
unconnected with Forestry. The main considerations
to be impressed upon democratic Governments which
are constantly requiring more money for the support of
proposals designed to attract votes and capture the
popular ilnagination, is that Forestry, if it is to fulfil its
real aim, must be assured of the regular receipt for a
term of years of funds proportionate to the schemes and
plans which it is pledged to carry out; and that if its
activities result in an increase of revenue over expendi-
ture, a recognized portion of the profit thus made should
be devoted to increasing its scope and efficiency.
Lastly, in democratic countries possessed of a forest
policy and forest ordinances and regulations, it may
108 EMPIRE FORESTRY ,
happen that the ignorance of the general public on the

subject 'offorestry and its relation to national economy
is an even more effective bar to steady progress in con-
servation and economic exploitation than the nonchalance
or caprice of Governments. Mr. Acland quotes the case
of a Crown Colony which has a "beautiful forest policy
laid down in the preamble of the Forestry Ordinance;
but towards the putting into force of this policy the
Government are apathetic, the people antagonistic, and
the lumbering industries positively hostile." In-England
the disinclination of the Government during the first
decade of .the twentieth century to act upon the recom-
mendations of the committees and commissions, which
they themselves had appointed, must be ascribed largely
to the entire lack of interest in the subject displayed by
the British public. I t is true that the Government, even
in the face of this ignorance, might have fully justified
official action on the lines recommended by thecom-
Inittees, in consideration of the financial stake involved
in timber conservation and development. But perhaps
this is too prescient a course to expect of politicians
whose horizon is bounded by' "the next· General
Election."
The remedy is the steady education of the public in the
aims and objects of Forestry up to the point at which
the wishes of the people, the policy of the Government,
and the plans of the ~"'orest authority shall completely
coincide. Then and then only will the Empire witness
the determined effort needed to ensure that our heritage
is handed down unimpaired to a grateful posterity. The
task is not easy; the difficulties are great; the distractions
are many. But if those who realize the meaning of this
Imperial problem will face manfully the work which
confronts them, and strive without remission to arouse
the interest of the general public, their endeavour must
ultimately achieve success. The most prominent" cha..
racteristic of the present day is, perhaps, the art of
advertisement in most branches of human life. Reasons
why this should be so, do not here concern us, and
possibly it is only an unpleasant temporary phase which
will pass away to be ridiculed in history. But while the
phase persists, it is necessary for our purpose to accept
·and practise it. Forestry must be advertised as boldly
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA IO<}
and unblushingly as any system of physical or mental

culture which is daily brought to the notice of the public..
And the advertising agents must be the various Forestry
Associations in different parts of the Empire. In the·
sphere of publicity, Planting, in fact, must occupy the
place ot Peln1anism, Mycology, the place of Muller's.
exercises. Thus only will it be possible to combat, the
tendency of Governments to regard Forestry as the hobby
of a few well-meaning enthusiasts. As matters now'
stand, the past record of various democratic Govern.ments
in relation to Forestry may best be described in' the
words applied by a \veIl-known Provincial Governor to
the history of an eastern industrial school, as ",a record:
of inconstant purpose with breaks of unconcern."
THE Association has received a copy of U Sylva," the:
annual publication of the Edinburgh University Forestry
"S 1 " Society, and is glad of this opportunity, to
y va. offet its congratulations to the editor, l\1r.
R. Maclagan Gorrie, on the attractive paper which he·
has produced. The pages of the maga'line are devoted
to subjects both grave and gay, and those of its sub-·
scribers who find articles on Increment by Du Vachat's
JrJethod, or The Place of lVlycology in Forestry a somewhat
excessive mental strain, can turn to "Sports notes" and
lighter matters. One pleasant feature is the page devoted~
to the movements of members of the Edinburgh Society
and to notes on the present whereabouts and activities of
old members. Edinburgh apparently distributes her
forestry-pupils far and \vide, for their presence is reported
in almost every clime, from Ardgowan to Kualalumpur.
U Sylva" must constitute a pleasant link with old times,
and old friends for those whose life-work lies in the

distant forests or the sparse research laboratories of the-
Empire.
110
REVIEW.l
THE SILVICULTURE OF INDIAN TREES.

By R..S. TROUP, M.A., C.I.E.
(3 Vols., large 8vo. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1921.
Price £5 Ss.)
THE publication, under the auspices of the Govern..

ment of India, of this book by a very competent
authority, making full use of the combined knowledge
of many of the best officers of the service, marks a new
epoch in Indian forestry; and will be of more value to
the service, as well as to all tropical foresters, than any
,vork on the subject hitherto available. Without a fairly
wide personal knowledge of the forests of India, and the
infinite variety of their trees, soils, and climates, no one
can realize what difficult and complicated problems had
to be dealt ,vith by the foresters in charge of them, often
with little or no local experience; and usually imper-
fectly acquainted with the languages of the people who
inhabit them.
In the introduction, Prof. Troup tells us that his work
is the outcome of several years of research into siIvi-
cultural problems at the ~""'orest Research Institute at
Dehra Dun and at outlying experimental stations, com-
bined with observations recorded in many parts of India
and Burma for a period extending over more than twenty
years. Though the work deals primarily with forest
trees of the Indo-Burmese region, a certain number of
exotics have also been included, such as Eucalypti, which
are already grown to some extent' in plantations or are
otherwise of interest to Indian foresters. He gives a
very careful and valuable account of the climatic condi-
tions of the various provinces and a sketch of the forest
vegetation of the region, divided as follows :-
1 Reprinted from the Quarterly Journal t1f Forestr)', October, 1921, with
the kind permission of the Editor and Mr. H. ]. Elwes.
REVIEW III
(I) The Western Himalayan sub-region, which is in its

temperate and alpine zones mainly composed of pines,
spruces, oaks, poplars, birches, walnuts, and other trees
known in Europe.
(2) The Eastern Himalaya, also divided into three
zones of altitude, and containing probably as many dis-
tinct species as all the rest of the sub-regions.
(3) The trans-Indus sub-region, including Baluchistan,
where juniper is the principal coniferous tree.
(4) The North Western dry region, where, owing to
the very low rainfall (in most parts under 20 in.), there is
little or no true forest, except on the banks of rivers or
on land subject to periodical inundation.
(5) The Gangetic Plain, of which the most important
forests, where they exist, are' the Sal forests of Oudh,
which, to my mirtd, are hardly distinguishable from the
sub-Himalayan or Terai forests; and as the littoral
forests of the Gangetic delta might more! properly be
included in another division it is a question whether this
division is a natural one.
(6) The West Coast region, which includes (a) the
tropical ever-green rain-forests of Kanara and Malabar;
(b) the mixed deciduous forest which merges into the
Central Indian region, and might, perhaps, be included
in it; and (c) the sUb-tropical ever-green forests which
clothe the plateau and hill ranges of the peninsula above
about ~,ooo ft.
(7) The Central Jndian region, which for the most part
is dry, and whose most valuable forest trees are teak and
sal, though many other hard woods, little known except
locally, occur in many places.
(1) The Deccan and Carnatic, which does not seem to
be easy to separate froIn the Central Indian sub-region.
It is mostly subject, like the latter, to. a very hot, dry
season, which on shallow and poor soils is not favour-
able to forests.
(9) Assam, which from the biological point of view, is
hardly distinguishable from the Eastern Himalayas, and
for the most part is subject to a very heavy rainfall,
which in the Khasia Hills average 460 in., and may
much exceed this in some seasons. l4'orty inches -have
been recorded in twenty-four hours at Cherra Pungi,
and Sir J.D. Hooker states that IS0 in. were recorded
8
112 EMPIRE FORESTRY
in five days, this being the heaviest rainfall accurately

measured at any place in the world, so far as my know-
ledge extends. Though in the north-east of this region,
elevations of 10,000 ft. and upwards are found, there is
no alpine zone as in the Himalayas, and bamboo forests
are in some places of most important economic value, as
they are also in
(10) Chittagong and A.rakan, with which I think the
Sunderbunds might be united.
(11) Burma is, on account of the abundance of the
teak tree, the most valuable and important province, and
the only one which has hitherto provided a large quantity
of timber for export. Kurz, in his intruduction to H The
Forest Flora of British Burlnah," has divided the forests
into eight main types, and Prof. Troup describes their
constituents most carefully.
(12) The Andaman Islands, which are almost entirely
covered by dense forest, resembling in their general
features the forests of Burma, though they have many
species peculiar to the Islands. On pp. xxxii-xlii we
have a most careful review of the recological factors and
SQil conditions, which, in conjunction with climatic fac-
tors, determine the presence or absence of forest; and
the remainder of the introduction is occupied by remarks
which are as interesting to all foresters as they are useful
to those whose work lies in India. The problems which
affect the gregarious habits of species, which as a rule is
much less usual in tropical forests, and under conditions
more favourable for vegetation than it is in the coniferous
forests or the north, are discussed more thoroughly than
I remember in any work on forestry in the English lan-
guage. The author then takes the Indian trees in the
. sequence of their natural orders, and describes their
life-history in detail under the heads of distribution
and habitat-leaf-shedding, flowering and fruiting, ger-
mination, silvicultural characters, natural and artificial
reproduction, and rate of growth. He gives coloured
illustrations of the fruit, seed, germination, and early
development of the seedlings, and a selection frorn the
vast collection of forest photographs which have been
accumulated at Dehra Dun; and as he has been able to
.utilize, the observations, notes and reports of numerous
foresters in India to supplement and confirm his own
REVIEW 113
observations, we may well believe that the Forest Flora

of India has now for the first ti me been worthily
described. I n the case of Cedrela Toona, a tree which. I
knew well in former days in Sikkim, where it was the
only timber used for tea-boxes, I can say that if the
foresters of thirty to forty years ago had known and prac-
tised what Prof. Troup now tells us, that most valuable
timber tree would not have been allowed to become rare
and nearly extinct in many places where it used to be
abundant. Its growth in suitable localities is very rapid,
a mean girth-increment of I in. to 2 in. being recorded,
and trees containing 400 to 500 cubic ft. in the butt were
not rare forty years ago. Interesting to the tree-lover, ,as
well as to the forester, are the numerous records of height,
girth, and volume of the timber trees of India. Teak
trees of 22 ft. girth with boles of 80 to 90 ft. to the first
branch, containing nearly 1,000 ft. of timber, are recorded
in Travancore. In Burma Dr. Brandis measured one
16 it. in girth at 6 ft. and 114 ft. to the first branch, but
if they exist in India I can find no record of trees so large
as some oaks, elms and beech trees have attained in Great
Britain. When \ve come to conifers, however, it is
otherwise. The tallest tree I can find recorded in India
was a deodar in the Sutlej valley, 240 it. high, on Dr.
Schlich's authority, and Brandis records trees of 30 to
30 fL in girth in Kunawar. The taJlest silver fir recorded
is Abies pindrow, 206 ft., and the tallest spruce 215 ft.;
but I have myself measured in 1914 the fallen tree of
Picea spinulosa = P. morindoides, which was referred to
in "The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland," VI, p. 1393,
and quoted by Prof. Trol1p on p. 1154, and can confirm
Mr. Claude White's original statement that when standing
it must have been well over 220 ft. As regards the dimen-
sions which the common yew attains in the Hinlalayas-
where one ,vould suppose that the very rich soil and
heavy rainfall of the forests where it grows would allow it
to attain much greater dimensions than it does in England
-I find no evidence to confirm this expectation. In
Hazara, where large trees are common, Prof. Troup
records them up to 14 ft. girth and 60 ft. high, and states
that large trees are almost always hollow. In the Close
Walks at Midhurst, in Sussex, there are much taller trees
than this, and many of greater girth than either Gamble
EMPIRE FORESTRY
or· I have seen in Sikkim are known in England. With

regard to poplars, I note with Interest the first account I
have read of the very slow growth of seedlings, which, in
the case of natural seedlings, attained only about an inch
or so in the first year, and in five years only 16 in. This
supports the few personal experiments I have been able
to make in raising poplars from seed, and confirms my
impression that it is far better to propagate poplars from
cuttings than from seed. And in this connection I may
say that the description of the methods of propagating
trees eithet by artificial or natural means is one of the
features of this work which inspires the reader with the
utmost confidence in the personal observations and wide
experience of the author. Prof. Troup tells us nothing
of the conditions which induce the formation of the
beautifully figured walnut burts, which have lately been
exported from Kashmir and Hazara, and which have been
saId at higher prices than any other wood in modern
days. That such burrs do occur in Europe is proved by
the tree which I recorded at Nuneham Park, in "The
Trees of Great Britain and Ireland," but Western Asia
has hitherto been the only source from which they were
tegularly imported.
An interesting account is given of the Indian caoutchouc
or rubber tree, Ficus elastica, which, until the introduction
of the Hevea or Para rubber· tree, seemed likely to be a
valuable source of revenue in the Assam plantations, but
experiments proved that even moderate tapping, if carried
out annually, results in the death of the trees, and in the
unprotected forests of Bhutan and Sikkim most of the
wild trees have been tapped to death by native collectors.
"Of the Oriental plane we learn that it is cultivated in
Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the Western Himalaya,
where it is ftost.. hardy up to about 8,000 ft.; but in
Baluchistan the variety acerifolia suffered from late frosts
in March, 1<)16. It can be propagated by lar~e cuttings
taken off with some of the old wood and planted several
inches deep.
Though bamboos are not usually considered as trees,
yet in 'many parts of India they are even more important
than timber, both to the inhabitants and to the forester.
"The number of species is very great, and their life-history
is still imperfectly known. There is much to learn as to
REVIEW 115
the periodicity of their flowering, the causes which influ-

ence it, and the rate of growth of the seedling; and I
venture to suggest that the reprinting of the article on
bamboos would be of the highest economic importance
to colonists in Africa, Australia, and America, as well as
to India. There is little doubt that the introduction of
the best and hardiest species of bamboo into all countries
where the climate allows them to grow vigorously, '~lould
materially help to make up for scarcity of timber for
house-building, fencing, &c., and that the utilization of
bamboo for many domestic purposes which has been
developed so cleverly by the Chinese and Japanese might
be learned with advantage in other countries.
I do not remember to have read in any other book so
good an account of the best means of raising and trans-
planting the walnut, one ot the few hard woods which, if
properly treated in the South and East of England, would
probably pay better than any other. An illustration
(fig. 330) shows that in favourable localities this tree can
be grown close enough to fornl such straight, clean trunks
as we seldom or never see in England.
The. reproduction by colour-photography of the numer-
ous plates of seedlings is successful, though it remains to
be proved whether, on the highly-glazed paper which is
used, the colours will be permanen~; and having regard
to the necessarily high cost of the work, which is too
heavy to be carried about in camp, where it would be
most useful, it may be possible to publish a condensed
portable edition without these costly illustrations, which
run up to 490 in number.
H. J. ELWES.
116
LIST OF BOOKS, REPORTS AND OTHER

PUBLICATIONS ON FORESTRY AND
TIMBERS -ISSUED IN 1920 AND 1921.
(With a few of earlier date.)
I. A Manual of the Timbers of the World, their

Characteristics and Uses, by Alexander L.
Howard, with an account by S. Fitzgerald of
the artificial seasoning of timber. Illustrated.
Macmillan and Co. 1920
2. West African Forests and Forestry, by A. Harold
Unwin, late Senior Conservator of Forests,
Nigeria. T. Fisher Unwin 1920
3. Practical Forestry and its bearing on the improve-
ment of Estates, by Charles E. Curtis, late
Professor of Forestry, &c., at College of Agricul-
ture, Downton. 4th edition. Crosby Lockwood
and Son 1920
4. A Guide to the Identification of our more useful
Timber, being a manual for the use of forestry
students, by Herbert Stone. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press 1920
5. Conifers and their Characteristics, by Charles
Coltman-Rogers. John Murray ... ... 1920
6. London 1"'rees, being an account of the Trees
that succeed in London, &c., illustrated, by'
A. D. Webster. Swarthmore Press ... 1920
7. Studies in French Forestry, by Theodore S.
Woolsey, jun., with two chapters by W. B .
. Greeley, Forester, D.S. Forest Service. Chap-
man and Hall 1920
.8. Elementary Notes on Conifers, by Arthur H.
Church. H. Milford (Oxford Botanical Memoirs) 1920
g. Form-factors in Coniferae, by Arthur H. Church.
H. Milford (Oxford Botanical Memoirs) ... 1920
10. A Handbook of Forestry, or all about Trees and
their Timber, by A. D. Webster. W. Rider
and Son 1920
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS· 117
J I. The Kiln Drying of Lumber, a practical and

theoretical treatise, by Harry D. Tiemann, V.S.
Forest Service. 3rd edition. Illustrated. J. B.
Lippincott Co. .., ... ... .. , ..• 1920
12. The Timber Merchant's Handbook, by Frank
TifJany, F.R.S.A. (Timber Trade Journal Offices,
8, Paternoster Row). W. Rider and Son .•• 1920
13. The United States Forest Policy, by John bee,·TS(I
Ph.D., LL.B., Yale University Press, New
Haven. H. Milford, Oxford University Press 1920
14. Traite pratique de Sylviculture, by Lucien
Chancerel. Gauthier-VilIars et Cie., Paris 1920
15. Flore forestiere generale du Globe, by Lucien
Chanceral. Gauthier-Villars et Cte., Paris ..• 1920
16. La Fon~t Sainte de Haguenan en Alsace, Notice
historique et descriptive. Berger-Levrault,
Nancy-Paris-Strasbourg 1920
A Short Manual of Forest Management, by Henry

Jackson. Cambridge University Press 19 21
18. Wayside Trees and how to know them, by F.
Robson. Thornton Butterworth 192 I
19. A Text-book of Wood, with 41 plates, by Herbert
Stone. W. Rider and Son 1921
20. The Practice of Silviculture, by Ralph C. Hawley,
Yale University; Jol)n WHey and Sons, inc.
Chapman and Hall ... ... ...
21. The Silviculture of Indian Trees, by R. S. Troup,
M.A., C.I.E. 3 vols. Illustrated. Clarendon'
Press, Oxford
22. Forestry for Woodmen, by C. O. Hanson, M.B.E.
2nd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford...
Timbers for Woodwork, by William Bullock.
Evans Brothers 19 21
Timber Technicalities, be~ng definition of terms
used in the Home and Foreign Timber, Mahogany
and Hardwood Industrtes, &c. (with short bib-
liography and glossary of tree-names in five
languages), cOlnpiled and edited by Edwin
Haynes, Editor Timber Trade Journal. W. Rider
and Son
Pamphlet. Labour and Afforestation, by A. H.
Unwin. The Labour Party, 33,. Eccleston
Square, S.W. ... . .. 19 20
26. Archives of the Cambridge Forestry Association
19 1 9 and 1920
118 EMPIRE FORESTRY
MEI-RCANTILE.
27. The Timber Trade lournal List of Shipping marks

on sawn and planed wood exported from Sweden,
Norway, Finland, Russia and Germany. W.
Rider and Son 1920
28. Taylar's Running Feet Tables, for readilyascer-
taining the number of running feet of sawn
timber in varying lengths. Wyndharn's, Acton 1921
OVERSEAS PUBLICATIONS.
(a) Standard Works on Australian Timber.

1. Timbers of Western Australia (Strains, Tests, &c.),
issued by Hon. Newton J. Moore, M.L.A. 1906
2. A Research on the Pines of Australia, by Richard
T. Baker and Henry G. Smith ... 1910
3. Cabinet Timber of Australia, by Richard T.
Baker, published by the Government of New
South Wales 1913
4. The Hardwoods of Australia and their Economics,
by Richard T. Baker 1919
(b) Official Publications.

I. Official Year Book of the Corumonwealth of Aus-
tralia, No. 13, Section X (published separately),
Forests, Forestry, and Forestal products 1920
2. Forest Act, 1918, Timber Regulations, amend-
ments approved by H.E. the Governor in
Executive Council... 1920
.3, South Australia, Annual Progress Report upon
State Forest Administration, for 1920-21, by
Waiter Gill. Adelaide ... 1921
4. vVestern Australia: some notes about the Forest
Resources of the State, issued by the Minister
for Forests. Illustrated... No date
First 15 pages separately published with catalogue
of exhibits at Forestry Exhibition, Sydney, 1919,
issued by the Minister for Forests 1919
5. Victoria: First annual report of Forests Com-
mission, Melbourne 1921
6. New South Wales; Report of Fore3try Com-
mission for year ended June 30 ... 19 20
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 119
7. Tasmania: Interstate Conference on Forestry,

Report of resolutions, proceedings and debates
(60 pages).! Hobart ... ... ... ..• 1920
8. Trinidad and Tobago, Forest Resources of, by
C. S. Rogers. Council Paper No. 25 1920
9. The New Zealand Official Year Book, Sec-
tion XVII, Forestry, Wellington. Eyre and
Spottiswoode ... ... ... .. 1920
10. Canada. Annual Report of the Director of
Forestry for year ended March 31, 1919, pub.
lished in Annual Report of the Department of
the Interior, Ottawa 1920
11. Ontario, Handbook of, prepared by direction of
the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry Section.
9 pages. Ontario .. ;. 1920
12. Ontario, Report of the Minister of Lands, Forests
and Mines, for year. ending October 31,1919,
Forestry Section, Toronto 1920
13. Ne,v Brunswick. Annual Report of the Crown
Land Department for year ended October 31,
1920, by Hon. C. W. Robinson. Fredericton 1921
14. Western Australia. Report of the Forests Depart.
ment for year ended June 30, 1921, by C. E.
Lane Poole... 1921
15. Queensland. Annual Report of the Director of
Forests for year ended June 30, 1921. Brisbane 1921
(c) Miscellaneous "(of earlier date).

1. Bulletin No. 59. "Canadian woods for Structural
Timbers," prepared under the direction of Super-
intendent, Forest Products Laboratories of
Canada, by H. N. Lee, in charge of Timber
Physics, Ottawa ... 1917
Bulletin No. 60. "Canadian Douglas Fir, its
mechanical and physical properties, photos and
tables, with bibliography," prepared under
same direction as above, by R. W. Sterne, Chief
of division of Timber Tests 1917
1 The papers include: "Professional Forestry Education," by C. E. Lane

Poole; "The Federal Forest Products Laboratory," by I. H. Boas;
" Possibilities of Aerial photography surveys for Forest purposes," by Owen
Jones; "Notes on the Timber Industry in Tasmania and elsewhere," by
E. A. Counsel; "Silviculture in Victoria in relation to Tasmanian Forests,"
by H. R. Mackay.
120 EMPIRE FORESTRY
2. Report on the Timbers of British Columbia, by

Whitford and Craig ... ..• ... ... 1914
3· Laws respecting Lands and Forests and Timber
Regulations of Quebec, published by Depart-
ment of Lands and Forests 1916
4. Forest Conditions of Nova Scotia, by B. G.
Fernon, assisted by C. D. Howe and J. H.
White, published by permission of the Depart-
ment of Crown Lands, Ottawa 1912
JOURNALS, TRANSACTIONS, &c.

1. Royal English Arboricultural Society, quarterly journal
of Forestry, (last number, J~nuary, 1922); Chief
Editor, Prof. Somerville, M.A., School of Rural
Economy, Upiversity of Oxford.
2. Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Transactions,
Vol. xxxv, Part I, September, 1921; Hon. Editor,
A. W. Borthwick, D.Sc.
3. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Trans-
actions, Article on "Farm Forestry," by J. Milne
Home, Vol. xxxiii, 1921.
4. The Indian Forester, monthly journal of Forestry,
Agriculture, Shikar and Travel; Editor, F. W.
Perree, Dehra Dun, V.P., published by Pioneer Press,
Allahabad.
5. Australian Forestry Journal, issued monthly under the
direction of the Forestry Commissioners of New South
Wales; Editor, C. J. B. Watson, 25, O'Connell Street,
Sydney.
6. Illustrated Canadian Forestry Magazine, monthly, pub-
lished at Ottawa.
7. Canadian Forestry Journal, published by Canadian
Forestry Association, Ottawa. .
8. Pacific Coast Lumberman, monthly, 7°1-3, Pacific
Building, Vancouver.
9. Western Lumberman, monthly, 212, Winch Building,
Vancouver. •
10. Canada Lumberman, issued twice a month, 347, Adelaide
Street, West, Toronto.
11. The Gum Tree, quarterly, issued by the Victorian
Branch of Australian Forest League, 89, Powlett
Street, Melbourne.
12. Jarrah, quarterly, issued by W. Australian Brancb,
St. George's Terrace, Perth.
LIST 01'" PUBLICATIONS 121
Madras Forest College Magazine, published by Principal,

Madras Forest College.
Occasional papers on Forestry, Indian Science Congress,
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
PARLIAMENTARY PUBLICATIONS.
I. House of Commons Reports and Papers, Session 1921 ;

Woods, Forests and Land Revenues, Abstract Ac-
counts for 1919-20.
2. Report of the Departmental Committee on Imperial
Forestry Education, 1921.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION.
I. Bulletin No. 1. Collection of Data as to the

Rate of Growth of Timber 1919
Bulletin No. 2. Survey of Forest Insect Con-
ditions in the British Isles 1920
Bulletin No. 3. Rate of Growth of Conifers in
the British Isles ... 1920
First Annual Report of the Forestry Com-
missioners, year ending September 30, 1920 ••• 1921
Leaflet No. 1. Pine Weevils, a description of the life-
histories and habits of the pine weevils, and of the
methods employed in combating these enemies of
young plantations.
Leaflet No. 2. Chermes Cooleyi, an account of a Ckermes
which has recently appeared in Great Britain, attacking
Douglas fir.
Leaflet No. 3. The Pine Shoot Beetle, a common pest
in pine woods.
Leaflet No. 4. The Black Pine Beetle, one of the most
. destructive bark beetles. \
Leaflet No. 5. Conifer Heart Rot, a common cause of
decay in larch and spruce.
Leaflet No. 6.. The Honey Fungus, a destructive pest
in conifer plantations.
Leaflet No. 7. Chermes attacking spruce and other
conifers.
Leaflet No. 8. Douglas Fir Seed Fly.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
:.l, (Published by the Ministry of Agriculture and issued

by the Forestry Commission.) , ,
Leaflet No. 99. Relationship of Woods to Domestic
Water Supplies.
Leaflet No. 103. The Pine Sawfly.
Leaflet No. 140. The Felted Beech Coccus.
Leaflet No. 1~6. The Large Larch Sawfly.
Leaflet No. 199. A Pine Disease (Diplodia pinea).
[Copies of all the leaflets may be obtained free of charge
on application to The Secretary, Forestry Commission,
22, Grosvenor Gardens. London, S.W.I.]
3. (Publications connected with the Empire Forestry Con-

ference.)
(i) British Empire Forestry Conference, 1920-
A report of the proceedings, with resolu-
tions and sutnmary of statements. H.M.
Stationery Office 1921
(ii) Forestry in the United Kingdom-A state-
ment prepared by the Forestry Commission
for the British Empire Forestry Conference 1920
(Hi) Statement of Forest Conditions in British
India, pr epared under the orders of the
Government of India 1920
(iv) Western Australia, Statement prepared for
the British Empire Forestry Conference
by C. E. Lane PooIe, issued under the
authority of the Ministry of Forestry;
numerous maps 1920
(v) Forestry in Queensland, Statement prep'lred
by Queensland Forest Service 1920
(vi) Forestry in the State of New South Wales,
prepared by the Forestry Commission,
N.S.W., Sydney 1920
(vii) Forestry in Victoria, Statement prepared by
the Forests Commission, Melbourne 1920
(viii) South Australia, Statement prepared by
Conservator of Forests. H.M. Stationery
Office ... 1920
(ix) New Zealand, Statement compiled from
official sources by "vV. M. E, Martin, under
the direction of the High Commissioner •.. 1920
(x) The Forests of Canada, their extent,

character, ownership, management, pro-
ducts and probable future, prepared in
co-operation with the Dominion Bureau
of Statistics ..• 1920
(xi) British Columbia, Forests and Forestry in,
prepared by the Forest Department of
B. Columbia ... 1920
(xii) Quebec, Forestry in the Province of, pre-
pared by the Assistant Chief of the Forest
Service t920
(xiii) Newfoundland, The Forest Resources and
Industries of; extracts' from memoranda
prepared in 1914 for the Royal Commission
on the Natural Resources of certain portions
of His Majesty's Dominions 1920
(xiv) Union of South Africa; Statement. Pretoria 1920
(xv) British East Africa, The Forests and Timber
Resources of. Waterlowand Sons, London 1920
(xvi) Nyasaland, Forestry in ; Statement prepared
by the Chief Forest Officer... ..• ..• 1920
(xvii) Nigeria; Statement prepared by the Forest
4.L\.uthority. Waterlow and Sons ..• ... 1920
(xviii) GQld Coast Colony; Statement by Con-
servator of Forests. Waterlow and Sons... 1920
(xix) Uganda, Forestry in; Statement by Chief
Forest Officer... 1920
(xx) Swaziland, Forestry in; Memo. prepared
by the Assistant Commissioner, Hlatikula
District. H.M. Stationery Office ... 1920
(xxi) Southern Rhodesia, Forestry in, by J. S.
Henkel, Forest Officer. H.M. Stationery
Office •.. 1920
(xxii) Malay Peninsula, Forestry in. Federated
Malay States Government Press •.• 1920
(xxiii) Ceylon, Forestry in, by J. R. Ainslie; under
the authority of Conservator of Forests.
Colombo 1920
(xxiv) British Guiana, Forestry in; prepared by
the Forest Officer, Department of Lands
and Mines, B. Guiana 1920
(xxv) British Honduras, Forestry in; Memo. for-
warded by the Governor. H.M. Stat~onery
Office ... I9~0
(xxvi) Trinidad and Tobago, Forestry in the Colony
of; Statement prepared by the Conservator
of Forests, Trinidad •.• 1920
124 EMPIRE FORESTRY
(xxvii) Bermuda, Forestry in; Memo. prepared by

the Director of Agriculture (I page) 192Q
(xxviii) The' Bahamas, Forestry in; report by the
Surveyor-General. H.M. Stationery Office 1920
(xxix) Jamaica, Forestry in; Letter from the Acting
Surveyor-General, forwarded to the Sec-
retary of State for the Colonies. H.M.
Stationery Office 1920
(xxx) St. Lucia, Windward Islands, Forestry in ;
Statement by the Administrator 1920
(xxxi) Leeward Islands, Forestry in; from a report
prepared by J. J ones, Curator, Leeward
Islands (1919).
(xxxii) Cyprus, Report on the Natural Resources
and present development of the Forests of,
by A. K. Bovill, Principal Forest Officer... 1920-
(xxxiii) Hong Kong, Forestry in; Statement by
the Acting Superintendent, Botanical and
Forestry Department, Hong Kong... 1920
(xxxiv) Weihaiwei, Forestry in; Letter from the
Commissioner, Weihaiwei, to the Secretary
of State for the Colonies, April 8 ... 1920
12 5
TRADE RETURNS,
1920 AND 192 I.
ANNUAL Statement of the Trade of the United King-

do~ with foreign countries and British posses-
sions, 1920, compared with the years 1913 and
1919; compiled in the Statistical Office of the
Customs and Excise Department ... 1921
Wood and Timber.
Total value of Imports in 1920, £82,145,214
" 19 19, £7 2,3°6,469
" 19 13, £33,7 88 ,884.
Total value of Exports (foreign and colonial mer-
chandise)
in 1920, £1,602,505
,,19'19, £753,53 0
" 19 13, £833,002.
Total value of Exports (produce and manufacture
of the U.K.)
in 1920, £1,011,366
" 19 1 9, £861,7 6 7
c " 19 1 3, £34°,745
Total value of articles of foreign and colonial mer-
chandise retained in the U. K.
in 1920, £80,542,7°9
" 19 1 9, £7 1 ,55 2 ,939
" 19 13, £3 2,955,882_
Accounts relating to the Trade and Navigation of the United
Kingdom for the year ended December 31, 1921 : -
Imports of Wood and Timber.
Total Value ... ... £3°,°39,165.
Exports of Wood and Timber (produce and manu-
facture of U.K.).
Quantities •.• Loads 20,756.
Total Value ... £367,0°3.
Exports of \Vood and Timber (foreign and colonial
merchandise).
Total Value •••
HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS.
H.R.H. PRINCE ARTHUR OF CONNAUGHT, K.G., Governor-General

of the Union of South Africa.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., Governor-General of the Dominion
of Canada.
THE EARL OF RONALDSHAY, G.C.I.E., Governor of Bengal.
FIELD-MARSHAL VISCOUNT ALLENBY, G.C.B. t High Commissioner
of Egypt.
ADMIRAL OF TIlE FLEET, VISCOUNT JELLICOE, G.C.B., Governor-
General of New Zealand.
FIELD-MARSHAL LORD PLUMER, G.C.B., Governor of Malta.
THE RIGHT HON. LORD FORSTER, G.C.M.G., Governor-General of
the Commonwealth of Australia.
LORD WILLINGDON, G.C.I.E., Governor of Madras.
GENERAL SIR· HORACE L. SMITH-DORRIEN, G.C.B., Governor of
Gibraltar.
SIR SPENCER HARCOURT BUTLER, K.C.S.I., Governor of the United
Provinces.
SIR E. D. MACLAGAN, K.C.I.E., Governor of Punjab.
SIR W. H. MANNING, K.C.M.G., Govern~r of Ceylon.
SIR I. N. GUILLEMARD, K.C.B., Governor of the Straits Settlements.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR L. O. FITZM. STACK, K.B.E., Governor-
General of Sudan.
SIR HUGH CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G., Governor-General of Nigeria.
SIR G. F. ARCHER, K.C.M.G., Governor of the Somaliland Protectorate.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR EDWARD NORTI-IEY, K.C.M.G., Governor of
. Kenya.
MAJOR SIR J. R. CHANCELLOR, K.C.M.G., Governor of Trinidad and
Tobago.
SIR ROBERT T. CORYNDON, K.C.M.G., Governor of the Uganda
Protectorate.
SIR CHARLES ALEX. HARRIS, K.C.M.G., Governor of Newfoundland.
SIR E. M. MEREWETHER, K.C.V.O., Governor CJf the Leeward Isles.
SIR Wm. EDWARD DAVIDSON, K.C.M.G., Governor of New South
Wales_
SIR F. A. NEWDIGATE NEWDEGATE, K.C.M.G., Governor of Western
Australia.
LIEUT.-COLONEL SIR ARCHIBALD WEIGALL, K.C.M.G., Governor
of South Australia.
LIEUT.-COLONEL THE RIGHT HON. SIR MATTHEW NATHAN,
G.C.M.G., Governor of Queensland.
MAJOR SIR HESKETH BELL, K.C.M.G., Governor of Mauritius.
SIR R. E. STUBBS, K.C.M.G., Governor of Hong Kong_
MAJOR H. E. S. CORDEAUX, C.B., Governor of the Bahamas.
BRIG.-GENERAL F. G. GUGGISBERG, C.M.G., Governor of the Gold
Coast Colony.
CAPTAIN CECIL H. ARMITAGE, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of
Gambia.
MR. EYRE HUTSON, C.M.G., Governor of British Honduras.
MR. AYLMER CAVENDISH PEARSON, C.M.G., Governor of Borneo.
Mr. RICHARD J. WILKINSON, G.M.G., Governor of Sierra Leone.
John Bale, S~ns and Danielsson, Ltd., 83-91, Great Titchfield Street, London, W. I.
Empire Forestry
Journal of
The Empire Forestry Association
Imperial Institute
London
SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER
1922
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
VOL. I. Price: 48. net

I Dollar
·PLANTING SEASON, 1922-1923.
SITKA SPRUCE.
Samples a~d
DOUGLAS FIR. Special prices
Millions ill
stock 01 healthy
LARCH, EUROPEAN. on demand.
LA~CH, JAPANESE.
hardy well- Special
IIro_ll plants. SCOTS FI~. Carriaie paid
NORWAY SPRUCE. quotations.
THUJA OIOANTEA,
&c., &c.
SPECIAL LIST OF TREE SEEDS AND SEEDLINOS
publl.lIed IIJ JalJuary.
TRANSPLANTING BOA~DS &. SHELTERS

SCULICH'S NOTCHING SPADES, SEMI.
CI~CULA~ PLANTINO SPADES, &'c., &c.
Per.ollal llls".ctloll IlJvlted. Catalogues Po.t Free.
BENJAMIN REID & CO.

SEEDSMEN and NURSERYMEN to the King.
8y Appointment. T.legraphiclI~d~d~·~bel'deen:' ABERDEEN.
THE "IDEAL" FENCE

FOR FORESTRY
OR whatever purpose and in any part of
F the world" Ideal" Fencing will be found
to be the cheapest and best. "Ideal" is
made in many styles from small mesh netting
to keep out ground vermin to heavy strand
fencing for protection against wild beasts.
" Ideal" is the only fencing where the junc-
8,000 tion of every wire is gripped by the" Ideal"
Lock, specially constructed for rigidity and
MILES strength.
01 "Ideal l l Write lor lully Illustrated Price List (0). Advice
FeDciD' have lellclll6 problems free alJd special quotatlolJ.
0.11
lor large QualJtltle••
bee D erected
IDEIL~FEICE
b¥ the two
peat Cana-
dian Railwa¥s WOVEN WIRE
H. L. GOODMAN B SON, : ~t'lli'iT~:::O:B:fol:

EMPIRE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.
Patron:
H.M. THE KING.
President:
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES.
Chat"rlnan:
Vice- Chairl1zan :
GoverninK Council:
The DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G.
The EARL OF PLYMOUTH, G.B.E., C.B.
EARL BUXTON, G.C.M.G.
VISCOUNT MILNER, K.G., G.C.B.
Sir JAMES ALLEN, K.C.B.
Sir CLAUDE HILL, K.C.S.I.
Sir FREDERICK HO:QGSON, K.C.M.G.
Sir GEORGE HART, K.B.E., C.I.E.
Lieut.-Colonel S. S. MALLINSON, D.S.O., l\I.C.
Lieut.-Colonel R. M. BECKETT.
Mr. ROBSON BLACK.
Mr. M. C. DUCHESNE, F.S.I.
Mr. H. R. MACKAY.
Mr. W. S. MILLARD.
Mr. H. MORRISON, M.P.
Mr. A. H. ASHBOLT.
Mr. F. B. SMITH, C.M.G.
Mr. W. TURNBULL.
Secretary.' Edz'tor 0/ Journal.'

Mr. J. S. CORBETT. Mr. S. M. EDWARDES, C.S.I.,tl"C.V.O.
Hon. Treasurer.'
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA 127
2. WESTMJNSTER HALL, BY SIR FRANK BAINES 203

3. NOTE ON THE OAK USED IN WESTMINSTER HALL,
BY LT.-COLONEL G. L. COURTHOPE 214
4. TIMBER DEPLETION I~ THE UNITED STATES, BY

SIR JOHN STIRLING MAXWELL ••• 216
5. SYLVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF EUCALYPTS, BY

G. E. BROCKWAY ••• 229
6. THE INDIAN FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, BY

SIR GEORGE HART 247
7. FEMELSCHLAGBETRIEB, BY R. M. GORRIE 253

8. THE DURABILITY OF INDIAN TEAK, BY S. M.
EDWARDES ••• 257
g. THE CHENCHUS OF THE MADRAS FORESTS 261
10. REVIEW 267
11. LIST OF RECENT FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS 273
12. LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE EMPIRE FORESTRY

ASSOCIATION... 277
DOUGl.AS FIR AND \VESTERN HEMLOCK, BRITISH COLUMBIA.
Frontispiece.]
EMPIRE FORESTR Y.
EDITORIAL NOTES AND

MISCELLANEA.
THE Governing Council of the Empire Forestry Associa-
tion regret to announce that the response to their appeal
for membership and for funds to support the
An Appeal. varied work of the Association has, so far,
been most disappointing. The Council
fully recognize that the times are most unpropitious for
the collection of funds for public purposes, and that a
subject like the promotion of Forestry appeals less
strongly to the ilnagination of the average man than
projects and propositions which offer an immediate
return in money. Nevertheless, the whole question of
our timber resources is of such vital import to the future
welfare of the Empire that the Council feel constrained
once again to solicit public support of the Association.
Unless this is forthcoming the Council will be compelled,
albeit most reluctantly, to suspend the publication of the
Journal. Considering the warm welcome extended from
all quarters to the first issue in March last, the Council
entertain hopes that this appeal will not be in vain, and
that sufficient funds will yet be forthcoming in the form
of donations and subscriptions to justify not only the
continued appearance of the EMPIRE FORESTRY JOURNAL,
but also the existence of the Association itself, which, in
view of the immense distances to be traversed, requires a
period· of at least two years to establish its influence in
various parts of the Empire.
A' MEETING was recently held in London of represen-
~atives of the Forestry Commission and the Empire
The Programme Forestry Association, with the object of
of the laying down more precisely the character of
Association. the duties to be undertaken by the latter
128 :EMPIRE FORESTRY
body and so obviating the possibility of duplication of

work. It was agreed that the Empire Forestry Associa-
tion should concentrate its activities on the following
programme :-
(a) Forestry propaganda.
(b) The issue of a Journal and other publications.
(c) The promotion of Imperial commercial interests in
the sphere of utilization and marketing of timber.
(d) The preparation of timber exhibitions and of a
permanent exhibit of Empire commercial timbers.
(e) Representation on appropriate committees of the
Forest Products Board.
(f) Collaboration with Forestry Associations and with
the work of the various Forest Services of the Empire.
(g) The. preparation of suggestions or advice upon
problelns formulated by the Forestry Commission and
forwarded to the Empire Forestry Association for opinion.
Other business transacted at the meeting. included a
statement by Lord Lovat, Chairman of the Forestry
Commission, that the question of establishing an Imperial
Bureau, as recommended by the Imperial Forestry
Conference of 1920, should preferably be held in
abeyance until after the next Conference. A letter, which
was read at the meeting, is accordingly being forwarded
to the Colonial Office, requesting that a notification to the
above effect may be sent to the governments of all the
Dominions, Colonies and States of the Empire. Lord
Lovat further announced that the Treasury were prepared
to sanction the loan by the Forestry Commission to the
Empire Forestry Association of the part-time services of
Mr. Fraser Story, who would be responsible for editing
the Journal and other publications of the Association, in
addition to his official duty of preparing a report upon
the world's soft wood resources and a survey of British
\voodlands .and census of production. The accommoda-
tion and clerical staff required by Mr. Story will be
provided by the Empire Forestry Association.
THE following telegraphic message, dated March IS,
1922, was received by the Secretary of State for the
Good News Colonies from. t~e President, Queensland
from Forestry AssocIatIon :-
Queensland and H Please transmit following message to
Kenya Colony. Lord Novar. 'Greetings from Queensland
Forestry Association formed last night. Their inaugural

meeting March 30, coincides with Australian Forestry
Conference in Brisbane.'
H NATHAN, (President)."
The folJowing reply was sent :-
" Reciprocate greetings. All success to the Queensland
Forestry Association.
"NOVAR,
It (Chairn~an, Entpire Forestry Association)."
The Empire Forestry Association extends a hearty
\velcome to its friends in Queensland, and trusts that
these cable messages may be the harbinger of a firm
alliance between the two bodies. We await with interest
the receipt of further information of the Queensland
Association's inauguration and activities, and hope to
receive regular communications from its managing com-
mittee and menlbers on all matters appertaining to
forestry in that country. Such support and co-operation
as the Empire :Forestry Association can afford to Queens-
land's foresters and forest interests will be most willingly
accorded.
Equally encouraging is the fact, reported at a meeting
.of the Governing Council, that all the officers of the
forest service of Kenya Colony have joined our Associa-
tion, and that a luovement is on foot to establish a
forestry association which will, it is hoped, be affiliated
\vith the Empire Forestry Association.
.A propos of the appeal in the opening paragraph of these
notes for increased financial support, it is gratifying to
"THE EMPIRE be able to record the fact that the contents
FORESTRY of the first number of the Empire Forestry
JOURNAL." Association's Journal have met with general
approval: and we take this opportunity of expressing our
sincere acknowledgments to those who have contributed
articles to that number from various parts of the Empire.
Their example win, it is hoped, stimulate others to assist
in like nlanner this branch of our Association's activities,
and to furnish the Editor with articles, notes and corres-
pondence for publication. It has been suggested that
such a subject as H The Relationship of Forests to Cli-
mate might well be adopted as the theme of a series of
11
papers, written by forest officers on the.basis of their own

130 EMPIRE FORESTRY
experience and observations in the various countries and

climates in which they are working. Such a series would
be of great interest and of permanent value. Equally
acceptable would be notes and articles on insect pests
and fungi, which, apart from their general utility, might
on occasion serve as useful danger-signals to countries
contemplating the introduction of new species of trees.
We appeal, also, to our readers and others interested
in forestry to send us not only original articles of a tech-
nical character, but also articles of a popular type,
descriptive of the country, its inhabitants and social life,
and its main products and industries. Notes on the
affairs and progress of Forestry Societies in all parts of
the Empire; notices or reviews of new books, pamphlets,
journals, &c., especially those published in the Dominions,
Crown Colonies and Protectorates; and personal notes
recording changes, transfers and resignations in the
Forestry cadres, will likewise be welcomed. There is,
indeed, hardly any limit to the scope of the material
which we hope to publish, and we appe.al earnestly to all
experts, students and supporters of Forestry in its Inani-
fold aspects to assist us by constant written communica-
tions and contributions in making this Journal truly
representative of the whole Empire.
The ignorance of the ordinary Englishman on the
subject of the life of his fello\v-Briton overseas, and of
the problems which confront him in the development of
those remote lands, is profound. In the donlain of
Forestry, we may be able gradually. to dispel in some
measure that ignorance, provided that those \vho are
actually. dealing with those problems will utilize the
pages of our Journal to ventilate their views and publish
for the benefit of those in the mother country the great
store of first-hand knowledge and experience which they
possess.
In July, 1921, the English Forestry Association applied
to the Empire Forestry Association for advice as to
The Testing ~hom they sho~ld send. certain sa~lples ~f
of. Empire tImber for phySIcal testIng, and thIS apph-
Timbers. cation led the Empire Forestry Association
to conduct an inquiry into the present position of timber-
testing and technology throughout the Etnpire.
EDITORIAL NOTES AND AflSCELLANEA I31
The information thus collected shows that India (at

Dehra Dun) and Canada (at Wisconsin) possess institu-
tions, fully equipped with laboratories, machinery and an
expert staff, capable of undertaking any scientific investi-
gation into timber and forest products, while Australia
proposes to establish, if she has not already done so, a
similar institution in Sydney. These three countries are
thus in a position to perform an the expert inquiries and
tests demanded by the economic side of their forest
policy, and are far more favourably circumstanced than
the Crown Colonies and other dependencies which do
not possess institutes for forest-research. In some of
the Crown Colonies, the absence of facilities for expert
investigation has obliged the holders of large timber
concessions to undertake such work themselves, and to
increase their staff by the appointment of scientists and
,engineers. While there may be no great objection in
many cases to permitting private enterprise to supplant
official control, it is on general principles better that
investigations of this nature should be carried out by
those who produce, and not by those who exploit, the
national timber supplies.
Forest-research work in England is undertaken by so
many different bOdies, that an engineer would have diffi-
culty in deciding to which of them to apply for informa-
tion, and the overlapping of functions and consequent
waste of money are rendered inevitable. While testing
machinery is installed only at the Imperial Institute and
the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, forest-
research is carried out at the Imperial Institute, at the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, by the
Board of Scientific and Industrial Research at Kew,and
at the National Physical Laboratory. Of these various
institutions, the Imperial Institute possesses a Timber
Committee which has spent much time in preparing
reports on several Colonial timbers, which are probably
little known and rarely read by those who might derive
most benefit from them; while the Board of Scientific
and Industrial Research comprises a special Timber Pro-
ducts Research Board. In addition to these existing
institutions, it is proposed, when funds permit, to estab-
lish an Imperial Forestry Bureau, which will also deal
with the technology of timber and forest products.
13 2 EMPIRE FORESTRY
No evidence is available as to the scope of the work

undertaken by the various bodies above-mentioned in
the domain of forestry, nor as to the actual proportion
of their annual cost which could be properly debited to
the head of timber investigation. But it seems prima
facie undeniable that this multiplication of authorities
must engender confusion and waste, and that Great
Britain and the rest of the Empire could not but benefit
by the establishment of one central authority charged
with the task of carrying out all tests on Empire timbers,
which cannot be arranged for by the three institutes in
India, Canada and Australia, of dealing with all matters
of technology, and of advising as to the best means of
standardizing the trade names of Empire timbers.
The subject is one which has engaged the attention of
the Empire Forestry Association since the middle of
1921; and every eftort is being made, in conjunction
with the leading experts concerned, to evolve order out
of present conditions, and to combine the spasmodic
activities of the various bodies which undertake research
work in one appeal-court of primary importance, to
which all producers and users of Empire timbers can
safely and with confidence apply for advice or informa-
tion. Whatever may be the ultimate upshot of our
Association's inquiry, the publicity which it is proposed
to give to the subject in the pages of this journal cannot
fail to be of advantage to the timber-using and timber-
purchasing public, which is at present ignorant of the
existing facilities for obtaining information regarding the
suitability of timbers for particular purposes.
THE activities - indeed the very existence - of the
Forestry Commission have narro\vly escaped premature
The Geddes extinction at the instanee of the Committee
Report on on National Expenditure. In the course of
Natio?al their report Sir Eric Geddes and his
ExpendIture. colleagues wrote:-
"The amounts voted each year, as grants to the
Forestry Fund, and the estimated amount required for
1922-23, are as follows :-
19 1 9- 20 £ 99,000
19 20- 21 £379,000
19 21 - 22 £200,000
1922-23 (provisional estilnate) £275,000
H We are informed that the activities of the Forestry

Commissioners are based upon the report of the recon~
struction committee, dated May, 1917. This report
proposed the afforestation with conifers of 1,180,000
acres in forty years, of which 200,000 acres were allotted
to the first decade, 75 per cent. to be planted by the State.
In addition, 20,000 acres of land suitable for hard woods,
were to be acquired; private owners were to be
encouraged by means of grants to afforest and to
re-plant felled areas, and education and research were
to be subsidized.
" It is obvious to us that the expenditure at present
being incurred and forecast is merely the prelude to
a gradually extending policy, and an organization-
including provision for education and research-is being
built up to cope with it on the largely extended scale.
" We recognize the enthusiasm and public spirit of the
Commissioners, but in the present condition of the
country's finances we cannot recommend that this
expenditure-which will always show a heavy loss and
\vhich cannot reach full fruition for something like
eighty years-should be continued.
U We are of opinion : -
U (I) That the scheme of afforestation by the State
should be discontinued.
"(2) That the vote of £275,000 for 1922-23 should not
be allowed, and that steps should be taken to cancel the
power to spend the remaining £2,822,060 of the total of
£3,5°0,000 authorized under the Forestry Act, 1919.
"(3) That any unspent balance in the fund should be
surrendered to the Exchequer after meeting any liabilities
accruing in 1922-23 in respect of timber survey."
These recommendations were stoutly opposed by those
interested in forestry and timber. It was felt that the
Committee had ignored the main argument for afforesta-
tion in Great Britain, namely, national security. 11 In
time of War, England, without an adequate supply of
timber within its own shores, is exposed to very great
peril. During the Great War, the expenditure incurred
on foreign timber was colossal, and the huge cargo space
required for such a bulky import endangered the supply
of food from overseas, and at one time brought the
cO,untry to the brink of starvation. The insurance
134 EMPIRE FORESTRY
against such a calamnitY-£350,ooo annually-is a trifle.

No heed was given in the Report to the cheapness of the
afforestation, which is carried out in 'many cases on
leased land, no capital expenditure for land purchase
being required. The Government in November, 1921,
actually allotted to the Forestry Commission an extra
£250,000, out of the Unemployment Fund, which puts
5,000 idle men at work in replanting the woodland areas
felled during the war. The Forestry Commission has
acquired large areas of land; it has entered into many
leases and contracts; it o\vns millions of seedlings ready
for transplanting; it has established schools for woodmen
and instituted research. It is evident that the" scrapping"
of such an efficient service would result in an immediate
and great loss of money, and be a waste rather than an
economy." (Nature, February 16, 1922.)
Among the corporate bodies, which most hotly con-
demned the proposals of the Geddes Committee, was the
North of Scotland Home Timber Merchants' Association,
which held a meeting at Aberdeen on February 17 and
unanimously resolved to recommend the Government,
through the Prime Minister, to reject the proposals.
The resolution, as adopted by the meeting, called
attention to the fact that the Forestry Commission was
instituted primarily for the purpose of securing a
minimum of three years' supply of timber against a
further national emergency; and that, although the
legislation introduced and the moneys appropriated were
limited to the first ten years, it is obvious that if Great
Britain is to produce a reasonable proportion of its own
timber requirements, a much more rapid and compre-
hensive policy of afforestation must .be adopted. The
two main dangers confronting the country are (a) her
dependence on imported timber in times of war; (b) the
precarious character of her timber-supply in times of
peace. Moreover, in time of war the saving of shipping
is a vital consideration. The Geddes Report disregarded
the fundamental principles of scientific forestry-namely
the planting in perpetuity of timber crops on approved
working-plan methods, which have been found both
suitable and essential in all other well - afforested
countries. In the 'opinion of the British Timber Trade,
the interests of the tax-payer would be better served by
the continuance of a forest policy on sound economic

lines than by the abandonment of schemes which are
at present in their initial stages. .
}t"'ortunately these views, which found considerable
support in the Press, were recognized by the Government
as sound, and the fate which menaced the existence of
the Forestry Commission has, at any rate for the present,
been averted, though the full programme of the Commis-
sion has had to be in some measure curtailed. In a
speech delivered in the House of Commons on l\1arch I,
the Chancellor of the Exchequer stated that the Forestry
Department had not been very long in existence and
that, if it were now abolished, the sum of £1°7,000
already expended on forestry operations would be a dead
loss to the country. Compensation would also have to
be paid to the officers of the department, and expenditure
would still be necessary in carrying Qut some of the
:Forestry Department's functions through the agency of
the Office of Woods and Forests and the Board of
Agriculture. Taking all these facts into consideration,
and remembering that the Forestry Department will cost
the Exchequer next year only £40,000, because it has
savings in hand which will make up the difference, the
Government has dete.rmined in the meantime to continue
the Department of Forestry. The Chancellor added that
it would be a misfortune to arrive hurriedly at a decision
\vhich Inight result in Great Britain being the only
country in the world that possessed no department to
deal with forestry.
This decision of Government has naturally been wel-
comed by the Empire Forestry Association and all those
who recognize the vital importance of afforestation to
the national welfare; and it is to be hoped that no
further attempts will be made to hamper or cancel the
valuable work which the Forestry Commissioners are
pledged to carry out. That the decision should have
been taken at a period of acute financial stress, when the
demand for rigid economy is paramount, is eminently
satisfactory, as showing that the warnings of experts and of
the small body of men who really study and comprehend
the problem of the imperial timber supply have not failed
of effect. Other countries of the Empire, in which
political expediency may threaten to interrupt the pro-
EMPIRE FORESTRY
gramme and activities of their forest experts, may take a

, lesson on this occasion from the British Government,
which, despite the recommendations of a very powerful
committee of able men of business and a loud popular
demand for wholesale retrenchment of public expenditure,
has shown that it has not forgotten the difficulties of .the
lean years of international strife and that it is not wholly
unmindful of its duty towards later generations.
EARLY in March it was announced in the London Press
that nominations for four Verderers of Epping Forest
The Ancient would take place on the 18th of that month,
Office of and that if a poll was demanded the elec,:,
Verderer. tions would be held three or four days
later. In reference to this announcement, the Observer
of l\:Iarch sth, 1922, published a brief and interesting
account of the office of Verderer which is one of the
oldest in England.
Fisher, in hi~ history of the Forest of Essex, states that
the Verderers (Veridarii) are the successors of the
Primarii, the four chief Inen, who were appointed by
Canute's Forest Law to do justice in the Royal Forests.
To~ether with the steward, foresters, regarders, agisters
and woodwards, the Verderer was one of the indispensable
forest officials, and in early times was chosen by the free-
holders. From the fifteenth century there were four
Verderers in Epping, then known as Waltham Forest;
and at a court held in 1250 as many as eighteen are
named. In those old days a Verderer had to swear
a solemn oath, H truly to serve the King in the office of
Verderer in the Forest of Waltham, to the uttermost of
his power and knowledge to do for the profit of the King
so far as it appertained him to do; to preserve and
maintain the ancient rights and franchises of the Crown;
not to conceal from His Majesty any rights or privileges,
nor any offence either in vert or venison, nor any other
thing; to deal indifferently with all the King's liege
people; to execute the laws and assises of the forest, and
do equal right and justice as well to the poor as to the
rich in what appertained to his office, and not to oppress
any person by colour thereof for any reward, favour, or
malice."
The Verderers had to be esquires or gentlemen of good
account, ability and living, wise and discreet men, and
well learned in the laws of the forest. They were· the
judges of the Court of Attachments and presided at the
Swainmote and had the custody of the Rolls of the
Forest Courts. They were entitled to fee deer: but at
times the fee, which consisted of two bucks and a doe,
was not very regularly paid. Excepting their small
jurisdiction in the matter of vert, the powers of the
Verderers were practically limited to inquiries into
matters presented at the Court of Attachments by the
Forest Officers. If they exceeded their powers, they
were liable to a heavy fine. Thus in 1670, each of the
Verderers of the Forest was fined £20 at the justice seat
for having discharged a man caught in the act of killing
a stag and having distributed the fine at their pleasure.
Their action on this occasion transgressed an ancient
law which provided that a person arrested for killing
a wild beast in the forest without warrant should not be .
set free except by special order of the King or his
justices.
The abolition of the Justice Seat and the Swainmote
left the officials of the Forest without power to prevent
numerous encroachments and enclosures of the waste;
and consequently, an Act was passed early in the
nineteenth century by which the Verderers were em-
powered to inquire into cases of unlawful enclosure and
to prosecute the offenders in the Court of Attachments.
The Verderers of that date, however, appear to have been
careless in the performance of this duty; and towards
the middle of the century the task of enforcing the rights
of the Crown was taken out of their hands and entrusted
to the Commissioner of Woods and Forests.
Twenty-five years later the Corporation of the City of
London began to exercise jurisdiction 0ver the Forest.
Various difficulties supervened in consequence; but
a sett~ement was finally effected in 1878 by the passing of
the Epping Forest Act, which disafforested the whole
area and abolished the Crown rights of vert and venison,
the Forest Courts and Offices, and the burdens and
restrictions of the forest laws and customs. The
Corporation of the City of London were appointed
Conservators of the Forest, and the deer were transferred
to them as objects of ornament. Their primary duty was
10
EMPIRE !.'ORESTRY
declared to be the keeping of the Forest free from all

building and its protection and management as an open
. space for the recreation and enjoyment of the public.
The ancient office of Verderer still survives in altered
form: for under the Act of 1878 four Verderers ha:ve to
be elected periodically; and they, together with twelve
members of the Court of Common Council, constitute
the Epping Forest Committee, which has authority H to
exercise the powers and discretion which the Conservators
are empowered to do and exercise." The Verderers and
the Committee hold several meetings every year concern-
ing the management and preservation of the Forest,
both in the Forest itself and at the Guildhall.
THE Duke of Atholl presided at the annual meeting of
the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society in January,
1922, and in moving the adoption of the
Scottish
Forestry.
report, remarked that forestry, like every-
thing else, had suffered somewhat severely
from the prevailing economic depression. The coal
strike had caused much loss, and the widespread indus-
trial depression which followed it had rendered home-
grown timber unsaleable. But even had there been a
market, their trade was throttled at their own doors.
Timber was still being imported from abroad at rates
with which home-grown timber could successfully com-
pete, were it not for railway rates. Speaking as a grower
of timber, he did not complain of fair competition, but
the deliberate paralysing of the market for home produce
by the imposition of excessive freights, as against foreign
produce, seemed to him bad for the country, bad for
forestry, and indeed bad business from the standpoint of
the railways. During the ,var a 10S. flat rate meant the
sale of props, which meant planting, which iJ.1 turn
meant employment, while the raising of rates meant no
sales, no planting and no employment. It cost 28s. a
ton to send timber from Aberdeen or Inverness to the
areas where sales could be effected, which meant that out
of every IS. 4d. which they obtained for Scotch fir, they
had to pay IS. in freight. Yet, even in adversity there
was sometimes good; and undei the Government unem-
ployment scheme, the credit for which was due to the
Forestry Commission, they had been able to do a· good
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA 1-39
deal. In his own case, for example, he had been enabled

to keep 100 men in employment, which but for the
scheme would have been impossible. The grant, in fact,
had resulted in about 15,000 acres being prepared and
planted by the landowners themselves; and he expressed
the opinion that a system of direct grants carefully
watched and controlled by a Government department,
"vas not only the cheapest means of carrying out their
object that the Government could employ, but also pro-
vided a direct stimulus to the industry, and would thus
be of direct benefit to the people of Scotland.
Lord Lavat, Chairman of the Forestry Commission,
gave an interesting resume of the work so far aCCOln-
plished by the Forestry Commission. In their estate
forestry programme they were well up to date both as
regards the acquisition of land, and the area planted.
But like several other departments, they \vere trembling
under the axe of ithe Geddes Committee, and could not
foresee what their position would be twelve months
hence. By the application of a considerable portion of
the unemployment grant to this season's planting opera-
tions, they would probably plant this year from 13,000
to 15,000 acres, which would be considerably in excess
of their programme. The need of afforesting their land
was one on which they could not insist too strongly-
for the woods of Great Britain were devastated to an
extent which he \vas sure the people of this country did
not realize. Of the 3,000,000. acres' of timber in Great
Britain, a very large percentage was quite unsaleable,
consisting, as it does, of oak coppice, birch scrub, and
wood used for amenity and not for commercial purposes.
It was hoped by 1924-1925 to get the first census of
woodlands which had ever been obtained in this country.
This census was now in progress, and would ultimately
enable the Forestry Commission to inform persons in-
terested, which woods are potentially productive, and
which are non-productive. Including the 15,000 acres
in Scotland which had either been planted or prepared,
the total figure for Great Britain would probably be
about 25,000 acres.
The Forestry Commission, realizing that there must
be a market for thinnings, is alive to the importance of
the question of railway freight charges; for if the pro-
EMPIRE FORESTRY
prietors who plant 96 per cent. of the woods of Great

Britain are unable to consign their thinnings to market,
they will obviously be obliged to relinquish planting.
It is manifestly inexpedient that railway rates should be
maintained at a level which prohibits the despatch of
pit-props to the coal mines and other consuming centres.
"DID ancient Scotland possess large areas of forest? If
so, what has happened to them? What forces have
caused their disappearance?
11 These ques-
Scotch !o~ests tions are answered by Captain Robinson in
I. of A n t l q u l t } ' . " .
a paper read before the Inverness Fleld
Club last January. The only records which remain to
tell of the strange fluctuations of climate and vegetation
in Scotland consist of the scant stores of insignificant
debris lying at the bottom of ancient lakes, or in the
depths of peat bogs. After keen scrutiny of these de-
posits, geologists declare with assurance that after the
expiry of the Ice Age, and before man had penetrated
into northern Britain, arctic plants spread from the hills
to the sea level, but that barely had these glacial immi-
grants obtained a foothold in the \vestern and northern
islands before a warmer and drier climate ushered in the
lower forest of the peat. Birch, hazel and alder trees
appeared in the valleys, and gradually climbing the hill-
sides, spread in a vast forest, extending to an altitude of
nearly 2,000 feet. This forest even spread to the
Hebrides and the Shetland Isles, where now no trees
can grow.
This warm and dry period was succeeded by a second
period of cold; glaciers appeared in the Highland
valleys; arctic plants once again crept down\vards into
the lowland plains. In many places the forest of the
preceding epoch, hampered and swamped by the forma-
tion of boggy pools and sphagnum moss about its roots,
-decayed, fell, and was buried by great morasses and peat
mosses. It was probably during these inhospitable ages
that man arrived in Scotland.
These conditions eventually yielded to a drier climate,
which gave birth to the greatest forest that Scotland has
ever known. This was the Upper }4"orest of the Peat,
,composed mainly of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) ,
which now for the first time invaded Britain. It differed
geographically from the old forest of birch, hazel and

alder; for it spread from the lowlands of Wigtownshire
to the north of Sutherland, but did not apparently extend
to the Hebri.des or Shetland Isles. On the mainland,
however, it reached an altitude of 3,000 feet, i.e., 1,000
feet higher than the Scotch birch woods of to-day. A
rough calculation indicates that this upper forest covered
an area at least ten times as large as' that of Scotland's
present woods: it spread over half the country, while
the n10dern woods cover at the most only a twenty-fifth
part of the land area.
Man, though well-established in Scotland at the period
of greatest forest growth, and in continuous occupation
ever since that date, was not alone responsible for the
reduction of the wooded area. The peat mosses reveal
the fact that a period of wetter conditions supervened,
during which the masses of le recent" peat were formed:
physical conditions favoured the extension of peat and
moorland areas at the expense of the forest. The humid
acid of the peat-bog was destructive of tree life, and the
fierce winds which swept across the country were
inimical to all but low-growing moorland vegetation .
Thus the destructive influence of man found an allv in
the processes of Nature. At the present day the moist
conditions of the epoch of the "recent ,,. peat formation
have somewhat changed, for in many places the peat
itself is decaying and being washed away. Were it not
for man, the forest area would therefore now again, in all
probability, be expanding.
The gulf which lies between the record of the peat-
bogs and the dawn of history is shrouded in impene-
trable gloom. We know not at what period of human
development the great Upper Forest of the Peat began
to decay; b~t it certainly had been replaced to some
extent by swamp before the commencement of the
Christian era. Roman historians unanimously describe
Caledonia as a land of clouds and rain, of bogs and
morasses. Other evidence, such as that deduced from
the distribution of primitive iron-smelting furnaces,
seems to indicate the existence of great tracts of forest
during late prehistoric times, in areas where woodland
has almost, if not wholly, disappeared. The earliest
references to Scottish woodlands are of. comparatively
EMPIRE FORESTRY
late date, and show that in the I zth century it had

. become necessary to impose laws and penalties in con-
nection with the conservation of forests. The Leges
Forestarum. usually ascribed to the reign of William the
Lion (1165-1214) though by many held to be of later
date, prohibit the taking of fire or domestic animals into
the woods, and also the felling of oak trees. From that
date onwards frequent references to forests will be found
in Scots laws and charters, the "forests" being really
areas given over to hunting and containing no arable
land. Those forests bore some resemblance to the
It deer forests" of our day, for besides containing wood-
land and covert for the shelter of their wild denizens,

they comprised also open areas of pasture or, as it was
termed, 4C vert."
During the 14th and 15th centuries and later, the
forests of Scotland underwent rapid destruction at the
hands of man, despite the promulgation of successive
laws designed for the preservation of old, and the plant-
ing of new, timber. The penalties provided for breaches
of these statutes were increasingly severe. The attitude
of the Scotch Parliaments was probably dictated not so
tnuch by the actual disappearance of woods as by the
great and increasing importance of timber to the national
welfare, -and the difficulty in finding supplies adequate
to the constant demand. But notwithstanding the de-
structive activity of the Scotch peasant, the country was
by no means destitute of good forests in the 16th cen-
tury; and the verdict of travellers like Fynes l\10ryson
and Aeneas Sylvius, who regarded the country as bare
of trees, has to be qualified by the records of the Scottish
Parliament, sitting in Edinburgh in 1609, whose mem-
bers ~ere overjoyed at It the discovery of woods in the
Highlands, which, by reason of the savageness of the
inhabitants, had been unknown, or at least unused/'
Statutes of the latter half of the 17th century mention by
name thirty or more different forests in Scotland, and
Gilpin draws a delightful picture of Scottish forest
scenery at the end of the 18th century.
Captain Robinson enumerates the places which still
contaiI). remains of the great natural woods of Scotland.
In the south the Ettrick forest is represented by a few
patches of birch and oak; in the midlands a few trees,
scattered here and there throughout the country-in

Glen Falloch near the head of .Loch Lomond, on the'
mass of Ben Lui, in the Black Wood of Rannoch, in
the Ballochbuie Forest at the foot of Lochnagar, in
Lochiel Old Forest gn Loch Arkaig, in Glen Nevis, and
in the neighbourhood of Loch Linne~are all that are
left of the great" Wod of Cal~don." The fine Forest of
Rothiemurchus, whose dark masses of pine woods
cluster about the northern base of the Grampians, still
affords in its local developmen t a grand idea of the
wooded Scotland of prehistoric ages. The ancient woods
of the northern Highlands survive on the shores of Loch
Maree, in the Rhidorrech or Dark Forest north of
Ullapool, in the Glens of Strathfarar, Affric and ~Ioris
ton, and, in the extreme north, in a few trees on the
Oykell above Rosehall. In those far-off days when man
first settled in the land, probably half Scotland was
covered with forest. To-day the wooded area is only 4
or 4 5 per cent. of the whole. Surely herein lies matter
0
for meditation by those who are developing the younger

countries of the En1pire.
rrHE Legislative Assembly of Western Australia decided

towards the end of last year that a Select Committee
Forestry and shou~d be appointed to inquire into the
Politics in workIng of the Forestry Department. At
Weste~n the instance of the Premier, the Committee
Austrahao was enlarged to a Royal Commission. The
scope of the inquiry will be very wide; for, according to
an article in the ~Vest Australian of October 6, 1921, the
Commission was to review (I) the general working of the
Forest Act of 1918; (2) the financial clauses of the Act
and their operation; and (3) the extensions of the Millars'
Timber and Trading Company's leases and concessions
and to make recommendations on this subject to the
Assembly. It appears that these company leases and
concessions were the immediate cause of tension between
the Minister concerned and the Conservator, the latter
adopting the view that extensions of the concessions
should not be granted unless the Company accepted the
same terms as apply to the concession of a new timber
licence. The Ministry, on the other hand, were inclined
to grant an extension of the concessions on the existing
144 EMPIRE FORESTRY
terms. It appears, however, from the terms of reference

to. the Commission that the proposed inquiry was to
include much more than the conflict of opinion on this
point between the politicians and the forest expert. The
whole forest policy of Western Australia was to be
reviewed, including the question whether the West
Australian Parliament, in passing the Forests Act of 1918,
was right in affirming the principle that control of
afforestation should be as free as possible from political
pressure.
The position is viewed with alarm by the Conservator
of Forests, .who, in concluding his annual report, remarks
that 44 The forest policy of Western Australia is to-day
passing through a crisis, the outcome of which cannot be
foreseen. Swept by the full force of vested timber-
exploiting interests and lacking support from the one
quarter which could give support, it threatens to become
a total wreck." In support of h,is attitude he quotes the
pronouncement of the Commission which inquired into
the forest problems of the United Kingdom, regarding the
danger that politics hold for a policy which, if it is to
succeed, must be continuous, not for years, but for
generations. " The afforestation policy of the State, once
embarked upon, should be as little as possible liable to be
disturbed by political changes or moulded by political
pressure. We cannot, and do not, claim that it should
be indepenaent of Parliamentary control, but when
Parliament has once adopted a policy of afforestation, the
decisions that have to be taken as that policy develops
should not be taken by politicians, and if grievances and
difficulties arise, they should be adjusted in an atmosphere
in which forest policy, and not political expediency, is
the deciding factor."
While not prepared to take as pessimistic a view of the
position as the Conservator of Forests, one may reason·
ably hope that a scientific forest expert \vill have been
appointed a member ot the Commission, which otherwise
will presumably be composed entirely of politicians.
Such an appointment is essential where, as in this case,
the policy of an important d~partment and the soundness
of its administration are under investigation. Moreover
the value of the timber industry in Western Australia is in
itself a good and. sufficient reason for not endangering
the conclusions of the Commission by the omission to

include ~ trained forester in its personnel. The total
quantity of timber cut from the forests during the year
ending June 30, 1921, was 11,469,000 cubic feet of sawn
timber, of which 1,457,75° cubic feet were obtained from
private property and the balance from Crown lands. The
net value of timber exported was £1,162,735, representing
an output of 9,816,250 cubic feet. It would be disastrous
to Western Australia if the vital importance of preserving
this great source of \vealth were overlooked, or if a sound
policy of forest-conservation were reversed in deference
to the demands of a powerful sectional interest. The
Commission, one may be sure, \vill deal adequately with
the needs of the present; but in view of the position
usually assigned to forestry in democratic states, to
which we alluded in the editorial notes in the first issue
of this Journal, one has not the same assurance that the
requirements of future generations \vill be equally safe-
guarded. The result of the Commission's inquiry will be
awaited with keen interest; for on its recommendations
depends the whole future of forestry in Western
Australia. While it is obvious that the expert forester
cannot be permitted to encroach unduly upon the sphere
of the politician's activities, it is, per contra, still more
essential that purely political interference in the work of
the forest authorities should be rendered itnpossible.
One can only echo the hope of the Western Australian
press that the work of the Commission will result in
promoting a better understanding between the F'orestry
and I.iands Departments and in co-ordinating the efforts
which are necessary if the State is to reap the full benefit
of its varied resources.
Whatever vie\\Ts on the continuance of a definite forest
policy may ultimately prevail in Australia, outside
observers cherish no illusions on the subject. The latest
champion of conservation and regeneration is Dr. Arnold
Heim, a Swiss scientist and President of the Geological
Society of Zurich, who recently paid a visit to Australia.
Speaking to a press reporter at Melbourne, he said: "I
have been deeply impressed to find your most wonderful
timber ruined even far away from roads and railways.
The most magnificent hardwood trees of the world, each
one of which would be admired in Europe and looked
EMPIRE FORESTRY
on as a little fortune, are shamelessly ringbarked, killed

and fired. This rough method might be justified for a
new settlement on timbered country to prepare land for
intense culture, but here it is continued in order to
provide more grass for cattle and sheep." Dr. Heim
added that the results of this policy, or lack of policy,
were already apparent, particularly to the north of
Murrurundi (N. S. Wales), where square miles of soil
had commenced gliding towards the valleys even at
an angle of seven degrees only; and he expressed his
profound amazement that this practice of destroying the
timber resources of the country should be allowed to
continue and that even the Ministers appeared to be blind
to the calamity of the future. It looks as if those who
control the future of Australia's forests needed to imbibe
something of the prescience and enthusiasm which inspire
the Canadian Forestry Association.
A CORRESPONDENT, writing to the Tin~es Trade Supple-

n'tent of February I I, 1922, gives startling and unpalatable
The Forest information about the attitude of the
Products Commonwealth Government towards the
Laboratory at Forest Products Laboratory at Perth,
Perth, W.A. Western Australia. A little more than
eighteen months previously the State Government agreed
to provide a site for the laboratory and to contribute
£5,000 towards the cost of erection and equipment, \vhile
the Federal Government undertook to build and equip
the laboratory, keep it in working order, and defray the
charges of the required scientific staff. The State
Government has fulfilled its obligations, and the labora-
tory staff, occupying temporary premises in the city, has
carried out much investigation into the forest products of
aJl the States, particularly Western Australia. It has
proved conclusively that paper can be made from many
of the hardwoods of Australia; and an expert leather
chemist has commenced a tannin survey of Western
Australia, which is rich in tannin-bearing materials.
This branch of research has developed rapidly, and
means have been found of eliminating the objectionable
colour from the marri (red gum), which has hitherto
proved a serious obstacle to its sale. The adaptability of
many of the forest products for dyeing has also been
EDITORIAL -NOTES AND· MISCELLANEA 147
investigated, and in many directions the laboratory has

performed excellent service for Western Australia. A
wide field of research, however, still remains unexplored,
and considerable funds are required to develop research
into the commercial possibilities of hundreds of timbers,
shrubs, barks and leaves.
The laboratory estimated that for the proper per-
formance of its work it would require during the current
year a minimum sum of £10,000. On applying for this
amount to the Federal Government, the laboratory was
granted a meagre sum of £1,4°0, which was augmented
by a further £ 2,000, received from some of the other
States and from the Australian Paper Company. This
income of £ 3,400 is totally inadequate, even for the
partial completion of the year's programme, and the
advisory committee of the laboratory, composed of one
scientific expert and two business men, faced with every
discouragement and no appreciation of its gratuitous
services, has finally resigned. The State Government has
made urgent representations to the Federal authorities
to place the laboratory on a sound basis and to provide
for its maintenance, but up to the date of the letter of the
Ti1nes correspondent nothing had been done. The
laboratory has already proved its capacity for adding
materially to the country's productive power, and the
. work it has already undertaken is not yet complete. In
these circumstances it will be little short of a disaster if
the Federal Government either permits it to languish for
want of financial support or acquiesces in its extinction.
A letter from Melbourne to the Times Trade Supplement
of April 8, confirms the arguments in favour of retaining
the laboratory. The investigations into the possibilities
of paper-production from Australian timbers have now
reached a point at which the encouraging results of small-
scale experiments are about to be confirmed by tests on a
semi-commercial scale. Of two dozen classes of woods
tested in the laboratory, five have been selected as being
the most likely sources of supply of paper pulp. The five
are karri (West Australia), blackbutt (New South Wales),
mountain ash and woolybutt (Victoria), -and stringy bark
(Tasmania). The further tests will consist in preparing
quantities of a ton or more of pulp from each of these
timbers and converting the pulp into various grades of
EMPIRE FORESTRY
paper, with a view to determining into which kinds of

paper each class of pulp may be best converted. The
tests, according to a Report issued by the Director of the
Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, are to
be carried out at the Geelong Mills, belonging to the
Australian Pulp and Paper Company.
REGARDING the plans for the great Empire Exhibition,

which are now occupying the attention of the authorities,
Australia and it is reported that Australia intends to play
the Empire an important part in the scheme. The
Exhibition. Council of Federal and State Ministers have
decided to erect a building covering 150,000 square feet.
Secondly they have sanctioned a SUIU of £200,000 for the
cost of this building, and a further sum of £50,000 to
meet the expense of collecting exhibits. The Common-
\vealth Government has definitely agreed to participate in
the Imperial Sections of the Exhibition on tropical
diseases, minerals, fisheries and timber. Let us hope
that, so far as their financial resources permit, other parts
of the Empire will follow the lead given by Australia.
ALTHOUGH there is still some conflict of interests between

the Lands (Forestry), and Mines and Agricultural Depart-
ments, on the subject of the best use to
NWare~uth which certain lands can be put, late years
· have witnessed an increasing tendency to
recognize and support the need of timber conservation
and afforestation. Public interest, according to the latest
official report of the New South Wales Forestry Com-
mission, is expanding, and engendering naturally a wider
belief in the value of the forests as an economic factor in
the welfare of the State. New South Wales still possesses
about 11 million acres containing timber of commercial
value, and of this area about 8 million acres are in Crown
possession. But the State needs to plant as well as to
conserve; and up to date the forest authorities have
failed to secure sufficient areas of suitable land for the
former purpose. The afforestation of certain areas in the
Tingha district, for example, and on the Newnes Table-
land, is still objected to by the Department of Mines,
and until these inter-departmental struggles can be
adjusted, the vital work of repairing the wastage of past

years must be delayed.
The forestry authorities, too, are short of money.
During the year under review they afforested (with pines)
1,095 acres, and hope to plant 2,000 acres during the
current year, whereas their minimum objective is 5,000
acres per annum. The total e:?{penditure on clearing and
planting operations, including' purchase of land and
permanent improvements, \vas approximately £18,000, of
which only £5,000 were voted by Parliament, the
balance of £13,000 being met from a special deposits
account, provided for by the Forestry Act. "As the
proper management of the natural forests" remark the
Commissioners, "with the necessary restoration of those
which have deteriorated during the past fifty years, will
fully absorb the funds provided by this account, it is
evident that much more liberal appropriations will be
necessary if the future demand for softwood timber is to
be met by planting."
During 1921 considerable progress was made in forest
organization and management. In 171 State forests the
work of development and improvement was carried on,
inc~uding surveying, systematic cutting, sylviculture,
road-making, establishment of fire-breaks, erection of
residences and other buildings, construction of dams and·
tanks, fencing, the sinking of bores, and the laying down
of 'grass paddocks. The total amount thus spent,
including the cost of afforestation, was £95,759.
In past years the establishment of cutting rotations
and systematic exploitation, which form the basis of
scientific forest nlanagement, have been frustrated by the
custom of pernlitting numerous licensees to obtain
timber at will for the satisfaction of emergent demands.
To obviate this difficulty, the forest authorities of the
State have been forced, in the case of forests under
intensive management, to undertake the direct conversion
of all classes of forest produce, thus ensuring that all
saleable timber is removed from each cutting area to
make room for the establishment of young growth.
The .revenue collected by the authorities during the
year was £19°,742, and the expenses of administration
amounted to £57,835. The expenditure on forest works
totalled £104,782; and it is interesting to read that the
ISO EMPIRE FORESTRY
average cost of forest road-making was 6s. Id. per chain,

of forest' fire-breaks, £1 8s. lId. per acre; the average
cost of forest residences "vas £611 os. 7d. apiece, of
dams, IS. gd. per cubic yard, of post and wire fencing,
I9S. Id. per chain, of post, wire and netting fencing,
£1 IS. Iod. per chain and of clearing grass paddocks,
£1 3s. 9d. per acre. In the domain of sylviculture, the
average cost of preparing land ,for planting, exclusive of
fencing, was £2 8s,. Iod. per acre, and of planting
£2 17s. 8d. per acre. These figures would have been
lower, but for the heavy expenditure incurred in the
upkeep of Tuncurry Prison Calnp. The average cost of
treating natural forest for regeneration was 4s. I d. per
acre, and of improving natural forest by ring-barking
and thinning, IS. 6d. per acre.
The quantity of timber branded by Government Agency
for export or local use ,vas 16,300,220 superficial feet;
the actual value of the timber exported during the year
was £464,724 and of timber imported \vas £2,°73,°46.
The imports were chiefly from New Zealand and the
United States of America, and the exports were mainly to
New Zealand. The imports included nearly 97 million
superficial feet of rough, dressed and undressed timber,
chiefly softwood.
WE have been fortunate enough to receive from Tasmania
a most interesting note on the position of Forestry in
that State, prepared by Mr. Irby, Con-
Forestry in servator of Forests. The note commences
Tasmania.
with the statement that Cl The history of
Forestry in Tasmania from the earliest days of settlement
to the present time has been substantially a replica of the
history of forestry in all young countries during their
early stages of colonization and development. Timber
at the outset is so plenti ful as to be not only of little
value, but also an actual obstruction to progress. Land
settlement at all costs is the primary desideratum; and
the difficulty of clearing heavily timbered land, in order
that grazing grounds or saleable commodities in the
form of crops can be substituted for products of no
imlJ1ediate value, is so great that in the process of time
an almost hereditary hatred of trees, as the natural enemy
of the young farmer, becolnes one of the idiosyncrasies
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA ISI
of the colonist reared in an atmosphere of continuous

warfare against Nature's successive attempts to reproduce
her o\\l·n chosen crop. During this stage of settlement,
public opinion on the subject of forest-conservation is
either antagonistic or apathetic, and the views of those
who realize the true position of forestry in the economic
life of the country consequently command no attention.
"Thus in Tasmania, forestry, which until a recent
date was ably controlled by a branch of the Lands and
Surveys Department, was necessarily restricted to con-
serving as far as possible the best beds of timber which
either lay remote from settlements or did not occupy
first-class agricultural or grazing lands. As a result, more
than a million acres have been set aside as timber
reserves, while the operations of cutting and conversion
of timber have been brought under control and regula-
lation. Nevertheless, in the absence of a constructive
forest policy, deforestation naturally progressed far more
rapidly than natural re-afforestation, and the moment
arrived when a more vigorous forest policy was recognized
as an imperative necessity, for the re-adjustment of the
natural balance of profit and loss. The necessary
machinery was accordingly established, a Conservator of
Forests was appointed, and a Forestry Act, second to
none in Australia, was placed on the Statute Book."
The Tasmanian Forestry Act of 1920, whereby forest
control is raised to the status of a separate department of
the State, provides inter alia for the following subjects:-
(a) Complete control by the Department of all
matters relating to forest policy.
(b) Power to convert, remove, and sell timber, &c.,
and to construct roads, railways and tramlines
for the transport of timber.
(c) The dedication of State forests and the reserva-
tion of timbered areas.
(d) The dedication within seven years of not less
than I t million acres of land as State forests.
(e) Ample protection of forest working plans, which
cannot be altered except by the Conservator
of Forests with the previous approval of the
Governor.
(/) Forest permits and licences.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
(g) The expenditure upon administration, afforesta-

tion and re-afforestation, &c., of one half of the
gross revenue from forestry.
(h) Penalties, seizures, forfeiture, &c.
(i) The making of regulations under the Act.
Regulations have been drafted and will shortly be

brought into force. H A determined effort has been made
to reconcile conversion operations, i.e., the marketing of
the present crop, with sylviculture, thereby elituinating as
far as possible the perpetual strife which exists in many
States between vested interests and forest control." It is
satisfactory to learn that these efforts have so far achieved
marked su~cess, and that the various saw-milling associa-
tions "have not only shown themselves actuated by
a full sense of .their obligations, as patriotic citizens, to
posterity, but have been actively helpful." Mr. Irby is
quite confident that this feeling of esprit de corps will be
maintained and strengthened in the future, and that
eventually the timber-getters will be incorporated as an
integral feature of the official forest working-plans. In
pursuance of this policy, the forest authorities have very
wisely afforded the various interested parties every
opportunity of learning beforehand what course the State
proposes to follow, and of discussing such proposals; and
their action in this direction has been fully appreciated
by the interests concerned.
For the purpose of carrying out the official policy, the
State has been divided into five forestry districts, each in
charge of an experienced forester; the work of forest
reconnaisance,. preliminary to the dedication of areas as
State forests, is well forward; and it is hoped to initiate
at an early date a system of fire-protection for existing
forest areas, particularly for those containing valuable
stands of young timber resulting from natural regenera-
tion. Tasmania is not singular in regarding fire as the
principal danger to her schemes of afforestation. Many
fires are due unfortunately to negligence or incendiarism,
and landholders experience much difficulty in preventing
their coppice being fired during the summer by the
ill-disposed. A high authority of the State is of opinion
that if it were possible to elimlnate the menace of
fire~ Tasmania would in twenty years possess an asset
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISQELLANEA 153
which would more than suffice to counterbalance her

indebtedness.
Tasmania, possessing as it does a huge tract of country
pre-eminently adapted for the growth of exotic pines,
offers a fine field for afforestation. On the west coast lies
a large area of old sand dune formations, which need no
clearing and are ideal for pine growth; an annual rain-
fall of more than 100 inches renders these treeless wastes
specially ,suitable for plantation. The Sisters Hills also,
which lie between Burnie and Stanley in the north-west
of the State,contain fully 60,000 acres of clear land
where pines should do well. In many parts of the
country are vast plains, at various altitudes, covered with
so-called button-grass (really a sedge), the soil of which
consists largely of rich peat and gravelly loam. Such
species as spruce and larch should flourish exceedingly
in these areas. Extensive sand dune tracts also occupy
the north-east and east coasts. Mr. Irby estimates that
no less than one million acres of land suitable for exotic
conifers are lying idle and \vaste to-day in Tasmania.
The forest authorities have taken the first steps towards
a comprehensive scheme of afforestation by selecting
a site for a nursery about two miles from Strachan,
between which and the Henty River lie about 30,000
acres of sand dune and button-grass plain, and by
cOlumencing to raise a crop of seedlings for planting out
this year (1922). Local interest has been aroused, and
the residents of Strachan have offered to take up acres on
plantation leases and plant them with Pinus insignis.
LIKE other countries of the Empire, Tasmania has been

urged to form a Forestry League or Association, which
Tasmanian could be affiliated to the Empire Forestry
Forestry Association. It appears that some years
Association. ago a Forest League did exist; but it
gradually collapsed through lack of interest and public
support. As it was never officially wc>und up, however, a
Ineeting of members was convened in November, 1920, to
discuss the possibility of reviving the organization. At that
moment the Bill to establish a Forestry Department was
before the Tasmanian Parliament, and the -meeting
decided to postpone the question of resuscitating the
11
EMPIRE FORESTRY
League until the new Forestry Department had been

organized on a permanent basis.
Information has now been received that Mr. Irby,
Conservator of Forests, has succeeded in forming
a Forestry Association with the following principal
objects : -
(a) To promote in the manner hereafter shown the
planting of the great waste areas of Tasmania
with suitable conifers.
(b) To promote a public consciousness towards the
vital question of preventing the destruction of
the vast heritage which lies in the forests, and
the denudation of watersheds by bush fires.
(c) To encourage research work info. the economic
utilization of the waste products of the forests.
(d) To co-operate with the Empire Forestry Associa.
tion and kindred bodies in promoting public
interest in forestry.
In regard to (a) it is proposed to establish Forest
Plantation HOlnes or Colleges, in which destitute boy
waifs of the Empire may find their manhood and be
worthy of their citizenship by planting the waste lands
and so creating a goodly heritage for posterity. Tasmania
possesses to-day one million acres of land suitable for
pine plantation, and of this great area at least 200,000
acres are ready for afforestation. On these waste lands
it is proposed to locate the Homes, each of which will
accommodate about sixty boys of ages ranging from 10
to IS. The boys will receive a sound training in the
principles of forestry and also general education on lines
laid down by the Director of Education-and their main
duty will be to reclaim and plant annually a definite area
of country.
So far as is known at present, the period of rotation for
a crop of pine is about twenty-five years, and the revenue
from an annual cutting of 100 acres is estimated at £25,000
a year. It is therefore expected that each Home would
become self-supporting at the expiry of a period of
twenty-five years from the date of its establishment, and
that thereafter it could repay with interest all money
expended upon its upkeep and could also contribute
a large sum annually to the State's exchequer. By con-
fining operations to the 200,000 acres of waste land known
to be ready for immediate afforestation and by restricting
the area of operations of each Home to 25,000 acres,it
becomes possible to provide for eighty 'Homes, each
containing fifty boys. In other words, arrangements will
be made for the perpetual employment of 4,000 boys, and
with an average course of four years, 1,000 boys will be
annually absorbed into the life of the State.
Forestry in Tasmania is at present in its infancy. But
there is every probability of expansion; and if the scheme
now proposed by Mr. Irby reaches fruition, many of the
b9Ys who pass through the Homes will be absorbed into
the various industries connected with, and dependent
upon, forestry. It is a fine scheme that the Tasmanian
authorities propose, for it operates to solve at one and
the same time the three great problems of immigration,
the waste of child life, and the conservation of the
country's timber resources. May all success attend it !
Allied to this subject is the question of the affiliation
of saw-milling and kindred associations to the Empire
Forestry Association. ,The subject was recently broached
by the Conservator of Forests at a meeting of the Execu-
tive Committee of the Sawmilling Association and met
with a sympathetic reception; but pending the receipt of
more detailed information regarding the scope, objects
and working of the Empire Association, it was decided
to postpone further consideration of the Conservator's
suggestion.
As regards participation in the official scheme of estab-
lishing at Oxford an Imperial Forest Bureau, Tasmania
realizes that she is not yet in a position to avail herself of
the facilities and privileges offered by such an institution,
and is therefore not disposed at this stage to incur any
liability for the support of the scheme. One may, how-
ever, predict with confidence that Tasmania, with her
new and comprehensive forest law and regulations, and
under the guidance of her trained officers, will make con-
siderable strides in Forestry during the next few years,
and will thus equip herself to play an active part in
Imperial schemes and movements, which for the moment
she is obliged by circumstances to approach with
caution.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
THE Report of the Director of Forestry for the year

ending March 31, 1921, addressed to the Commissioner
• of State Forests, shows that New Zealand
New Zealand. has now a live system of forest administra-
tion. The Parliament, the Press and the
public have awakened to the meaning of timber conser-
vation and national forestry, and have thus paved the.
way for the establishment of a Forest Service. Under
the control of the Director and his staff are seven forest
conservation regions, each in charge of a Conservator,
and each conservation region is subdivided into districts
which are controlled by forest rangers.
The State in New Zealand possesses large forest pro-
perties, the grand total of State and provisional State
forests being 6,800,000 acres, or 10'3 per cent. of the
superficial area of the Dominion. Not\yithstanding the
Inagnitude of the area, the Government purchased another
20,000 acres last year. The land is by no means fully
afforested, and the Forest Department has commenced
the work of regeneration by planting more than 38,000
acres during the year under report. Trials have been
made of broadcast seeding. The tree-seeds mixed with
oats were distributed through a grain drill with disk
coulters, and it is presumed that the oat crop will be cut
over the top and the straw left to protect the plants. This
is an inexpensive method o.f afforestation, the results of
which will be watched with interest-for it might, if it
proves successful, be adopted in other countries on light
level soils. The Director of Forestry is ~1r. L. MacIntosh
Ellis, a Canadian graduate, who, on the expiry of the
war, was engaged by the Interim Forestry Committee,
and did valuable work in Scotland for some months
prior to his transfer to New Zealand. (Glasgow Herald,
January 28, 1922).
THE vital need of a wise forest policy, with its accom-
paniments of conservation and re-afforestation, formed
A Warning the burden of an address recently delivered
from North by Professor J. W. Tourney. at Yale.
America. Originally the United States of America
possessed 822 million acres of virgin forest, of which
only 137 million acres now remain, and these mainly in
almost inaccessible areas. The present annual growth in
forest regions is estimated at 6 billion cubic feet, and the

ann ual removal by actual cutting, by fire and by other
causes at more than 26 billion cubic feet. Obviously,
therefore, if America is to escape a timber-famine in
fifty years' time, she will have to raise the annual growth
from 6 to 28 billion cubic feet. This state of affairs is
not peculiar to America, but exists in greater or less
intensity in other forest-regions of the world, particularly
in the United Kingdom which has now to depend almost
entirely upon imported tilnber. In old days the valleys
of Wales were \veIl \vooded, and large tracts of land
were forest clad; but with the discovery of iron these
resources were sacrificed wholesale to provide timber for
smelting purposes. Iron had ruined the forests before
coal supplanted timber as the ordinary fuel of industry.
Great Britain's reliance upon imported timber has
directly militated against the prudent conservation of her
forests; but the time is not far distant when the whole
world will be competing for this supremely important
raw material, and when that hour arrives, independence
and economic supremacy will be the reward of those
countries which have looked ahead and made prudent
preparations for the future. The war to some extent
roused England from her lethargy; exhortations to
afforestation are heard more frequently; but the public
are still indifferent to facts which, if treated with levity
or negligence, must involve a serious menace to the
country's prosperity.
Professor TOtamey goes so far as to suggest that the
decay of China and of ancient Greece were due to their
improvident use of timber and the destruction of their
forests, contrasting the fate of the Celestial Empire with
the steady progress of Japan, which has followed an
enlightened policy of forest-conservation. So far as
ancient Greece is concerned, the Professor's theory is
certainly suggestive; but one is not inclined to accept it
without qualification. There \vere other important
factors, besides imprudent squandering of timber-
supplies, which contributed to the do\vnfall of Hellenic
civilization.
Among modern States, according to Professor
Toumay, S\\1itzerland holds the first place for prudent
conservation and exploitation of her forest-resources.
Some of the Swiss forests, he remarks, were organized
EMPIRE FORESTRY
more than a thousand years ago, have been continuously

under timber production ever since, and are now more
intensively managed and more productive than ever
before. This statement is not wholly in consonance with
the account of the Swiss forests given by Wren Winn in
his Timbers and their Uses, 1919. The author admits that
in the neighbourhood of Zurich there has been efficient
forest management for more than 500 years; but he states
that throughout Switzerland generally forestry was only
developed about the middle of the eighteenth century,
and that it was temporarily impeded by the revolution in
1798 and the following years. The Swiss Forestry Asso-
ciation dates from 1843; and it was only in 1876 that
the first general forest law was adopted. Even so,
Switzerland offers a worthy example to other countries
which, by squandering their timber resources, have given
rise to a danger which it will take years of patient'effort
to obviate.
Professor Tourney's account of the imprudent use of
America's forest resources is corroborated by the publi-
cation of certain figures compiled by the United States
Department of Agriculture in illus.tration of the need for
conservation. The figures possess a peculiar interest for
the British Empire. They show that more than 80
million acres of forest have been almost completely
denuded of ·timber of commercial value. Cutting has
increased at a phenomenal rate of late years, and it is
stated that more than half the world's supply of timber is
now cut in the United States. All but 5 per cent. of this
huge production is consumed within the States, among
the annual requirements being 125 million wooden
sleepers for the railways and 13 million large wooden
cases for the transport of oranges and other fruits from
Florida. Enormous quantities of small timber are used
as wood-pulp for paper manufacture, the annual output
of paper of all kinds being estimated at 125 lb. per head
of population. Newspapers and magazines naturally
contribute largely to this annual total.
MR. WILLIAM TURNBULL, Timber Commissioner for the
Government of British Columbia, read an illull1inating
The Timbers paper on the timbers of that country before
of British the Dominions and Colonies section of the
Columbia. Royal Society of Arts on February 7, 1922.
EDITORIA.L NOTES AND MISCELLANEA I S9
British Columbia, which obtains an annual revenue of
more than three million dollars from its timber, possesses
a stand of commercial timber estimated at 366 billion
feet, i.e., 200 million Petrograd standards approximately,
or one-third of Canada's total stand; and of this total,
about 350 billion feet is of saw-log size. About two-
thirds of this stand is located on, or close to, the sea
coast, the remainder occupying interior parts of the pro-
vince. The total area of forest land is estimated at
149,000 square miles,' of which 115,000 square miles are
still in possession of the Crown, the balance being nearly
equally divided between Crown granted lands and lands
held under timber licence, lease or sale. The Crown
still owns about a quarter of the commercial tinlber .
stand, mentioned above; and such timber is now dis-
posed of by tender only, an upset price being fixed by
the Forest authorities.
Mr. Turnbull included in the course of his paper an
interesting description of the chief commercial timbers
of the Province, showing the various uses to which they
are put. The list commences naturally with Douglas
fir, also known as Oregon pine and British Columbia
pine, one of the finest specimens of which has provided
the present flagstaff in Kew Gardens, described by Mr.
Balfour in the first number of this Journal. The Pro-
vince contains 76 billion feet of Douglas fir, representing
nearly 22 per cent. of the total commercial stand. This
timber, though of comparatively light weight, is very
strong and durable, and is consequently in great demand
for heavy structural work, bridge and ship timbers, house
frames, planking for dredgers, and so forth. The. Great
Western Railway Company in this country has proved
its suitability for railway sleepers; for out of 616 sleepers
tested after 17t years continuous use, only 23 were found
decayed; while city engineers in Canada and the United
States are now giving ~xactly the same working stresses
for Douglas fir and pitch pine, after many years' experi
ence of both woods, basing their calculation on hundreds
of tests performed in the U.S. Rarest Products Labora-
tories. "fhe next most important tree is Sitka spruce,
which grows to the best advantage in the north of
Vancouver Island and in the Graham and Moresby
Islands of the Queen Charlotte group. During the·· war
160 EMPIRE FORESTRY
British Columbia shipped enough Sitka spruce to con-

struct 20,000 aeroplanes, and Mr. Turnbull records with
justifiable regret the fact that on the cessation of hos-
tilities, many millions of feet of the finest spruce lay
unwanted in the woods and the water, and were ulti-
mately sold at salvage prices to be sawn into lumber and
converted into pulp. One curious feature of Sitka spruce
is its natural resonance, and this has led to its use for
piano sounding-boards, gramophone horns, and in Great
Britain for the manufacture of violins.
Almost as valuable as Douglas fir for ordinary building-
purposes is western hemlock, which represents 18 per
cent. of the total commercial timber stand and gro\vs to
great size. Though much of it goes into pulp, for which
it is well suited, it is most useful for internal structural
work. Mr. Turnbull speaks of hemlock flooring on the
Pacific coast which was laid down fifty years ago and is
now so hard that small nails can with difficulty be driven
into it. Seven million feet of this timber have been used
in the Toronto harbour works, and it is also being used in
the construction of part of the big dry dock at Esqui-
mauU, near Victoria. On the other hand it is equally
useful for the making of packing-cases, and one firm on
the coast ships 50,000 oil cases of hemlock every month
to Singapore.
Durability is the hall-mark of red cedar, which may be
styled the "wood eternal." "Trees which fell in the damp
woods of British Columbia centuries ago are found to-day
perfectly sound and fit for shingles and lumber. It was
from the red cedar that the Indian hollowed out his war
canoes, split planks for his lodges, and carved his historic
totem poles, and his judgment was, as usual, sound. The
totem must have been the origin of the term 'family
tree.'" Red cedar is pre-eminently a fence and pole
material, for it needs no treatment or preservative, and
the butt will remain sound for a very long period under
the most adverse conditions. Another interesting wood
is black cottonwood, which grows largely in the river-
bottoms on Vancouver Island and is the only deciduous
tree of commercial value in British Columbia. Ideal as
a material for boxes, it is also in demand for carriage and
automobile bodies, and seems likely to have a considerable
future before it. The timb,ers of the interior, though of
TOPPING FOR HIGH-LEAD LOGGING OPERATIONS,
BRITISH COLUMBIA.
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA rOl .
great value to British Columbia, are too far from the sea-
board to be of mercantile value to England and other
countries.
}VIr. Turnbull points to the improvement in logging
n1ethods as the clearest index of the growth of British
Columbia's timber trade. Sixty years ago the motive
power was supplied by teams of heavy oxen and the
sulphurous language of the gentlemen who drove them;
the oxen yielded place to horses and mules, the latter still
requiring a considerable stock of highly explosive epithets
to make them work into the collar; and they, in their
turn, were ousted by the steam and motor tractor, which,
presumably, do not need the san1e amount of picturesque
abuse. In the old days logging was necessarily restricted
to timber lying close to tide water, whereas now the
logging railways run from ten' to thirty miles into the
heart of the forest, and train-loads of logs are carried
down, dumped into the sea, formed into booms, and
towed to the various saw-mills. Though undoubtedly
efficient, the present logging methods are very extrava-
gant and lead to much waste in the forests, and it is to
this matter that the Forest Service of British Columbia,
which was inaugurated in 1912, is giving special attention.
As Mr. Turnbull succinctly remarks, British Columbia
has been it mining" instead of " cropping" her timber.
British Columbia has more than 400 saw-mills at work,
of \vhich more than half are located on the coast. The
annual timber cut amounts to about two billion feet, or
one million Petrograd standards, and much of this finds
a market on the Canadian prairies, in Eastern Canada and
the eastern states of America. But the quantity absorbed
by overseas markets is steadily growing and is likely to
enhance the revenues of the province appreciably in the
near future. In 1916, for example, the total quantity of
timber shipped overseas was 43 n1illion feet; in 1921 it
had risen to 170 million feet, of \vhich Japan and China
absorbed 93 million feet, Australia and Ne"vv Zealand 27
million, and the United Kingdom 9 million. The
remainder found its way to India, Egypt, South Africa,
and South America. The opening of the Panama Canal,
which has brought British Columbia about 6,000 miles
nearer to the British timber market, is expected to aid
directly the more regular purchase by the LT nited Kingdom
162 EMPIRE FORESTRY
of British Columbia's softwoods, notwithstanding the

handicap imposed upon British Columbian manufac-
turers by the long sea-route, as compared with the short
journey across the North Sea from Sweden, and by their
inability to supply timber regularly to specification.
British Colufilbia is cutting down primeval forests of
timber of immense size, while Sweden deals with a crop
of uniform size and grade. Sweden can afford the tilDe
to carry out every operation scientifically and can cut her
timber to the exact lengths required by the British con-
sumer, while British Columbia, faced with the high cost
of milling and the long ocean haul, has to concentrate
chiefly upon speed of production. Despite these obvious
drawbacks, however, there is growing confidence in the
possibility of increasing trade with the United Kingdom.
Regarding the future of the pulp and paper industry,
Mr. Turnbull expresses most optimistic views. Though
only four pulp and two paper plants at present exist and
the industry generally is in its infancy, the output
increased from practically nil in 1912 to J.36,832 tons of
newsprint, 9,792 tons of wrapping, 5,300 tons of sulphite
and 9,000 tons of sulphate pulp in 1920. The country
possesses abundant water-power, huge stands of timber of
species suitable for pulp, and adequate harbour facilities.
It is hardly a matter for surprise, therefore, that five new
pulp companies are preparing to commence operations.
Others are bound to follow, for the pulp stands in Eastern
Canada and the Eastern States are being rapidly depleted,
and the attention of both capitalist and manufacturer is
turning westward towards the unworked resources of
British Columbia.
This view is corroborated by figures published in the
Financier of January 10, 1922. After remarking that a
series of destructive fires has rendered impossible any
accurate estimate of Canada's total pulpwood resources,
the writes states that British Columbia is estimated to
contain 225 million cords of pulp\vood, as compared with
900 million cords for the whole of Canada. Though ex-
ploitation has only just commenced, British Columbia
already ranks as third producer in the Canadian pulp and
paper industry, and very extensive developments in the
near future are assured.
AMONG the most striking features of the Illustrated Cana-

dian Forestry Magazine for February, 1922, is the resume
Canada's of a speech on forests and forest policy
Forests and delivered by the Hon. E. C. Drury, Prime
Forest Minister of Ontario, at the annual meeting
Propaganda. of the Canadian Forestry Association in
Toronto in the second week of January. After describing
what has already been accomplished to meet the growing
scarcity of pine and other timber and advocating still
greater effort and enthusiasm on the part both of the
Government and the public, the Premier proceeded:
H The most alarming thing is that we are getting within
sight-within very unpleasant sight-of the end of our

virgin pine forests. I find that we have during the past
ten years an annual cut of pine of approximately 350
million feet; that that is 100 million feet more than is
being reproduced by annual growth, and at that rate of
consumption within twenty-five, thirty or thirty-five
years, our virgin pine forests will, perhaps, be nearly
exhausted. It is unthinkable that we can restrict the
output of our forests. There is only one way to meet the
situation, and that is by provision for the future in the
line of production, in the line of propagation, and in the
line of taking care of the wastage; and when we come to
look at it along those lines, we find things are not
quite so hopeless as they would appear to be, because the
thing the man in the street loses sight of is the very
simple fact that trees grow. The average citizen in this
country does not realize that trees are things that grow;
that crops of them can be grown just the same as a crop
of wheat, and the intelligent ,vay to administer a forest
area is not to set aside and hold out of the market great
areas, but to provide such methods of reproduction as
will take care of the needs of the country. Along that
line something must be done."
The Premier concluded his address by describing in
detail the steps which are being taken by the Government
to anticipate and obviate the danger to which he alluded.
It is evident that the Government has a very active
auxiliary in the Canadian Forestry Association. It
appears from the annual report of the Association for the
year 1921, that its income has risen from 5,279 dollars in
1915 to 47,836 dollars in the year under review, exclusive
EMPIRE FORESTRY
of an additional sum of 14,000 dollars representing dona-

tions of materials and services from various sources.
During the same period of seven years the membership
roll has risen from 3,400 to 13,000. These results may
be said to have been secured by an active and unceasing
propaganda, carried out in all parts of the Dominion.
We cannot forbear to quote the following extracts fronl
the annual report, as they offer an example in methods
of publicity which might, 1nutatis 111utandis, be advan-
tageously adopted in other countries.
"The Eastern Forest Protection Car, equipped with
graphic exhibits, and bringing to hundreds of com-
munities its daily lectures and motion..picture warnings,
has been especially effective. Where less picturesque
methods \vould attract a few dozen inquiries the rail\vay
car method dre\v thousands. In a season's travel of
8,630 miles this car attracted 135,000 people and was
responsible for 185 public meetings on forest protection . .
This is 1110re than double the mileage and three times the
attendance which characterized a similar effort in 1920.
From Halifax, Fort Frances, Ontario, this enterprise
made its influence felt, as is well attested by local
authorities. When in French - speaking districts of
Quebec, as was the case for months, French speakers
took charge, by courtesy of the Quebec Forest Service,
and the language of the district becalne the standard of
the car, its banners, explanatory signs and literature.
In Nova Scotia, in almost all parts of New Brunswick,
along the south shore of the S1. Lawrence, of Quebec,
and over hundreds of miles south to the United States
border, unvarying crowds amounting sometimes to
2,000 daily displayed a serious interest in the car and
its forest protection message and thronged the meetings,
frequently necessitating the holding of three and four
lectures a day. In the Lake 81. John region, on the
National Transcontinental in Central Quebec, and on et
protracted course through Northern Ontario, the interest
of the general public was immediate and sincere.
Mr. Blyth, the Assistant Secretary, handled the car with
efficiency and throughout the season from May to
Deceinber employed a total of seven assistants. We
have had several unique and instructive models built for
the 1922 tours, \vhich cannot fail to drive home special
phases of the forestry problem, so that even the youngest

'child will quickly understand and retain the lesson.
'fhe educational principle on which the Exhibit Car is
based is scientifically sound and has proved of very great
service in making a rapid and lasting impression of a
definite point on the maximum number of people with
the shortest expenditure of time and money. It is a good
lnethod for reaching and impressing cro\vds."
A new feature of the Association's publicity and edu-
cational campaign is the provision of "travelling lecture
sets." A popularly written manuscript, covering the
rudiments of the forestry cause, the commonsense argu-
ment for forest protection, the problem of land classifica-
tion, &c., is supplemented by sixty handsome lantern
slides packed in a break-proof travelling box. There are
now nine of these units in constant action. Two deal
with the general story of forestry and fire prevention, two
are specially written on the topic of reforesting the
deforested lands of Ontario, two treat of tree-planting on
the prairies, two are devoted to Quebec Province and are
in the French language, and one is adapted to British
Columbia. These nine sets, going from town to town on
the plan of a circulating library, reach approximately
from two to three hundred people a day for six months
of the year.
The Canadian Forestry Association certainly deserves
all the support that it receives, and \ve hope that its
annual income will before long reach the figure of 100,000
dollars at \vhich it aims. The work which it is doing is
well worth it.
THE Pacific coast lumber trade, which together with

mining and fisheries, forms the foundation of the whole
. commercial fabric, has recently passed
The Canadian through a period of great trial. A brief but
Lumber Trade. .
extraordInary boom was followed by a
period of unexampled depression, which obliged several
of the smaller mills and many logging camps to close
down. The larger mills deprived of their usual home
market were forced to seek overseas trade and discover
new purchasers. Mr. Hanna, President of the Canadian
National Railways, speaking at Toronto at the beginning
of this year, remarked, for example, that the Canadian
Merchant Marine nlade no money during 1921, but that
166 EMPIRE FORESTRY
it had found markets for Canadian products, including

83,000,000 feet of timber sold to India and Egypt. This
need for seeking fresh markets proved in the end very
advantageous for the trade; for it resulted in the establish-
ment of an export business which kept the larger con-
cerns at work, and brought them orders from distant
lands, which will occupy their attention for many months.
Lumber production in Canada and on the North
American Continent is steadily moving westward. A
few years ago, according to a Vancouver correspondent
of the Manchester Commercial Guardian, British Columbia
supplied only a very small proportion of the Canadian
consumption of lumber; but to-day the ratio has in-
creased to the point at which 37 per cent. of the lumber
used in the Dominion is supplied by that province.
During the last fourteen years the British Columbian
output of lumber has increased 100 per cent.; and this
development has synchronized with the growth of the
province's share in the saw-mill trade from 8 to 11 per
cent. In 1920 the timber industry of British Columbia
produced nearly 90 million dollars' worth of commercial
Inaterial; the figures for 1921, when published, will show
a rise to over 100 million dollars. For during 1921,
1,4°0 logging camps, 340 saw-mills and more than 100
shingle mills were at work, while six pulp and paper mills
were engaged in the continuous shipment of their pro-
ducts. 'Though prices at the end of last year were still
too low to admit of large profits, the volume of trade is
sound and shows remarkable signs of revival. This is
particularly the case with the export business, one item
of which, "British Colulnbia boxes," is attracting the
~otice of new markets, such as the Straits Settlements,
which have commenced to use these boxes for packing
rubber. This market is bound in due course to expand.
The figures above quoted appear to justify Mr. Turnbull's
sanguine hopes for the future of British Columbian trade
in timber and forest products.
THE heavy decline in England's timber imports in 1921

naturally affected Canada in a marked degree. Accord-
Canadian ing to a correspondent of the Times, Canada's
Timber Imports sawn soft-wood imports to the United
to England Kingdom during the last shipping season
in 1921 • were only 190,600 loads against 81 3,7°0
loads in the previous season, and in sawn hard woods

914,000 cubic feet against 2,882,000 cubic feet in 1920.
Canada's chief import material is spruce; and last year not
only were large stocks of this timber already in the
British market, but the demand for it was also checked
by the competition of Finnish white wood and other
European woods. It The coming season" adds the
writer, "threatens to be keenly competitive for overseas
shippers who cater for this market, and if Canada is to
retain her position as a large supplier of spruce to the
United Kingdom, particularly on the north-west coast,
where she has hosts of friends, she will have to keep a
very close eye on what shippers are doing during the
next few months in Finland and Sweden, and possibly
Russia." The year 1921, as far as regards the timber
trade of the United Kingdom, was in many respects
abnormal; and one can only express a hope that, if the
market reverts to its normal activity during the current
year, Canada will again resume her rightful position
among the countries which supply England's timber
requirements.
Mr. W. H. KILBY, Fire Inspector, Canadian National
Railways, Winnipeg, has kindly replied to a request for
Fire-Prevention a contribution to the Journal by forwarding
on <?anadian a note on a system of fire-prevention, which
Railways. he originally prepared for the Secretary of
the Forestry Commission. The belief prevails, and is to
some extent supported by statistics, that 75 per cent. of
the fires which occur in the neighbourhood of railroads
are caused by railway agency, and that 60 per cent. are
directly attributable to the locomotive. Until a recent
date, it appears~ the railways of Canada were able to pro-
cure anthracite coal for their locomotives, a coal which
has good coking qualities and does not throw sparks;
but since supplies of this fuel have been difficult to
obtain, Canadian railways have been obliged to depend
upon the products of their own coalfields, none of which
can be properly described as a hard coal. This 'has
resulted in an obligation to furnish locomotives with far
more elaborate fire-protective appliances than are neces-
sary where hard coal or coal of good coking quality is
eluployed. Despite continuous efforts, the problem of
168 EMPIRE FORESTRY
'Constructing completely effective fire-protective devices

has not yet been solved, though much has been done by
altering the internal construction of engiries and by the
provision of cinder-tight ashpans, &c., to n1inimize the
risks. The use of oil as fuel, instead of coal, would
probably prove n10re effective than any mechanical
device; but the high price and limited supply of this
commodity render its general use impracticable.
For many years the railways, which accept respon-
sibility for a considerable percentage of forest fires, have
maintained a regular service of patrolmen, whose duty
it is to discover and extinguish fires. 'fhese men work
on a beat-system and cover their allotted area either by
means of hand-propelled machines, styled velocipedes,
or in gasoline (petrol) cars. In the former case the beats
vary in extent from eight to twenty miles, in the latter
from twenty to sixty miles; and in both cases the beats
have to be covered twice a day, and even more frequently
if the train-service demands it. One can hardly be sur-
prised at Mr. Kilby's statement that the results of this
'system have not been wholly encouraging, and that the
railways are considering a revision of the arrangements,
with a view to decreasing the length of the beats and
'ensuring the more speedy transport of fire-extinguishing
.appliances to the scene of reported conflagrations. For
the reporting of fires special telegraphic and detailed
forms are used, and another set of special £orn1s are in
use for recording the activities of the men employed as
patrols, who are supposed to fill them up daily and drop
them into a locked box, with a slotted lid, which is placed
-at the extreme point of each beat. The appliances in use
for fighting fires in forest areas appear to be of a some-
\vhat primitive type, cOlnprising chiefly shovels, canvas
pails and buckets, and wet sacks; but improvements are
being introduced, as for example on the western end of
the Canadian National Railway lines where small suction
pumps with hoses attached, capable of being worked by
two men, are in use. The railways have also introduced
tank-cars of 8,000 gallons capacity, hauled by locomotives
which provide the power required for pumping water
from the tanks on to the fire.
In the case of the prairies the usual system .of protection
'Consists in ploughing strips varying from 4 to 16 ft.
in width, at a distance of 200 ft. to ~oo ft. from the

centre of the track. The actual width of the strips
depends upon the character of the land from the stand-
point of fire-hazard. In lands, where settlement is light,
further protection is secured by burning the whole strip
between the fire-guard and the railway track; while in
lands used for grazing the burning is confined to the
railway right-of-way. This burning is carried out yearly
in the spring and helps to remove debris which would
otherwise constitute a considerable fire-hazard.
With the object of discriminating between the various
degrees of liability to fire, the lands through which the
railway passes are studied in much the same way as an
insurance company classes various types of building l
•
There are several degrees of fire-hazard; and the greater

the degree, the more intensive is the form of protection
applied. On the other hand there are certain lands
\vhich are not liable to fire, and these are placed on an
exemption list, subject to the previous sanction of the
Board of Railway Commissioners. Fire . . protection
propaganda is apparently restricted to the posting of
notices in all railway premises and to exhortations
printed in the working time-tables, and in the menus
used in the dining-cars of the chief trains; but a U Fire-
protection Day" is annually observed about the beginning
of October, when all employes of the railway are given
special instructions on the subject, and are expected to
lend a hand towards clearing up inflammable rubbish
and generally reducing the chances of fire, both in the
neighbourhood of railway buildings and along the line.
That these arrangements have not been fruitless is
proved by the statement of Mr. Ellwood Wilson in the
first number of this Journal, that "the railroads showed
(1921) a very great improvement in the matter of setting
fire to forest, notably the lines under the control of the
Canadian National Railway, which has been the worst
offender in the past."
REFERENCE was made in the first number of this Journal

to the lack of timber supplies in Rhodesia, and to the
The Future suitability of its soil, climate and other con-
Timber-supply ditions for the growth of many useful
of Rhode51a. woods. Mr. J. S. Henkel, who was appointed
12
EMPIRE FORESTRY
to advise the Rhodesian Government on forestry matters

two years ago and has accomplished much in that short
period, is satisfied as a result of extensive tours through-
out the territory, that Rhodesia can be made to produce
every foot of wood required for home consumption.
The Rhodesian Government, which is apparently alive to
the importance of this subject and places full reliance
upon Mr. Henkel's advice, has recently allotted £5,000
for the purpose of afforestation. Arrangements are now
being made to establish nurseries and plantations at
appropriate centres, from which both seeds and trans-
plants of suitable timber will be supplied to the farming
community. The interest of the farmers is reported to
have been thoroughly aroused by a series of lectures
which ·Mr. Henkel has given on the aims and objects of
his scheme.
In sub-tropical climates, like that of Rhodesia, there is
no proper winter season, during which trees have to lie
dormant. They grow continuously throughout the year,
and the yield per acre is consequently nearly double that
of northern lands. Experiments conducted under Mr.
Henkel's direction have proved also that Rhodesia is in
every way adapted to the cultivation of both eucalypts and
soft woods, such as pine, cypress and poplars. Eucalypts
would prove excessively valuable to the railways of
Rhodesia, which are at present laid over metal sleepers;
for the latter are of comparatively short length and con-
sequently prevent the attainment of anything approaching
a high speed. The railway authorities are naturally
anxious to substitute wooden for iron sleepers, and may
therefore be expected to give the fullest support to the
project of planting eucalypts, which, as Australia has
proved, are capable of producing a sound sleeper with an
average life of twenty to thirty years. The manufacture
of furniture, railway trucks and road waggons is
responsible for a keen and regular demand for this
variety of timber; and those who share Mr. Henkel's
opinions and hopes look forward with confidence to the
day when furniture and rolling stock throughout Rhodesia
will be constructed by Rhodesian labour from Rhodesian
grown timber-an event which must necessarily con-
note a marked increase in the general prosperity of the
territory.
The softer woods could likewise be grown and utilized

for the general benefit. They would always be in demand
by the building trade, and are of prime importance to the
citrus, tobacco, dairying and mining industries. It is
estimated, for example, that in ten years' time the
Rhodesian citrus industry will require 1,000,000 boxes,
costing £60,000 per annUln, the material for everyone of
which could be grown within the territory: and an
equivalent demand might reasonably be expected from
the South African tobacco industry, which is reported
to spend £67,000 annually on the purchase of boxes.
The dairy industry of Rhodesia is at present only partly
developed, but it is expected to attain considerable pro-
portions during the next ten or fifteen years. Assuming
that this forecast proves correct, the industry will require
a huge wood supply, the magnitude of which may be
roughly estimated from the fact that the Gwelo Creamery
alone spends annually £7,000 on wood for packing.
Thus there are many facts and considerations which
serve to support the policy recommended by Mr. Henkel
to the Rhodesian Government; and the apparent readi-
ness of the latter to give his experiments full scope is
a sure augury of future success.
IN his Report on Forest Administration in Nigeria from

January 1st, 1920, to March 31st, 1921, the Director of
Forests, commenting upon the discovery of
Nigeria. fine specimens of mahogany and iroko
between Kiban and Jemaa, states that the
best forests he has so far seen in Northern Nigeria lie
along the base of the precipitous escarpment which forms
the south-western edge of the Bauchi plateau. He
suggests the formation of communal forest reserves, to
be administered under special ordinances in the interests
of the people who own them, with the object of ensuring
a continuous supply of forest products.
According to the Report, the protection of forest
growth was well maintained within the existing reserves,
but outside such areas the protection of the oil palms and
of useful forest trees presents difficulties. The problem
is complicated in the case of oil palms by the practice
of felling for extraction of liquor. Apparently in some
parts the method of climbing the tree and tapping it is
EMPIRE FORESTRY
unknown; then again the felling of the tree is an easy

means of obtaining a large quantity of sap in a short
time, and the liquor thus obtained is considered to be
stronger and of better quality; and thirdly there is
a certain amount of danger involved in climbing such
trees, several persons having been killed at Ikom by falling
from palms while tapping them for liquor. Here,
apparently, the Nigerian native might well learn a lesson
from those Hindu castes in Western India, whose
hereditary occupation is the tapping of the palmyra, the
date-palm and the coca-palm. The Bandharis of Bombay
and the western coast are extraordinarily adept at the
work, and armed only with a leather strap and a tapping
knife will mount the highest palm tree without risk of
accident.
During the fifteen months, to which the Report relates,
the value of the mahogany exported from Nigeria was
£167,331, against £116,820 in the year 1919. The
forestry revenue continues steadily to increase in both the
northern and southern provinces.
THE latest administration report of the Conservator of

Forests of the Madras Presidency contains a significant
reference to the extent to which purely
India. political propaganda is affecting the attitude
of Indians towards forest officials and their
policy. Aroused by the general unrest prevailing in that
country and by the constant preaching of reVOlutionaries,
the peasantry in some parts of Madras are showing
increasing hostility to the Forest Department and aggra-
vating the difficulties with which the policy of conservancy
has always had to contend. Their complaints are no
longer confined to allegations about the high-handedness
of the forest officials and subordinates, but are directed
against the very existence of forest reserves. They
demand wholesale disafforestation and surrender of
control of the forests to the villagers themselves, and
these demands are to some extent supported by educated
Indians who ought to know better. The Chief Conservator
appeals for public effort to help educated Indian opinion}
and through it the villagers, to understand that the policy
of the Department is not one of senseless opposition to
the interests of the people, but on the contrary is one of
sympathy tempered by the knowledge that the time has

not yet come to relax supervision and control altogether.
"The ideal to be aimed at," writes the Conservator, H is
the surrender of all forests, on which the villager depends
for his daily wants, to the management of the village
itself, but such a surrender must be accompanied by
some guarantee that forests are not destroyed by the
selfishness of the present generation." Unfortunately,
there is ample evidence to justify the forest authority's
forecast of what would take place if control were
relinquished in the manner suggested, such, for example,
as the total destruction within the last twenty years of
forest on waste lands and the rapid degradation of private
forests.
The enormous potentialities of the forests of the
Madras Presidency were described by Mr. Martin,
Consulting Forest Engineer to the Government of India,
in the course of a lecture which he delivered in Madras
in December, 1921, after a three months' tour in the chief
forest areas. Evidently impressed by the wealth which
they contain, he asserted confidently that their proper
exploitation according to modern methods would not
only ensure a very large increase of provincial revenue,
but would also offer congenial employment to many
young Indians who are now struggling to maintain
themselves in the overstocked clerical profession. He
reminded his audience that India contained at least
700,000 acres qf fine forest, which it had been impossible
to exploit in the past, and that at the present moment
only 10 per cent. of the forest resources were being
realized. The distance of the forests from railways and
the absence of adequate and speedy means of transport
were responsible for thousands of valuable trees lying
rotting on the ground and for the wholesale importation
from Canada of railway sleepers which India could
produce far more cheaply. The possibilities of estab-
lishing subsidiary industries were very great. The
manufacture of furniture, boxes, handles, paper, casks,
spools, utensils, bowls, interior woodwork, railway
wagons, &c., could with a little effort be made a
permanent feature of the country's economic activities,
provided that the Government gave its support and the
Legislative Councils took an intelligent interest in the
subject.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
The crux of the position lies, as we pointed out last

month, in the attitude of educated Indians towards the
policy and activities of the forest authorities. Though
their constant cry is for the industrial advancement of
India, they are apt to show unreasoning prejudice against
sound schemes devised for this end by European experts,
and are prone to assume that the introduction of Euro-
pean capital for the initiation and support of such
schemes is in some way subversive of their country's
prosperity. It appears that Mr. Martin, on the strength
of his study of the Madras forests, has submitted definite
recommendations for their exploitation to the Govern-
ment of Madras, but has openly expressed his apprehension
that the Legislative Council of the Province, before which
his proposals must ultirnately be placed, will either neglect
or reject them. It is to be hoped that these fears will not
be justified, and that the politicians who presumably
desire to secure a steady advance of their country's
prosperity, will examine the recommendations with
impartial mind and relinquish unreasonable prejudices
which are calculated to mar the quality of their services
to the country.
Though the attitude of elected politicians in the Madras
Legislature may give cause for apprehension, it is satis-
factory to be able to record a more statesmanlike grasp of
forestry problems in the Legislative Assembly of the
Government of India. During the strenuous debate on
the Budget, Mr. Rangachariar, the spokesman of a
newly-forn1ed democratic party, announced that that
party had decided not to wield the economy axe in regard
to forest grants. " It is," he said, "because we want the
forests to develop as quickly as possible, so that from the
development of commercial departments like railways,
forests, and irrigation works, people may be relieved of
taxation in this country. That being the object in vie\v,
we trust that speedy progress will be made in the develop-
ment of the forests of this country, and the country will
not be reluctant to grant expenditure under that head,
provided due regard is had to Indian interests." It is to
be hoped that the view expressed in this extract from Mr.
, Rangachariar's· speech will find support in the various
Provincial Legislative Councils, particularly in that of the
well-forested Central Provinces, where the budget grant
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCSLLANEA 175
for the Forest Department has been reduced, apparently

without much reason, by 38,000 rupees. During the last
forty years, as an Anglo-Indian journal remarks, the
monetary surplus from forests in India has risen from IS
lakhs to 220 lakhs of rupees, figures which are suggestive,
of what may be accomplished in the future by generous
financial treatment of the department responsible for the
contr?l and exploitation of the forests.
THE, present conditions and future prospects of forestry
in the Panjab were discussed by Mr. A. J. Gibson, Con-
. servator of Forests, in a paper read before
TWo~~~~ab the Panjab Forests Conference in February
· last. In the past the Panjab Forestry
Department has suffered a good deal from lack of men
and money, which resulted in a handful of trained ex-
perts, headed by an overworked Conservator, attempting
to work and develop a property containing at least two
million acres of merchantable forest. I n countries pract~
tising intensive forestry this acreage would represent at
least 150 forest divisions. The Panjab had to struggle on
for years with only ten forest divisions. The outlook at
present is much brighter, for the Government has sanc-
tioned a reorganization scheme which will give the depart-
ment the additional men that it needs, and is revising the
system of financing the department's operations. In
regard to the latter point, it appears from the speech
delivered by Mr. J. W. A. Grieve, Chief Conservator of
Forests, at the same Conference, that the authorities have
decided to raise loans to provide for forest capital ex-
penditure, thus superseding the old practice of paying it
out of surplus revenue. This course will at once render
possible more rapid development and at the same time
show far more correctly than has hitherto been possible
the true annual income derived from the forest estates.
It has also been decided to promote the financing and
development of forest schemes through the agency of
"co-partners," who will provide, \vholly or in part, the
required capital. This scheme is a novel one, and has
already been applied to a resin concern and a saw mill,'
the future of which will naturally be \vatched with great
interest. The advocates of the scheme contend that it
frees the businesses concerned from the complicated-
EMPIRE FORESTRY
system of control inseparable from the operations of any

Government machinery, and therefore that it will secure
greater speed, efficiency and economy. So certain are
the authorities of ultimate success that they intend to
apply the same system of a co-partnership" to a project
for the equipment of the Jhelum and Changa Manga
depots with machinery, tramways, &c., and to a scheme
for constructing a Simla-Narkanda ropeway.
Mr. Gibson points out that the north-western corner of
the Himalayas, from Afghanistan to Nepal, has a belt of
coniferous forest varying in elevation from 2,000 to
11,000 ft., which probably constitutes the largest reserv~
of soft wood in the Eastern Hemisphere, excluding
Siberia and Manchuria. The Panjab Forest Depart-
ment's share of this forest amounts to about 1,500 square
miles only (1,000,000 acres), while the greater part-some
5,000 square miles of workable forest-lies in the Native
States of the Panjab and in Kashmir, and the balance of
8,000 square miles belongs to the United Provinces. At
present the whole tract yields about 13~ million cubic
feet (260,000 tons) of timber per annum, which is capable
of early expansion to 23t million cubic feet. With
intensive scientific management the annual yield might
easily reach 60 million cubic feet. The Panjab at
present obtains from its small share of this great con-
iferous belt only 6 million cubic feet a year; but under
new conditions the forest authorities look with confidence
to securing an output of 30 million cubic feet, worth not
less than 7slakhs of rupees nearly (£500,000) per annum.
It is also realized that, if maximum values are to be
obtained, timber must be extracted in the log. This
necessitates much specialized engineering work both in
the forest and in the rivers, and also the establishment of
modern saw-mills in the plains. A commencement has
been made at Talwara on the river Beas (the Hyphasis of
the Greek historians), where a saw mill with a capacity of
I million cubic feet a year (20,000 tons) is being rapidly
erected. Other saw mills will be required on all the big
river$ of the Panjab, for owing to scarcity of labour, small
output and consequent high cost, hand-sawing is no
longer feasible..
The marketing of large quantitIes of soft wood will
require much organization. But India's demand for
railway sleepers alone amounts to 9 million cubic feet or
more per annum, with a current railway mileage of only
36,000 miles-a ridiculously inadequate figure considering
the size of the country. The North Western Railway has
seriously applied itself to the creosoting of sleepers by
erecting a pressure plant on the Beas, capable of dealing
annually with a quarter of a million sleepers. It is
probable that the increased use of inferior soft woods,
suitably treated, as railway sleepers will result indirectly
in restoring the deodar to its rightful place as one of
India's premier structural'timbers. Used, or misused, for
railway sleepers, the deodarmay be said to have lost both
caste and value.
Among the various forest products of the Panjab,
Mr. Gibson mentions logs of mulberry, which, even in
slnall sizes, command a ready market in the furniture
and H sporting goods" trades. The firms of racquet and
hockey-stick makers, &c., in Sialkot are always in active
competition for mulberry logs, and on more than one
occasion have raised the sale price to a phenomenal
height. The continued expansion of this H sporting
goods industry will ensure a steady market for this
11
particular forest product in the Panjab. The bamboo

also forms an increasingly important source of revenue,
despite the fact that the United Provinces has contrived
to secure an appreciable share of the Punjab bamboo
trade. A definite attempt to create and develop a larger
market has recently been made by sending a forest officer
to canvas for orders in the large towns of the Panjab and
North-West Frontier Provinces; and his efforts have
met. with no little success. Other interesting items in
·a long list of forest products in the H Land of the Five
Rivers 11 are the introduction of lac and the cultivation of
various medicinal and valuable plants, such as belladonna
and" costus " or kuth.
There are great possibilities also in the use of bhabbar
or sabai grass for paper-pulp. This grass is already being
exported from the J{alesar reserved forest on the Jamna
,and from the neighbouring forests of the Khalsia State,
in an unbaled condition, to Calcutta to be made into
pulp and paper, despite the fact that it has to be trans-
ported thirty miles to the nearest railhead and thence
1,000 miles to the mill. It is estimated that the forests
EMPIRE FORESTRY
between the Tamna and the Ambala-Kalka Rail\vay could

produce sufficient bhabbar grass to feed a 6,ooo-ton a
year pulp mill; and this project, if it materializes, corn..
bined with several wood-pulp mills for the consumption
of the small coniferous timber of the high level forests,
would go far towards rendering the Panjab independent
of paper supplies from outside.
As in other parts of India, the most pressing problem
that confronts the forest authorities is the education of
public opinion on the subject of forest problems and the
economic use of forests products.
THE difficulties which hamper economic forest develop-

ment in the Bombay Presidency are disclosed in the
annual Bombay Forest Administration
Forestry in
Bombay.
Report for 19 20- 21 , which has recently
been issued. The first and foremost
disability is the paucity of the expert staff. Only two
officers have been recruited for the Imperial Forest
Service since 1912, and these have not yet learnt their
work and passed their qualifying test in the vernacular
lan.guages. In consequence, the revision of obsolete
forest working-plans, which demands a full cadre of
expert officers, has become impossible. The great efforts.
made by the Government to obtain recruits for the
Imperial Forest Service have 'so far proved fruitless.
They have offered special facilities and inducements to
Indian youths to enter the service, and they have filled
four vacancies by promoting to the Imperial cadre
specially deserving members of the Provincial service.
Yet they cannot fill the vacancies. So far as Indians are
concerned, the disinclination to adopt a forester's career
is possibly due to the fact that the life of the jungle is
not spent sufficiently in the limelight and is frequently
too strenuous to please the middle-class Indian youth,
who prefers an easy road to competence and authority.
The decline in English recruits is perhaps a legacy of
war conditions, but is more probably to be ascribed tQ
the sense of distrust and insecurity which has pervaded
the whole public service of India since the introduction
of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. The Services
have lost their belief in the determination and ability of
the Indian Government to protect and support them,.
while they are confronted almost daily with evidence of
the intention of Indians and Indian legislative councils to
divest the administration as early as possible of its
European personnel. In these circumstances the paucity
of recruits is scarcely a matter of surprise.
The second obstacle to forest development is lack of
communications. The want of an adequate engineering
staff hampers the development of transport lines; and
considerable capital expenditure on railways, rbads and
mechanical transport is imperative, if the forests are to be
worked to anything approaching their full capacity. In
the rich forests of Kanara the present transport system,
which is of a crude and obsolete character, appears to
have completely broken down; while the lack of timber
waggons on the Tapti Valley Railway resulted in the
valuable material provided to the sale depots from the
North Dangs area remaining unsold. The Bombay
Government, faced with serious financial difficulties,
cannot do much to mend matters. At the last session of
the Legislative Council they managed to secure a grant
of 1,100,000 rupees for roads, bridges and buildings,
chiefly in the Kanara district. But nothing less than
a system of ample grants, provided throughout a series of
years, will serve to obviate the present waste of valuable
timber and to secure increasing profit from the forests of
the province.
The third difficulty which confronts the Forest Admini-
stration arises from the negligence or hostility of the
people in respect of valuable forest areas. Forest fires
during the year under review were very serious, and in
the southern division of the province alone, 625 square
miles of forest were thus destroyed. These fires, like the
huge conflagrations in the Kumaon district of the United.
Provinces, are shown to have been due mainly to the
incitements of political agitators, who persuaded the
illiterate villagers not only to set fire to the forests, but
also to withhold their assistance in extinguishing acci-
dental fires. A more determined attitude on the part of
the Indian Government at the outset of the violent racial
agitation of the last three or four years would have
indirectly checked forest incendiarism as well as other
uncomfortable symptoms of the decay of law and order.
As the facts stand, however, it is no matter for surprise
180 EMPIRE FORESTRY
that during the year 1920-21 the percentage of surplus to

gross revenue from the Bombay Forests declined from
23. 6 to 0·7.
THE doctrine of political expediency has triumphed in

the matter of the future control of the forests of Burma,
which cover 227,000 square miles or more
Bau:;~~~~~:ts than 64 per cent. of the total area of that
· country. As is well known, the original
proposals for Indian Constitutional Reform, embodied in
the Montagu-Chelmsford Report, \vere not applicable to
Burma; but since the passing of the Act of 1919, the India
Office has been subjected to considerable political
pressure, and in response thereto has conceded to the
Province of Burma a form of constitution which it
declared, as recently as 1918, to be totally unsuited to that
country. A committee, under the chairmanship of Sir
A. F. Whyte, was accordingly appointed to investigate
the application of the Indian diarchy to Burma and to
make recommendations regarding the transfer of subjects
and departments to Burman ministers.
One of the crucial questions for that committee's
decision was whether the forests should be transferred to
the control of indigenous ministers or should remain in
charge of executive councillors. In India, under the
same constitutional scheme, the forests have been placed
on the transferred list in one province only, viz., Bombay,
where they represent only la per cent. of the total area,
as compared with 19 per cent. in the Central Provinces,
the most widely forested area, and 64 per cent. in Burma.
The forests of Burma, moreover, contribute more than
two-sevenths of the gross revenue of the province.
Naturally, the Burman witnesses, who appeared before
the committee, \vere practically unanimous in demanding
the transfer of the forests to the control of Burman
politicians, while the local government which spends an
unusually large proportion of its time and attention on
forest administration, adhered, as it has always done,
to the opinion that on the actual merits of the case the
forests ought to remain in charge of the Executive
Council of the province.
Despite various objections, the comlnittee has decided
in favour of the Burman view, on the ground that there
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLANEA ISI
is at present little or no public opinion in favour of con-

servation, and that to make it a transferred subject is the
best way to create such public opinion and to educate the
people up to the standard of full responsibility. This
strikes one as an exceedingly doubtful proposition. The
mere fact of handing the forests over to Burman ministers
is not likely to produce any greater volume of enlightened
public opinion than exists under present conditions, and
there is the added danger that ministers may be incapable
of appreciating the need of a sound forest policy, or, if
capable of doing so, may adopt the line of least resistance
in <;lealing with the popular demand, which is all for
careless and improvident exploitation. Regarding the
future of the forests, the committee pins its faith to
another dubious proposition, namely, the continued
existence of a strong, capable and highly organized Forest
Department. The break-up of the Public Services in
India, as a result of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms,
is a matter of common knowledge: the men no\v
serving in India find their position intolerable and wish
to leave the country: the Secretary of State cannot find
new recruits in England in sufficient numbers to discount
the annual wastage. What guarantee is there that these
conditions will not be reproduced in Burma, and that
under the regime of Burman Ministers the European
element in the Burma Forest Service will not in a few
years have ceased to exist? None whatever. Yet in the
absence of that highly trained and efficient European
element, the very important work hitherto carried out in
the Burma forests might speedily fall into ruin. The
verdict of the Whyte Committee really represents the
sacrifice of administrative and commercial efficiency to
purely political considerations.
A MOST interesting paper on "The Timbers of India and
Burma was read before the Indian section of the Royal
11
. Society of Arts on January 27 last by Mr.

. The Tlm~ers Alexander L. Howard, head of the firm
of IndIa. h· h was appolnte
W lC
. d ab out two years ago
timber agents of the Government of India for the United
Kingdom and Europe. Mr. Howard, who recently made
a protracted tour through the chief timber-producing areas
of India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands, emphasized
EMPIRE FORESTRY
the point, which he based on his own experience in the

timber trade, that in many countries, particularly in the
Tropics, the timbers which are most esteemed by the local
inhabItants often prove to be the least valuable for export.
On the other hand, timbers which are of little use in the
country of their origin are often of great importance in
parts of the world with different climatic conditions.
Thus the deodar and sal, which are the principal timbers
of Northern and Central India, would probably cOlnmand
little success in British and European markets, while such
woods as Indian white mahogany, laurel wood, garjun,
white bombwe, silver greywood, and white chuglam, all of
which are likely to prove of high value.in Western markets,
are in small demand in India. In consequence, most of
the timbers likely to be appreciated by consumers in
Europe, are, in the absence of any large local demand,
obtainable at a price far below their intrinsic value, and
therefore the f.o.b. price for these timbers, at any rate
during the currency of the present low freights, is very
advantageous to the buyer. There seems little prospect
of enhancement of the cost of freight for some time
to come.
During his visit to India, Mr. Howard laid the founda-
tions of a scheme for direct shipment of timber to England
from Indian and Burmese ports and from the Andaman
Islands. During the last few months five or six ships
have been employed in this manner, the first of them
being the ss. I~hodesia, which arrived at the West India
Docks in August, 1921, with a full cargo from the Govern-
ment of Burma of fine teak logs of large size, whereas
hitherto the imports have always been in the form of
sa\vn squares. Mr. Howard is convinced by his long
experience of the trade that the import of round logs will
prove of benefit to both producer and consumer.
He holds optimistic views also regarding the sufficiency
of timber supplies, pointing out that, whereas the total
area of the United Kingdom is 88,000 square miles, the
actual forest area of Jndia and Burma amounts to 251,000
square miles. Huge as these figures are, Mr. Howard
would probably agree that an abandonment of the en-
lightened policy of conservation and re-afforestation
pursued by the Indian Government during the last fifty
years would very quickly lead to an appreciable reduction
of the forest area, and ultilnately to economic disaster.

The Indian forests have no greater enemy than the Indian
villager. As regards the commercial exploitation of India's
forest resources, Mr. Howard justly imposes upon the
Indian authorities the obligation to acquaint themselves
thoroughly with commercial conditions in Europe, so
that they may be in a position to produce their timber
for the market in the manner and in the quantities
required by consumers. This study of trade conditions
is of paramount importance, for without it India cannot
hope to reap any appreciable financial advantage from her
great natural endowment. Up to the present the Indian
Government has confined its activities to encouraging
private firms to exploit the less well-known timbers, but
the complications and hazards inseparable from such an
enterprise have prevented these firms from achieving any
marked success, and Mr. Howard strongly advocates the
financial assistance and co-operation of the Government
of India, particularly in view of the fact that, as the forests
are the property of the Government which is pledged to
maintain and improve them for the benefit of succeeding
generations, the scope and freedom of action of private
enterprise are far more limited than in other countries.
On the other hand, as remarked by Sir George Hart, late
Inspector-General of Forests, where rights of exploitation
have been conceded to private enterprise by the Indian
Government, the terms of such concessions have often been
unduly favourable, and have not sufficiently recognized the
interests ot the taxpayer.
Mr. Howard rightly deprecated the prevailing English
habit of belittling the value both of home and Empire
grown timber, which has resulted in the exploitation of
foreign woods to the detriment of our own. Not only
is this attitude unpatriotic, but it is also economically
unsound, for it has tended to force the price of timber
to a point in excess of its natural value. Mr. Howard
therefore strongly commended the action of the Bank of
England in deciding, in the face of considerable opposition
from various quarters, to have the whole of the decorative
woodwork in its new buildings in Finsbury Circus made
of Indian timbers. He gave a list of several firms and
institutions which are following this example, including
Barclay's Bank, the Clan Line steamships, the London
EMPIRE FORESTRY
County Council, the Great Eastern Railway Company

(for Pullman car fittings and the flooring of its show-
rooms), Messrs. Burroughes and Watts (for billiard tables
in padauk), Messrs. Cramer and Co. (for pianofortes in
white mahogany), and Messrs. Spink and Co. (for show-
room and warehouse flooring in garjun). The address
concluded with a valuable descriptive summary of several
Indian woods, which those interested in the timber trade
would do well to study. Considering their variety and
excellence, it is hardly credible that they should be so
little known and used in this country. In 1913, for
example, of the total value of titnber imports into the
United Kingdom, viz., £33,788,884, India contributed
only £739,515, and 94 per cent. of this sum represented
inlports of teak. In 1921 Indian timber imports showed
a considerable increase, but much remains to be done by
way of publicity and encouragement of the trade, if India
is to' assume her rightful position as one of the most
important sources of the Empire's timber supplies.
THE issue of the Indian Fot'ester for March, 1922, reports

that the Utilization Conference recently held at Dehra
Trade Names Dun appointed a sub-committee to draw up
for Indian a list of standard trade names for all Indian
Timbers. timbers likely to find a market outside.
This list occupies nearly five pages of the journal men-
tioned. To avoid confusion with existing trade names,
the sub-committee decided in all cases to adopt either
the most easily pronounced vernacular name or an
English name not already in use for other species. The
resulting list, which received the general approval of the
Conference, is now to be circulated, for criticism and
suggestions, to Indian forest officers; and when their
replies have been received, another committee of officers
of the Forest Research Institute will consider the various
recommendations and prepare a final list, which will be
adopted as the official catalogue of names of Indian
timbers.
India is not the only country which stands in need of
a properly compiled list of this nature; and we may hope
that the example set by the conference of forest experts
at Dehra Dun will be followed in other parts of ·the
, Empire. It is presumed that the final list of Indian
timber nanles will eventually be published in the Indian

Forester, for it will he of interest and value to timber-users
in the United Kingdom.
IN its issue of January 12, 192.2, the Statesman of Calcutta

drew pointed attention to the extraordinary claims put
The Claims forward by the Titaghur Paper Mills Com-
of Indian pany and the Bengal Paper Mills Company
Paper Mills. in their evidence before the Fiscal Commis-
sion in India. They endeavoured to prove that it is
impossible to maintain a paper-making industry in India,
unless Indian mills are granted substantial subsidies and
a heavy protective duty. "At the present time India
enjoys the incalculable benefit of cheap supplies of well-
made paper, the cheapness being due mainly to the fact
that the paper imported from Northern Europe is manu-
factured near the sources of wood-pulp, by means of
efficient machinery served by competent labour. It is
now proposed partly to exclude this foreign paper, and to
raise the price of the remainder, so that paper may
be manufactured in India at a greater profit." The
Titaghur Paper Mills urged the levy of a 20 per cent.
duty on all paper imported into India, and the fixity of
this tariff for a period of ten years. Besides this, they
demanded preferential railway rates for all paper pro-
duced in India as well as for the raw materials of the
industry. Special rolling-stock should be provided at
those seasons of the year when grass has to be carried
to the mills. While demanding a heavy tariff on im-
ported paper, these mills asked that their machinery and
raw materials should all be adtnitted free of duty. Finally,
the Indian Government is asked to guarantee a minimum
purchase of 10,000 tons, presumably at a price higher
than they would pay if they placed their orders else-
where.
All these concessions are to come from the pocket of
the tax-payer; and it is suggested that the mills, if
screened from competition for a period of years, would
be able H to bring their plant and Inachinery up to date
and place themselves in a fighting position." It seems
reasonable to assume that this combative ·attitude would
be directed not so much against other trade-rivals as
against the consumer, who· would be heavily mulcted in
13
186 E,MPIRE FOR~S fRY
order that the mills might make huge profits. It is

pointed out that during the War, when there was absence
of competition and the imports of paper declined, these
Indian mills made enormous profits. The profits of the
Titaghur Company in 1916 were 10 lakhs 1 of rupees, in
1917, 21 lakhs, and in the two years 1918 and 19 1 9,
54 lakhs. Dividends of 50 per cent. per annum were
paid, large sums were written off for depreciation, while
between June, 1918, and May, 1921 , no less than 30 lakhs
were placed to reserve. It is highly doubtful whether,
with a protective tariff enabling the paper industry to
reap similar profits, the manufacturers would evince any
great eagerness to spend money upon improvements
which are apparently superfluous.
It is upon costly and perhaps unremunerative experi-
ments in the use of new materials like bamboo that the
further development of the Indian paper-industry depends.
Yet the demand for free import of raw materials can
only mean that these manufacturers intend to rely as
hitherto on imported WOOd-pulp, which can be more
economically converted into paper in Europe. " With-
out imputing unworthy motives, one cannot but suspect
that their ambition is not so much to establish a flourish-
ing Indian industry, as to secure themselves in a pleasant
and profitable enterprise, undisturbed by any fear of
competition. Since, too, it can hardly be pretended that
paper-making is an infant industry in India-the Titaghur
Mills having been in existence for forty years, during
which they have enjoyed all the advantages of a large
market at their very doors-it is impossible not to admire
the courage of an industry, which demands that its profits
should be guaranteed at the public expense by means of
an import duty long since described by high authority
as an indefensible tax on knowledge."
SOME time ago a Ceylon Industries Commission was

appointed to investigate the possibilities of the industrial
Forest and economic development of the Island.
Products of The Commission published its report in the
Ceylon. early part of the current year, and in the
course of its recommendations deals specifically with '
lOne lakh = 100,000 rupees = £6,666.

the products of the Ceylonese forests. It commences by

advising that one-third of the revenue accruing from the
sale of forest produce should be allocated regularly to
systematic afforestation, as is done in Australia; and then
points out that there is great scope for developing the
manufacture of tea and rubber chests, in view of the
fact that Ceylon at present has to in1port annually about
3 million rupees' worth of m01ni and other boxes. There
are also great possibilities in the distilling of acetic acid,
which is largely used in the coagulation of rubber; in
obtaining acetate of lime, charcoal, calcium carbide,
wood-alcohol, tar, potash, &c., from the vast area of the
Wanni jungles, which are of little or no value for ordinary
forest purposes; and lastly in the manufacture of paper
from illuk grass. These projects demand the early
attention of the Government of Ceylon.
THE Government of the Federated Malay States, recently
engaged the services of a distinguished Forest Research
The Forest Officer, Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, who has
Resources of published a valuable book on the com-
Malaya. mercial woods of the Malay Peninsula. H is "'A
conclusions are briefly summarized as follows in Eastern
EngineerinJ!. of January 26, 1922 : -
(a) The annual use of ,,"ood in the Peninsula
amounts to more than si million tons, more
than go per cent. of which is used for fuel.
The demand for wood is rapidly increasing.
(b) The productive forest area is 21,166 square miles,
and the estimated volume of standing timber
is 541,849,600 tons. The annual new ~rowth
in the forests is very much less than the volume
of wood consumed. The country cannot afford
to develop any extensive export of timber, and
it will take very careful handling to prevent a
timber famine in the future. In all probability
the country, before many years have passed,
will have to undertake the planting of firewood
crops upon an extensive scale.
(c) The wood-working industries furnish employ-
ment to more than 30,000 persons who are
mainly unskilled labourers.
(d) Extraction and conversion of timber are done
I88 EMPIRE FORESTRY
in a very wasteful fashion, and the resulting

product is unsatisfactory and unduly expensive.
There is not likely to be much improvement in
conditions until better methods of work and
suitable machinery are introduced.
The quality of Malayan timber, according to a com-
munication to the Financial Times from a correspondent
in Kuala Lumpur, approximates to that of Bornean and
Philippine woods. I'he most important of them have
resin canals scattered through them, and they are of no
great importance from a commercial standpoint. The
rubber industry is responsible for the destruction of a
large acreage of virgin forest; and had the price of rubber
remained stationary, the productive forest area would
have been reduced by at least one-third during 1921.
Whether this wholesale destruction will be resumed
when the rubber market revives, cannot be definitely
stated. There is certainly a movement to oppose the
ruthless denudation of the forest reserves; and the
Government will probably be obliged at an early date to
consider the advisability of not alienating any more forest
land, in view of the enormous and annually increasing
demand for wood and timber. At this moment a wood.
famine prevails in some parts of the peninsula.
The forests are exploited for both timber and firewood,
the latter product being more important and more ex-
tensively used than the former. Firewood is practically
the only fuel used in the tin-mining industry, and the
firewood workings are to be seen mostly in forest areas
bordering on the railway. Large stacks of firewood near
the smaller railway-sidings are a falniJiar sight in Malaya.
In 1919 the tin mines alone consumed 810,000 tons of
firewood, which represents roughly a quarter of the total
annual consumption in the Federated Malay States.
Firewood is also used as fuel for railway engines (210,000
tons), rubber factories (219,774 tons), Government offices
(76,5QO tons), smithies (57,600 tons), smelting (22,000
tons)" brick kilns (15,000 tons), lime kilns, launches and
other steam-vessels. The consumption of firewood for
domestic purposes amounted in the same year to 1,315,700
tons, representing a rate of about one ton per head of
population per annum.
House-building absorbs a large proportion of timber
proper-for only one-twentieth of the Malay population
lives in or near urban areas, and the remainder, occupying

the villages, build their houses entirely of wood, and
sometimes' of unhewn timber from the neighbouring
forests. The mines, in addition to their consumption
of firewood, also use much timber for building purposes.
Furniture is manufactured on a considerable scale; but,
excepting that made at certain workshops under European
supervision, it is of indifferent quality. These European
workshops make considerable use of teak, as the local
forests provide no timber so durable and attractive.
About a dozen varieties of timber are used in the building
of small boats, canoes, masts and spars.
One standard wood (Chengal) is at present generally
used for railway sleepers. The variable conditions of
climate subject sleepers to a severe test and render the
choice of a really suitable wood a matter of some diffi-
culty. Experinlents are now being made with two other
species of wood, which are likely to become standard
sleeper woods, if suitable methods of treating them can
be devised. Except on the main lines, where metal posts
are used, wooden telegraph and telephone poles are in
general use. They are made principally of Chengal and
Merban and last for about ten years. The same woods
are used for railway passenger-coaches.
The difficulty of obtaining an easily worked, compara-
tively soft and light wood in Malaya constitutes a serious
obstacle to the manufacture of boxes, which ought other-
wise to become a thriving industry. Consequently, for
packing rubber, Malaya is forced to import Momi wood
cases from Japan by the hundred thousand. Efforts have
been made locally to turn out boxes of this kind, but
have failed because the imported Japanese cases are
cheaper than the local product. The establishment of
really up-to-date box-making machinery might enable
manufacturers to reduce the cost of production consider.
ably; and such a venture ought to receive the utmost
encouragement from the Government and the rubber·
planting industry.
A CONSERVATOR of Forests is to be appointed for British
Honduras, with an adequate staff, the cost of which may
.. have to be defrayed partially from Imperial
HBr~ls~ s sources. It has been decided that the
on u a • Belsize Estate and Produce Company, which
EMPIRE FORESTRY
owns large tracts of timber-land in the colony, shall

employ the Conservatoc of Forests for three months every
year.
Apparently the results of trial shipments of Honduras
mahogany and coconuts to Canada have been very dis-
couraging from the standpoint of shippers, and business
men in British Honduras incline to the opinion that the
bulk of their domestic woods, coco..nuts and certain other
co~modities must be exported to the United States until
Canada evinces greater readiness to receive them.
The logwood of British Honduras is said to be of the
finest quality and superior to Jamaica logwood. The
exports of logwood during the year 1920 amounted to
1,570 tons, all of which were shipped to the United King-
dom. This, as a matter of fact, represents roughly the
bulk of the colony's accessible supply, and it is curious to
reflect that, despite the fact that the logwood tree can be
easily cultivated and matures sufficiently for cutting in ten
years, and further that there are very large suitable areas
lying idle, yet no cultivation on an appreciable scale is in
progress. There are, it is true, large quantities of the tree
in the colony still awaiting exploitation, but lack of roads
and transport facilities render them for the present inac-
cessible.
IN view of the increasing demand for paper and the high
cost of its production in some European countries and
Paper-making America, The Record, which is. the official
Prospects in organ of the Board of CommerCial Develop-
Siam. ment, Siam, drew attention a few months
ago to the value of the bamboo as a pulp-material.
Experiments have been made with two kinds of bamboo,
while other closely allied species are found in almost
unlimited quantities in the Siamese forests. The most
promising areas for the supply of bamboos suitable for
pulp manufacture are the forests on either bank of the
Meklong and Kwaa Noi rivers. The chief difficulties
attendant upon the establishment of a successful pulp-
factory would be the problem of floating and the storage
of bamboos and firewood, for the daily consumption of
such material would be enormous, and owing to the diffi-
culty and expense of storing, the floating down to the
mills of bamboo and firewood woulrl have to proceed
EDITORIAL NOTES AND MIS.CELLANEA 19 1
without interruption throughout the year. The two rivers

mentioned above offer special facilities, although at places
their floating capacity would probably have to be increased
by blasting operations.
rfhe paper draws attention also to the possibilities as a
pulp-yielder of a curious tree, Broussonetia papyrifera,
known in Siamese as Mai !(rasa. This is a softwood tree
of small dimensions, found on boggy land and near the
banks of streams, and grows wild in many parts of the
country. The inner bark has been used from time
imtnemorial for making the coarse paper that was in
general use in Siam before the introduction of the Euro-
pean product. The tree grows very quickly, and "Then
cut down renews itself from the old root at such a rate
that it is again ready for cutting in about four years' time.
In various parts of Siam there exist large areas of swampy,
useless ground, on which the Mai Krasa could be grown
in large quantities at little trouble and expense. The
Siamese Ministry of Commerce has fouod that the
content of cellulose in this tree is 57.6 per cent., which is
roughly equivalent to that of European or American
pinewood.
Perhaps the most that can be said at present of these
forest products is that they deserve the consideration of
capitalists. The difficulties of transport, fuel-supply, &c.,
are admittedly not small, but they might be surmounted
in tin1e, if considerable initial funds were available.
AT a meeting of the Linnaean Society early in the current

year, Dr. A. B. Rendle exhibited a piece of wood of Drites
.. excelsa, one of the Australian silky oaks,
AnAi~~~nlUm which had been sent to him by Mr. T.
· Steel, of Sydney. The tree, which is found
in northern New South Wales and Queensland, is very
remarkable for deposits of aluminium succinate which
occur in cavities of the wood. Aluminium is very rarely
found in flowering plants and only in small traces, but
Orites excelsa absorbs large quantities of alumina from
the soil, as is proved by analysis of the ash. Occasionally
the amount absorbed is excessive, and the excess is then
deposited in cavities as a basic aluminium succinate.
Orites belongs to the family Proteaceae and is related to
Grevillea.-(The Field, February 4, 19 22 .)
EMPIRE FORESTRY
THE Indian Forester for February, 1922, contains an

interesting letter on this subject from Mr. H. L. Wright,
Forest Fires who writes as follows :-
caused " Many and ingenious are the explanations
by Landslips. that have been put forward to account for
the origin of forest fires, and the credulity of the Divisional
Forest Officer is often strained to the utmost before he
can accept them. Among those which I have always
discarded as being rather too far-fetched was what the
Rangers described as 'accidently caused by a landslip or
falling stone,' and it was not until I had actually witnessed
·a fire so started that I believed it to be possible.
"In June of this year (1921) I was touring with the
Chief Conservator in the Parbatti Valley of Kulu, when
one evening, shortly after dinner, we heard the roar of
falling stones across the valley. We went out to see
what was happening and almost immediately a fire broke
out on the face of an inaccessible cliff. There being only
a small patch of grass to burn, the fire quickly went out,
but it could have been started in no other way than by
a spark caused by a falling stone."
It ,vould be interesting to know whether any evidence
is available of fires caused in this manner in other parts
of the Empire.
IN a monograph prepared by the United States Forest

Service and quoted in the January number of the Bulletin
. of the Imperial Institute, it is stated that H to
The Drymg air-dry Douglas fir wing beams requires
of Woods.
or·dOInarl'1 y f rom tweIve to eIg
. h teen months.
They may be kiln-dried in eighteen to twenty-four days.
To air-dry hardwood propeller stock takes at least one,
and preferably two years. The same material can be
kiln-dried and brought to equally good condition in a
month's time." Another statement of interest to wood-
using countries is that exhaustive strength tests made
recently by the Forest Products Laboratory of the
U.8. Forest Service have proved beyond cavil that
properly kiln-dried wood is just as strong and stiff as the
best air-dried material. The report adds that kiln-drying
for special purposes, such as the manufacture of air-
planes, should pe regarded as a highly technical art.
IT is reported that the Prince of Wales' Museum of

Western India, the foundation stone of which was laid at
A Forest BOdmbah~ b y His Majdesty t~e Kthin g in 190 5,
Exhibition. an .w le h was t:tse d unng e war as a
hospItal for IndIan troops, was formally
opened by the Governor of Bombay in January of this
year. The Museum includes a Forest Section, in which
Mr. W. E. Copleston, Chief Conservator· of Forests,
Bombay, has arranged a fine display of the many
beautiful and valuable timbers of the Bombay Presidency,
showing their respective qualities and commercial
possibilities.
THE value of the aeroplane as an auxiliary of forest

conservation was described in the first number of this
Journal (vide Major Andrews' account of
T~e Aeroplane its use in Vancouver) The Province of
In Quebec. . . .
Quebec has no\v deCIded to follow the lead
of Vancouver and to improve its forest-protection systeln
by means of aviation. The Government already
possesses a hydroplane station at Roberval and proposes
to open new stations in various districts. From these
bases aviators will flyover the forests for a radius of 100
to ISO miles, with a view not only to the early discovery
and extinguishing of fires, but also to the preparation of
an inventory of that part of the forest area which has
hitherto remained unknown.
THE year 1921 was an unfortunate one for the timber

trade. At the commencement the unsettled conditions
The English of industry, financial stringency, and the
Timber Market instability of international exchanges, to-
in 1921 • gether militated against the demand for
timber; and as the year progressed the effects of these
disturbing factors became more and more marked, and
the demand steadily declined. About the end of
September, however, there was a slight revival, and,
fostered partly by distinctly lower prices, the market at
the end of the year was showing greater activity.
Considering these conditions, the deliveries of logs
from the docks, which are usually regarded as a fair
guide to consumption, were by no means unsatisfactory,
viz., 18,991 logs against 21,116 logs in 1920. The
194 EMPIRE FORESTRY
inference to be drawn from these figures has, however, to

be qualified by the fact that 48 per cent. of the deliveries
took place during the last three months of the year, and
that the figures include a notable quantity of Cuban
'Wood logs, which exceeded by 2,783 the number
delivered in 1920.
The total imports of mahogany logs were 23,602 tons
-a figure well in excess of the supply of 1920, but still
much below the average (32,000 tons) of the ten years
ending in 1914. The stock in first hands at the beginning
of the current year was a good deal heavier than that of a
year ago; but a large proportion of it represented timber
recently arrived and not yet offered for sale.
The prospects for 1922 were regarded by experts as
not wholly unfavourable. Imports probably will not
be very large; and the prices ruling in January were
generally accepted as satisfactory by buyers, who
considered that the lowest point had been touched.
Even if the current year's demand should be moderate
and fitful, there ought to be sufficient trade to make the
year stand out in welcome relief to the gloom of 1921.-
(Financial Times, January 7, 19 22.)
WE have received a copy of the Annual Report of the

Delegates for :Forestryat the University of Oxford for the
Forestry at year 19 21 , which shows that seventy-six
Oxford students were under instruction at the close
University. of the year. I n the sphere of theoretical
instruction, seventy-one lectures were delivered on sylvi-
culture, general and tropical, forest mensuration, valuation
and management. Lectures were also given on forest
utilization, forest policy, forest botany (diseases) and
entomology, and regular instruction was carried out in
surveying and engineering.
For practical instruction, the Professor of Forestry
took a party of thirty second-year students for a tour
through selected forests in France, while the first-year
students were taught practical sylviculture and forest
mensuration, and underwent a course of practical work in
the Forest of Dean, I:Iigh Meadow Woods and Tintern
Woods during the Easter vacation. During the summer
vacation and the Michaelmas term they were engaged in
·the preparation of a working-plan for Bagley Wood, near

Oxford.
The following papers by members of the staff appeared
in scientific and professional journals :-
W. E. Hiley: "The Financial Rotation for Larch,"
Quart. Journ. of Forestry, xv, 122; "The Larch
Needle-cast Fungus, Prferia Laricis, Vuill," ib., xv,
57; "Recent Investigations on the Germination
and Culture of Forest Seeds," ib., xv, 160.
N. Cunliffe: It Preliminary Observations on the
Habits of Oscinella frit, Linn.," Annals of Applied
Biology, viii, No. 2; "Some Observations on the
Biology and Structure of Ornithodorus monbata,
Murray," Parasitology, xiii, No. 4; It Some
Observations on the Biology and Structure of
Ornithodorus savignyi, Andouin," ib., xiv, No. I ;
It The Douglas Fir Aphis," Quart. Journ. of
Forestry, xv, 157; "Defoliation of Spruce by
Aphis," ib., xv, 213.
During the Michaelmas term the Professor of Forestry
was absent on a special mission to East Africa, with the
object of investigating forestry conditions in Kenya
Colony and Uganda on behalf of the Colonial Office.
Sir William Schlich carried out Professor Troup's duties
during his absence. The Diploma in Forestry was
awarded during the year to fifty-two students, of whom
forty-five have obtained Government appointments.
THE !Iforning Post of April 7th, 1922, called attention to

the fact that in the grounds of Claremont, a fine old estate
in Surrey advertised for sale, are several
Famous
Trees. trees which claim pre-eminence as the finest
specimens of their kinds in the British Isles.
The Kentucky coffee-tree (Gymnocladus Canadensis) is
represented, for example, by a specimen more than 60
it. high, with a trunk 7 ft. in girth, while a Sassafras
officinale, with a trunk 7 ft. 3 in. in girth is the only
satisfactory specimen of its kind in the kingdom. There
is also a Magnolia macrophyUa, 45 ft. high, unrivalled in
dimensions by any of the very few specimens which
England contains, and lastly a Redwood (Sequoia semper-
virens) , more than 100 ft. in height, with a trunk over
EMPIRE }4'ORESTRY
13 ft. in girth, clothed from base to summit with branches

that form a slender pyramid.
SINCE 1914, according to a special correspondent of the

Glasgow Herald, we have had little information about
German forests, though many of our best
Germa~y takes forestry students completed their training
no RIsks. . . were free Iy quoted In
t h ere an d statIstIcs .
England for our edification. A well-known German
forester recently declared that of all the resources which
remain to Germany after a devastating war, the forests
are those which have suffered least. This is not surprising
when one remembers that the German Armies made the
maximum use of the forests of the Allied Nations in all
their field operations. They used their own timber only
when it was near their armies. The German forester
states definitely that his country would have lost the War
in twelve months, if it had not been the possessor of
forests which supplied wood for guns and trenches,
food for cattle, fibre bandages, oil (beech-nut) in place
of olive oil, turpentine, cellulose, rosin and many other
substances of great importance required during the
blockade. It appears that constructive forestry is once
again in full operation in the Fatherland, and that
neither changes of GovernInent, the fall of the mark,
nor the alleged poverty of the nation have interfered
with the re-adoption of the old and tried forest policy
inaugurated during the imperial regime. May we hope
that our statesmen will take notice of these facts and
learn the obvious lesson which they present?
AN interesting survey of the various building timbers of
the Empire was given by Mr. H. D. Searles-Wood in
Empire a lecture which he delivered in March, 1922,
Timbers and the to the members of the Royal Institute of
National Debt. British Architects. The information should
be particularly valuable to the building and furniture
trades, which are not yet fully acquainted with the
properties and quality of the many fine woods obtainable
from Canada, Australia, India, West Africa, British
Guiana and British Honduras. In proposing a vote of
thanks to the lecturer, Sir ]oseph Cook, High Com-
missioner for the Commonwealth of Australia, made
a reference to the subject of war-debts, remarking that

one of the most important men in the Australian Timber
Trade once said to him: "If you want to get rid of the
war debts of the Empire in a way that will not hurt any-
body, carry out a scheme of scientific afforestation
throughout its whole area." He believed, added the
High Commissioner, that if this were done, the whole
of the National Debt would be liquidated in thirty years.
A SERIES of experiments carried out by Mr. H. A.
Goddard, State Entomologist, Ohio, U.S.A., offers a
The Aeroplane striking illustration of the value of the aero-
and Insect plane in combating destructive plagues of
Pests. insects. A correspondent of the Times,
whose report appeared in that paper on April 21, 1922,
describes a mass attack by caterpillars on a grove of
catalpa trees, six acres in extent, at Tray, Ohio. An
expert was sent up in an aeroplane with 200 lb. ot
arsenate of lead, which, as the aeroplane flew low over
the grove, was H dusted" down in the form of powder
by special mechanism. Within three days of this le dust-
ing," which occupied only fifty-four seconds, 99 per cent.
of the destructive caterpillars were dead, millions of them
strewn on the ground and the rest hanging lifeless from
the branches. The experiment was so successful that an
effort to protect large forest trees from insect pests is
to be made with aeroplanes furnished \vith a special
apparatus for spraying "poison clouds."
The problem has been carefully studied in France,
where it is proposed to use aeroplanes of the scout-type
for locating swarms of grasshoppers and for scattering
poisoned bait for their destruction. The result of these
experiments should be of interest to India, where the
wholesale destruction of trees and crops by the plague of
locusts in 1904 is still vividly remembered by many of
the peasants.
THE Indian Government is apparently anxious to allow
its forestry officers every reasonable chance of keeping
Encouragement their knowledge of forestry up to date. In
of the Study an important Resolution published in the
of Forestry. Gazette of India last April, it is stated that
selected officers of the Forest Department in India, while
EMPIRE FORESTRY
on leave, can undertake short tours on the Continent of

Europe, at public expense, with the object of keeping
their general professional knowledge up to date. A
forest officer desirous of obtaining permission to study
must forward an application to that effect through the
local Government to the Government of India, not less
than two months before his departure on leave, stating
therein the purpose of the proposed tour and the localities
which he proposes to visit. The maximum period of
study will be three months at one time, and ordinarily,
permission to avail himself of this privilege will not be
granted on more than two occasions in the course of his
service; and at the end of any period of study he ,vill be
expected to submit to the Indian Office a diary indicating
fully the nature of the operations studied. The cost of
his journey, daily allowance, &c., will be paid by the
Government of India.
THE Journal of the. Institute of Brewing for May, J922,
contains a report of an interesting discussion on the sub-
ject of timber for beer-casks, which took
Timber for
Casks.
place at the Institute of Chemistry in the
preceding January. The proceedings opened
with the reading of a paper by Mr. Sweatman, who has
considerable experience of the practical work of a cooper,
in which, after detailing the various qualities expected of
a brewer's cask, he stated that oak is of all woods the
most suitable by reason of its durability, freedom from
unpleasant flavour, and capacity for withstanding the
constant compression of hoop-driving. Fifty or sixty
years ago, when the brewing trade was rapidly developing,
a dearth of oak staves led to experiments with various
other timbers, such as beech, birch, ash and chestnut;
but none of these were found to be comparable with
oak. Experiments have not been confined to English
timbers: for white cedar from the United States, jarrah
and kauri pine from Australia, chuglam from India,
stringy bark from Tasmania, camwood, carupa and crab-
wood from South America, and seriak from the Philip-
pine Islands, have all been tested and found wantin~.
Some of these woods provided excellent casks, but im-
parted a stringent taste to the beer, or gave it a colour
which naturally destroyed its value to the consumer.
· EDITORIAL NOTES AND MISCELLAN~A 199
Oak, therefore, and English oak particularly, still
remains facile princeps as a material for beer-casks; but
the quantity of English oak available is so small that one
averaged-sized London brewery would exhaust it entirely.
l\'Ioreover its use is declining, owing to the difficulty of
mass production of cleft staves from it. The knotty
character of English oak, which does not usually grow
in close forests, renders the stave-making trade wholly
unprofitable. Br~wers are therefore disposed to rely
rather upon Russian or Baltic oak, or memel, as it is
called, or upon American white oak. Regarding the
latter, there seems to be considerable difference of opinion..
Some experts declare that it shows great variation of
quality and can only be adapted with difficulty for use
for all classes of beer. Others, however, assert that real
American oak causes no harm to the beer, and that being
tougher, and at the same time more pliable and elastic,
than Baltic oak, the casks made of it require much less
constant repairs. For the latter reason, Irish brewers
are said to prefer American to Russian oak. The evidence
for and against the use of American oak seems to be
fairly equally balanced, and unless new timber, suitable
for cask-making is discovered, the trade will probably
depend largely, as heretofore, upon supplies of Baltic
oak.
The position disclosed by the discussion of Mr. Sweat-
man's paper offers food for reflection. Is the Empire,.
with its vast and varied forest resources, incapable of
supplying a timber which can be profitably converted
into staves for beer-barrels? Must the brewers of Eng-
land always be forced to import their cask-wood from
Russia or America? One of the speakers announced
that he \vas in hopes of receiving a sample of Indian oak
from the United Provinces, with the object of testing its
suitability for the manufacture of casks. Surely this
individual effort ought not to represent the sum-total of
imperial experiment. Cannot the research-laboratories
in India, Canada and Australia assist in finding a timber
within the Empire's forests, which will release one of the
most important industries in Great Britain from com-
plete dependence upon foreign timber supplies? We
are confident that the Institute of Brewing would welcome
any serious attempt to find a substitute for American
and Baltic oak.
200 EMPIRE FORESTRY
A LIMITED company has been formed in Milan with a

capital of 50 million Italian lire, to engage in the timber
trade and to exploit the forest wealth
Miscellanea. of l~oumania.-(Times Trade Supplement,
April 8, 1922.)
.MR. C. L. PACK, President of the American Forestry
Association, is presenting the French Government with
700 lb. of Douglas fir seeds for the re-afforestation of
the battle-fields. He is also sending a gift of 300 lb.
of fir seed to England, to assist in replacing the forests
felled during the war.-(Times Trade Supplement, April 8,
19 22 .)
A DOGA Timber and Tannin Extraction Company has
been formed in Suva, Fiji, for the purpose of extracting
tannic acid from the bark of the doga tree, which grows
in the mangrove swamps on the foreshores all around
the islands. The proposal is to extract the tannic acid
and ship the crystals to England. The timber, some of
which grows to a fair size, will be sawn and used locally.
The company has all the doga rights of the Island of
Vitilevu, the largest of the group. Machinery has been
ilnported, and a beginning will soon be made. When
the concessions were secured, tannic acid was bringing
£79 per ton in London; to-day the price is in the neigh-
bourhood of £19, and it has yet to be proved whether
the enterprise will pay at the lower price.-(Times Trade
Supplc1nent, April IS, 19 22.)
IN an article on British Guiana, contributed to the Daily

Telegraph of April 17, 1922, the Hon. W. Ormesby
Gore calls attention to U greenheart" timber, the unique
product of the forests of that colony. It is one of the
hardest and heaviest woods, peculiarly valuable for dock
and harbour work, as it resists erosion by sea-water, and
is not penetrated by the teredo or sea-worm. It is,
perhaps, better known to the general public as the wood
that makes the best fishing-rods. The vast forests of
Guiana contain timbers of every variety. Balata (the
source of gutta-percha), 11tOra, crabwood (which resembles
mahogany), purple heart, palms of every variety and
notably the beautiful Eta palm, await commercial develop..
ment. " The conquest of the Guiana forest is part of the

great task that still lies before man in turning to human
advantage the vast territory of tropical South America."
LT.-COL. G. L. COURTHOPE, M.P., who was head of

the Acquisition Branch of the Timber Supplies Depart-
ment during the War and who is 110\\1 Chairman of the
English Forestry Consultative Committee and Vice-
Chairman of the Empire Forestry Association, has
pointed out that the purchases of standing timber made
by the Department and by the HOlne-grown Timber
Comlnittee which preceded it, in England and Wales
alone amounted up to December, 1918, to 100 million
cubic feet. The purchase price was £4,75°,000. At
the date of the Armistice the average purchases in
England and Wales just exceeded 7 million cubic feet
per month, and were effected practically without resource
to compulsory powers and with very little dispute. In
regard to this phenomenal consumption of timber in
a country which \vas accustomed to fell very little, the
question naturally arises, "What is left? It Colonel
Courthope states that really accurate statistics of the
timber remaining were not at first available; but in the
spring of 1918 a flying census of timber was taken, which
has proved to be substantially correct. This sho\\Ted that
in the United Kingdom in April, 1918, there were left
standing 33°,5°°,000 cubic feet of soft wood of conver-
tible sizes, and 418,500,000 cubic feet of hard wood of
convertible sizes. The hard wood was very largely in
England. As to pit wood, there \vere 678,500,000 cubic
feet of soft wood, and 244 million cubic feet of hard
wood. The convertible timber thus amounted to 749
million cubic feet, equal to 4,500,000 standards, and
the pitwood to 923,500,000 cubic feet, or approximately
25,000,000 tons. Since that date, however, 50 or 60
million cubic feet had been felled, and a certain amount
of \vood had been planted. On the question of the
country insuring itself against failure of pitwood to keep
the mines working in the event of another war, Colonel
Courthope added that entire independence of imports
could only be secured by planting or replanting every
year about 100,000 acres of conifers.-(Westerl1 Press,
April 8, 1922.)
14
202 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Mr. F. D. BARNJUM, of Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia,

is so deeply impressed by the rapid destruction of the
forests of Canada and the small results so far achieved in
the way of re-afforestation that he has offered prizes to
the amount of 1,000 dollars for the best essays on practical
forestry. The competition is to be confined to forest
conditions in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec,
but will be open to any citizen of Canada. The subject
for the essays will be the regulation of the forest-fire
menace, with suggestions for legislation to prevent this
danger, and for any other Inethod calculated to protect
the forests and preserve them for Canada's home in-
dustries. The judges are to be the two Provincial
Foresters of Quebec and New Brunswick, the Dean of
the Faculty of Forestry in Toronto University, and the
Director of the Forestry Department of the Dominion.
Mr. Barnjum has also offered a prize of 250 dollars for the
best municipal forest plantation, a prize of 250 dollars to
the chief fire ranger whose district shows the best results
in each of the three provinces mentioned above, and
lastly, a bonus of 2 dollars per acre to the farmers of
Nova Scotia for every acre of spruce or pine seedlings
planted by them on their farms in the spring of 1922.
2°3
WESTMINSTE6R HALL.
By SIR FRANK BAINES, C.B.E., M.V.O.
THE roof of Westminster Hall, built upon the old

walls of the Hall constructed by William Rufus in 1097-
1099 is, without question, the finest specimen of an open
timber roof in the world. Indeed, it is unapproached
for magnificence both of design and construction, and
its safety and preservation are matters of concern not
only throughout the British Empire, but throughout the
civilized countries of the world. No other roofs of
han1mer-bearll construction existing to-day can be COU1-
pared with it, although there is record of other timber
roofs being constructed of greater span. These are,
however, for the most part, purely utilitarian \vith none
of the great qualities of design possessed by the West-
111inster Hall roof.
The present roof was erected bet\veen 1393 and 1399
by Richard I I, and its design and execution appear to
have been the work of I-Iugh Herland, the King's master
carpenter. rrhe span of the roof varies in different parts
of the hall, owing to the fact that the walls of the William
Rufus Hall are not parallel, but the general average span
of the roof is 68 ft. Other timber roofs have had a
greater span than this. For example, the roof over the
nave of the Basilica of St. Paul-without-the-Walls, Rome,
has a span of 78 it. 6 in., but this roof involves no par-
ticularly daring scheme of construction, as it was designed
\vith tie beams, which materially simplifies the problem.
The Westminster Hall roof, however, is unquestionably
not only the most beautiful, but probably the most
scientifically constructed tilnber roof of great dimensions
ever erected, and the fact that it is standing to-day is
. evidence of the extraordinary skill in design, and the
outstanding scientific quality of the theory underlying
that design. Indeed, had the roof been protected in
some way against the attacks of the wood-boring grub,
2°4 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Xestobium tessellatu1n, there is no reason to consider that

any works of reparation and preservation need have been
undertaken, as the distortion of the existing timbers, and
the eccentric stresses existing in the trusses at the present
time, can all be postulated as being entirely due to the
partial collapse of certain members of the roof trusses
due to the action and attack of. the X estobilt11t tessellatunt.
After the erection of the roof at the end of the 14th
century, no material repairs appear to have been under-
taken for 260 years. The record of the repairs at this
time would seenl to show that they were necessitated by
the decayed condition of certain of the beams due to the
attack of the wood-boring grub, which continued down
to the present day. At this time certain of the collar-
beams and hammer-beams were repaired with timber and
iron ties and bolts, and three new purlins were inserted
\vith iron bolts and iron stirrups securing them to the
trusses. Defective rafters were firred up to provide a
more even surface for the lead covering of the roof,
which was removed in part, recast and replaced.
In the first half of the 18th century the condition of
the roof apparently gave grave cause "'for concern, for a
record exists of telllporary shores being erected under
the hammer-posts, while the principals were keyed up
and patched \vith iron bars and plates. Part of this
work had been completed in 1747, and some of the
shores were then removed, and the whole of the work
was completed by September, 1748, and the entire scaf.
folding taken down. In 1749, ho\vever, a record exists
of a statement made that the work in the two preceding
years had further weakened the roof, and the lead cover-
ing was removed froIn the roof and slates substituted,
the argument being that the load would be relieved by
.this action. However, later on a recommendation was
made that a return to a lead covering should be made,
the object apparently being at that time to relieve the
weight of the roof by the removal of the slates. As a
matter of exact cOlnparison, ho\vever, the difference in
weight between the type of slate which should be used
for a roof of this great size and the cast lead which would
be used as an alternative method of covering, is almost
negligible.
Coming down to more modern times, in 1821 repairs
WESTMINSTER HALL 2°5
were undertaken to the roof and the fleche by Mr. John
Soane (afterwards Sir John Soane), and in 1834 Sir
Robert Smirke reported that no further works of streng-
thening were required, acd there was no need for con...
sidering a further scheme of preservation. In 1850,
however, when Sir Charles BatTy was carrying out a
scheme in the vicinity, he developed a proposal for
strengthening this roof \vith iron ties, and in 1885 Mr.
Charles Barry advised that a very careful examination of
the roof should be undertaken, his argument being that
its actual condition was not well-known, and that a roof
of thIS age \\70uld inevitably require repair.
A report was made as late as 1896 to the effect that the
roof was in a fair condition, and although certain rninor
repairs were executed between 1909 and 1911, it was not
till 1913 that a thorough and exhaustive examination of
the roof in detail revealed the serious condition of the
great majority of the structural timbers, particularly at
the points of juncture. The exatnination was under-
taken by Sir Frank Baines, of His Majesty's Office of
Works, as a result of a previous examination by him
many years before, which had convinced him that the
state of the timber at the points of juncture was far more
serious than was generally supposed.
The result of the 1913 examination was detailed and
published in a blue book in 1914, and presented to both
Houses of Parliament, and as a result of this examina-
tion the proposals for the repair and strengthening of
the roof were undertaken, were slowly continued
throughout the war, and will be completed by the end
of this year. The opinion is confidently expressed that
the stability of the roof will then be assured for some
hundreds of years, provided nothing is done to prejudice
the stability of the original \vaIls of the William Rufus
Hall, upon which the roof trusses rest.
The length of the roof is 240 ft., the average span 68
ft., the angle of pitch being 52"5°. The length is divided
into 12 bays with 13 principals, aud there is approxi-
mately 50,000 cubic ft. of finest English pedunculate oak
in the timbers of the roof exclusive of the roof board-
ing. The design is of the hammer-beam variety, although
owing to its immense scale, the construction and features
of this halnmer-beam roof are dissilnilar from those of
206 ,EMPIRE FORESTRY
any other known example. The trusses consist of an

upper triangulated framed structure embodying the main
collar-beam, upper principal rafters queen-posts, and a
heavy crown-post centrally supporting the massive ridge-
piece. This upper triangulated framed structure is sup-
ported on two cantilever structures, each consisting of
a lower principal rafter, hamme~-post, hammer-beam,
wall-post, curved strut between wall-post and hammer-
beam, the whole truss being braced together by a great
curved arch springing fronl the foot of the wall post at
the corbel, passing the hammer-beam and hammer-post
\vith its crown at the centre of the main collar-beam.
This great curved brace or arch is of three members, the
two outer mernbers being housed into the halnmer-
beams and wall-posts as they pass, the centre tnember
being discontinuous and double tenoned into thenl at
the point of juncture.
The safety of the roof undoubtedly has been attained
by the introduction of this great arched melnber, as the
failure of the tilnbers at the points of juncture has thrown
a great proportion of their load on to this great curved
brace, which, although unduly stressed as a result of this,
has carried the load without definite failure.
The theory of construction of hammer-beam roofs
would require too long a dissertation for the space at our
disposal, but generalJy it may be taken that the stability
of a hanl1ner-beam roof is provided by the great thrust
upon the wall ends of the hammer-beams made by the
principal rafters of the truss. In the case of Westminster
Hall, however, these wall ends of the hammer-beams
have practically all decayed as the result of the attack of
the Xestobiu11~ tessellatum and the stability of the hammer-
beam was in part assured by bolts inserted from their
undersides to the back of the lower principal rafter.
This induced unjustifiable stresses in the principal rafters,
but such temporary measures taken in conjunction with
the assistance afforded by the great curved brace has
undoubtedly retained the roof in position to the present
time. Many of the structural tin1bers are of exceptional
dimensions and the scheme of reinforcement and repair
of the roof did not involve the removal of any of the
primary timbers; indeed it would have been difficult to
have found timbers of the dimensions required had such
a scheme beep considered.
As an example: the hammer-beams are out of 221- "in.
by 2 [ in. timbers 18 ft. long; the hatnmer-posts are out
of 38t in. by 25 in. timbers 21 ft. long; the collar-beams
are comprised of two members each 19 in. by 12 in., 40 it.
long; the lower principal rafters are out of 17 in. by
11 in. timbers, 27 ft. long; and the upper principals of
similar dimensions 29 ft. long. The main purlin, con-
sisting of four luembers, has one member 22 in. by 9 in.,
19 ft. long, while the common rafters are out of 8 in. by
6 in. oak up to 32 ft. in length.
It is clear that the dinlensions of many of these timbers
would present a most serious difficulty if replacement
\vere decided upon. Most of the timbers show little sign
of sap wood and are of such excellent material as to lead
us to expect that they were cut out of the" prime 10g,'1 as
little evidence of branch-timbers shows in any of the main
structural tuembers. The timber i5 of oak throughout,
with the exception of the more modern roof boarding. At
one tiule the opinion seems to have been widely held that
the timber of which the roof was constructed \vas chest-
nut, the opinion being due to the fact that the colour of the
timber of the roof, which is a warnl sienna brown, was
so unusual \vith oak that the timber was presumed to be
chestnut. Sections of the timber were taken and micro-
scopic examinations made, and the typical structure of
oak was clearly found; and there can be no question that,
so far as our experience goes, no chestnut whatsoever
was used in the construction of this roof.
Micro-photographs were made from many of the
titubers which clearly decided the matter, and when
comparing these with micro-photographs from chestnut,
the difference in structure of the two samples was clearly
apparent and the disputed point was finally settled in
favour of oak.
It is interesting to make an inquiry as to the district
from which the supply of such great timbers for the
construction of the roof was obtained. An examination
of the records at the Record Office was made and the
original accounts and papers carefully investigated, from
which we learn that on July 5,1393, Mr. John Gedeney,
the Clerk of Works, was appointed" to take by land and
sea all the King's tituber in the wood of Petlewode, Sussex,
to the Port of London for the King's works within the
208 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Palace of Westminster." In part some of the timber was

obtained from the King's Park of Odiham and from the
Abbot of St. Alban's wood at Bernam, and also from a
\vood by Kingston-on-Thames. These facts are given in
the accounts ranging from Easter, 1395, to Michaelmas,
1397. 'fhe accounts of 1399 show that H one thousand
wainscot boards" were used for boarding the roof of the
hall, and the interest of these referellces in the accounts is
in the fact that they determine very definitely the nature
of the wood used. They would alone appear to prove
that the wood was of oak, while the evidence of the
micro-photographs taken shows that there should now be
110 doubt upon this point.
The trees from which the oak was cut must have been
of unusualsize and the quality would appear to show that
the largest timbers were taken from oak grown upon the
wet Sussex Weald as isolated specimens. It is, of course,
irnpossible to determine accurately, if at all, once a tree is
felled, as to whether the species of oak under exalnination
is pedunculate oak or sessil oak. The pedunculate oak
is generally recognized as being the best oak for carrying
loads, while the sessil oak has characteristics \vhich make
it peculiarly suitable for wainscoting and decorative work.
The reason why the oak of which the hall roof is con-
structed is thought to be pedunculate is that this variety
of oak is known to flourish on heavy and retentive soils,
while the sessil oak flourishes, for example in the Forest of
Dean, on light, rocky soils, and the pedunculate variety is
growing to-day in magnificent specimens in the heavy
soil of the Sussex Weald.
It was the invariable practice in England in obtaining
oak for use by the Admiralty during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries to fell the timber in \vinter, and in
1770 the Adlniralty even offered an addition of 5 per
cent. to the price for oak felled in the winter season so
as to compensate the contractors for the loss of bark.
The question as to whether the titnber in Westminster
Hall had been seasoned before use is a very difficult one,
and upon which it is doubtful whether any useful opinion
can be given. From the records of the cutting of the
oak it would appear to have been used green in the con-
struction, and although certain of the tnassive timbers
show signs of opening and shaking due to \vhat to-day
we should consider was seasonin~, very few signs exist
of warping and distortion of the tilnber due to seasoning
alone. In part this is probably due to the fact that the
major distortion, fracture and opening of the existing
original timbers of the roof of the Hall are prin1arily due
to the eccentric and exceptional stresses set up in the
members owing to the readjushnent of the timbers as a
result of the decay.
1'\he seasoning of oak has always given rise to many
varying opinions, and it is clear that a long period of
seasoning could not have been allowed before the con-
struction of the roof of Westminster Hall. The British
oak \vas apparently cut and sent to the Hall forthwith,
when it ,vas straighta\vay \vorked into scantlings, and
could only therefore have been used in a comparatively
green and unseasoned condition. Moreover, it was
observed during the course of the work that even the
several hundred years of seasoning '\vhich the oak under-
\vent in position in the roof of the Hall did not prevent
sections of the oak from warping and twisting once it
was cut and a ne\v face exposed to atmospheric influence.
For example, planks sawn from original timbers from
the roof which had been in position since 1399 warped
and twisted in a comparatively short period after exposure
to a ,\varm and rnoist atmosphere.
As the result of inquiries the following conditions
were laid down, as regards the oak to be obtained for the
absolutely necessary repairs to the original timbers. It
was decided that no oak should be used \vhich was not
English, which was not of the pedunculate species, and
which was not grown on heavy retentive soil. Further,
that the oak should be taken not froln close gro\ving
forest timber, but should be taken from isolated park
specimens frolu open rolling country, or else from oak
grown under an open system of " coppice and standard."
No oak was accepted unless its history was known, and
it will be interesting to record that the entire oak for the
repairs of this great roof has been taken from trees of
the pedunculate species grown on the heavy retentive
soil of the Sussex Weald.
It was decided that no attempt should be made to
season the oak by special means. The oak was cut as
far as the majority of it \vas concerned from the prime
210 EMPIRE FORESTRY
log of the tree felled in the autumn, was roughly cut

into the scantlings thought to be required and "vas
stacked in the Hall for as long a period as possible
before being erected into position. Some of the new
oak provided under these conditions has warped and
twisted, but not to any extent which need cause anxiety
or trouble in the construction.
Of course, every possible attempt has been made to
eliminate to the maximum the provision of new oak as
every vestige of the original timber that could be pre-
served has been retained in position, and samples of the
old oak taken to-day from the roof show as luuch
strength and life as any of the new oak provided in the
repairs. Indeed, after hundreds of years of excessive
stress the original oak of the roof of Westminster Hall
would appear to be to-day as strong as it was on the day
when it was inserted.
This should give some idea of the extraordinary
stability and permanance of English pedunculate oak
for structural purposes. The material appears to be
iluperishable, and provided it can be guaranteed to be
free from the attacks of "rood-boring insects and fronl
the attacks of various species of dry rot, it appears
unlikely that there is any Inore permanent material.
:For the purposes of this paper it is not thought that
much need be said about the schelne of reinforcement.
1'he scheme is devised, ho\vever, to provide a triangulated
steel frame superimposed on the original timbers, so as
to relieve the stress and assist in carrying the calculated
load, but using the timber as part of the structural
scheme as far as possible, and superitnposing the steel
reinforcement in such a manner that it can in no way
detract from the beauty and perfect design of the roof.
Indeed it may well be stated in the future that the actual
works of preservation cannot be seen, and bearing in
mind that the deflection of every timber, the distortion
of form and the adjustn1ent of men1bers to the eccentric
stresses are preserved without any alteration whatever
it can be said that the roof is retained without alteration,
in its original but adjusted forln, after the passage of
many centuries.
rrhe decay of the roof has been solely due to the
ravages of a wood-boring grub previously Inentioned,
WESTMINSTER HALL 211
namely Xestobiu11't iessellatun1. The insect undergoes

a complete metaluorphosis in approximately three years,
progressing th rough a larval stage, a chrysalis stage and
thereafter becoming a perfect beetle during which time
it is away frorn the tilnber. It is believed that the larval
stage in \vhich the white slightly curved grub is known
as the wood boring grub, is the period of destructive
activity of the insect. In this stage the grub lives
entirely within the tiluber,. boring through the oak lvith
its hard sharp jaws and forining tunnels of about 1 inch
in diameter. The soft body of the grub is armed with
minute horny pegs directed outwards and backwards
to enable it to press UPO!l the sides of its tunnel, and to
give effective purchase to the biting power of its jaws.
At the end of the larval stage the larva takes up its
position in a transverse bore hole behind the merest
film at wood between it and the outer air. Here it
goes through the chrysalis or pupal stage, and on emer-
gence from the chrysalis' the thin film of wood is pene-
trated by the beetle which then takes its nuptial flight.
It is in the beetle stage when the rhythluic tapping on
the timber is indulged in, which is thought to be the sex
call and from which it derives its popular name of the
H
H death vvatch. The tapping is produced by the beetle
rising upon its front legs and rapidly striking its head
upon the tituber a succession of sharp blows of from
eight to ten definite taps; and once the rhythm and time
of the tap is noted it is possible by the tapping of a
pencil upon wood to tuake the beetle answer the call,
which can be heard in a room at 12 feet distance.
The female beetle after impregnation lays its eggs on
the oak in dark draughtless cracks or interstices of the
wood, such as joints for example which have warped or
opened as a result of stress, or fissures and shakes which
have occurred in the wood through seasoning or through
stress. As a result of this habit of the beetle the vast
majority of the decay in the timbers of the roof of the
Hall has occurred at the principal bearing joints of the
trusses, which have been seriously damaged by the
ravages of the grub and which are so great in certain
instances that a man could insert his body to the hips
in some of the cavities made· by the grub in certain of
th e ti m bers.
212 EMPIRE FORESTRY
The habit of the grub of working continuously within

the timber in longitudinal tunnels until it emerges as a
beetle has lead to the preservation of apparently sound
surfaces to the timbers seriously hollowed out by its
ravages. Certain of the main collar-beams for example,
were hollowed out in both members to within I inch and
I! inch of the outer surface of the t\VO timbers respec-
tively. The ends of other timbers had entirely fallen
away owing to the hollowing out of the timber and the
final crushing of the shell of what was left of the wood
through the stresses in the roof.
One of the first considerations of the schemes of
preservation \vas to ascertain what method of eradicating
the Xestobium could he devised which would preserve
the timber from further depredations of the wood-boring
grub. Certain limiting conditions have to be laid down;
for example, the method used must provide a solution
capable of penetratIng into the timber by external appli-
cation; it should be a perfect insecticide, and should be
a good preservative and should not be inflammable,
should not be a volatile poison, and should not injure
the distinctive golden-brown colour of the oak.
After considerable experiment an insecticide was
devised of tetrachlorethane with trichlorethalene used
as a diluent with a small proportion of cedar wood oil,
paraffin wax, and solvent soap. This method was
utilized for a time, but it was found that the tetrachlor-
ethane was a virulent liver poison, and had to be used
under the most drastic restrictions; and although the
solution devised was admirable for its purpose, it \vas
considered essential to find another method of dealing
with the Xestobiu1n which was non-poisonous.
As a result of further inquiry, an active chemical in-
secticide was procured from Messrs. Heppel, comprising
. 91 per cent. of ortho-para-dichlor-benzene, 7 per cent.
white Castile soap, and 2 per cent. of cedar wood oil.
The solution is applied after a thorough cleansing of the
timbers from all dust and all excreta of the wood-boring
grub. This cleansing is obtained by air blasts, and is of
primary importance, since the penetration of the in-
secticide into the wood fibre is seriously prejudiced by
a screen of dust upon the surface and \vithin the
immediate surface tunnels in the timber.
WESMINSTER HALL 21 3
The insecticide is discharged froul a Is-gallon con-

tainer of acid-proof metal mounted on a framework
with a wheel base, so as to allow of its ready removal to
the points of application. The apparatus is fitted with a
hand-pump working up to an air pressure of 120 lb. to
the square inch, with pressure gauge graduated to
measure, and the solution is normally applied at a
pressure of, roughly, 60 lb. per square inch. Every part
of the timber, both old and new, is given at least two
soakings from the solution, the spraying being continued
until the wood has absorbed as much as possible, and
until the liquid streams do\vn the surface and begins
to drip.
Special care has to be taken to spray every possible
section of exposed timber, and it is thought that this
solution will definitely break the cycle of the life history
of the Xestobiul1t in the timbers of the hall, and will
prevent it utilizing the timbers for a period of many
years, when its depredations, although they may com-
mence again, will take a very extended period to cause
further trouble.
21 4
A NOTE ON THE
OAK TIMBER US'ED IN THE ROOF OF
WESTMINSTER HALL.
By LIEUT.-COLONEL G. L. COURTHOPE, M.P.
IT has been suggested that Sir Frank Baines' most

interesting article on the Roof of Westminster Hall should
be followed by a short note on the oak till1ber used in
its restoration.
Early in 1913, Sir Frank Baines, after making inquiries
from the English Forestry Association, approached me
with a view to my supplying the oak timber required for
the restoration of the roof {roln nlY Estate at WhiJigh,
which lies in the parishes of Ticehurst and Wadhurst, in
the County of Sussex. At first, as a result of a consulta-
tion with the Speaker of the House of COlnmons, I
refused to enter into negotiations, as the liability of a
Member of Parliament who lnakes contracts \vith a
Governlnent Departtnent is considerable. Later, ho\v-
ever, after a lengthy but unsuccessful search for other
sources £roll1 which suitable tirnber might be obtained,
I \vas again approached, and, after special steps had
been taken to provide for my inlmunity from penalty,
I consented to supply all the oak timber required to a
public company with whom the contract was placed by
H.M. Office of Works.
The first instalments of the timber \vere supplied from
trees which had been felled two or three years previously,
and for the past eight years a steady supply has been
maintained, the last truck-load having been dispatched
last month. I have personally selected and marked every
tree which has been used for the purpose, while the whole
of the felling and primary conversion has been carried
out by my Estate Staff. l'he total quantity supplied has
been approximately 16,000 cubic feet.
The whole of the timber has been of the pedunculate
variety, and has been grown either as park timber, or as
standards in chestnut coppice. Winter felled timber only
has been supplied. The Estate on which this timber
OAK TIMBER USED IN WESTMINSTER HALL 215
has been grown lies in the heart of the Weald, the

Anderida of Roman times, and the Andredes-Weald of
the Saxon. The elevation above sea level varies from
ISO to 500 feet. The soil is heavy Wadhurst clay, over-
lying and interspersed with Tunbridge Wells sands,
forming part of what is usually described as the Hastings
beds. The immediate neighbourhood is retnarkable for
the frequent pockets of spathic carbonate of iron, \vhich
supplied the raw material for the ancient Wealden Iron
Industry. The iron was melted with oak charcoal. This,
and the fact that my forefathers, who have o\vned the
property for many centuries, were iron-masters, probably
accounts for the large quantity of fine oak tilnber \vhich
the Estate possesses. 'fhe tradition on the Estate, which
is borne out by the condition of the woodlands, is that no
planting of oak has ever taken place, the whole crop being
maintained by natural regeneration. I t is difficult· to
account for the extremely fine quality and great size of
SOlne of the trees, as there are frequent specimens in
isolated positions with perfectly clean straight stems for 30
or 40 feet, containing commonly 250 to 300 cubic feet on
the quarter-girth measure, and occasionally a much larger
volume. The trees which have been utilized for the
restoration of Westtninster Hall, have varied greatly in
age, the majority sho\ving by their rings an age of from
200 to 300 years. A few trees, however, have revealed a
much greater age, and at least two \vere growing when
RIchard I I built his roof at the end of the fourteenth
century. It is much to be regretted that the \var and my
own absence on active service have made it impossible to
keep a complete record of the individual trees.
In conclusion, I \vollld mention one item which I hope
may be of interest to some who happen to read this note.
Some two years ago, the examination of old records by
the Board of Trade brought to light the strange fact that
in 1394, \vhen Richard 11 \vas comlnencing the present
building, some oak timber was purchased from an ancestor
of my own from the Parish of Wadhurst, presumably to
supplement the main supply mentioned by Sir Frank
Baines. It is, therefore, probable that some of the older
trees, which I have felled during the last few years for the
restoration of Vv'r estminster Hall, were actually standing
amongst those which were felled five-and-a-quarter
centuries ago for a precisely similar purpose.
216
TIMBER DEPLETION IN THE UNITED

STATES.
A Review of a Report by the Jt"orest Service.
By SIR JOHN STIRLING lVIAXWELL, BART.
THE American Government published in 1920 a docu-

ment of extraordinary interest to the foresters of other
countries, and especially to those of the British En1pire.
The" Capper Report" (so called after the Senator on
whose motion the inquiry was ordered) sums up the
present timber position in the United States, traces the
steps by which virgin forests, once considered inex-
haustible, have been reduced in extent and quantity to
their present level and forecasts the dates \vhen they will
reach complete exhaustion unless a more conservative
policy is adopted. It is a surprising story. It is a por-
tentous warning-especially to the British race whose
exploitation of its natural tilnber resources has been and
still is so reckless.
The Report is well arranged and. clearly written. In
this review its argument and information will be given
almost entirely in its own \vords, though the order will
be in some measure changed to suit the foreign reader.
The progress of forest depletion and its conse-
quences have never been so well summed up as in the
following paragraphs :-
"Each successive chapter in the history of the lumber
industry in the United States has been a story of deple-
tion and migration. In softwoods it is a history of
regional industries, each developing in it~ turn, dominat-
ing the consuming markets of the country, and declining
at last so far as to be unable to meet the local require-
ments of its region. Each has had the same essential
features of beginning, rise and fall from light cutting
operations to clean cutting of good timber and poor
alike, and of the shifting of cut from the more to the less
desirable species. The story of each region will be taken
TIMBER DEPLETION IN THE UNITED STATES 217
up In detail, but the main outlines should first be made

clear.
" In New England lumbering early became a leading
industry supporting local needs, furnishing the basis for
the early shipbuilding industry, and providing exports.
The industry expanded very slowly, and owing to the
shifting of the cut from one section to another, from
one species to another, and finally from virgin stands to
second growth, partly on deserted farm lands, produc-
tion did not Ineet the maximum until as late as 190 7.
Since then it has been falling rapidly.
"New York followed New England as the centre of
softwood lumber production and was the leading lumber
State in the country in 1850, although the greatest volume
production was reached from ten to twenty years earlier.
Pennsylvania followed New York, and led all the States
in 186o, but has now declined until one city district con-
sumes more than the total lumber cut of the State.
"White-pine (Pinus strobus) operations in the lake
States began with a single sawmill in IM32; eastern ship-
ments were being made three or four years later; and the
culmination was reached in 1892 with a cut of nearly 9
billion feet. Dreary wastes, dismantled sawmills, deserted
towns, and an insignificant pine output of a single billion
feet in 1918 are depressing reminders of the day when
Lake States lumber supplied the markets of the country
from the Rockies to the Atlantic Ocean and from the
Canadian boundary literally to the Gulf.
It The great development of the southern industry
began in the seventies and increased rapidly to what
was probably the maximum, about 16 billion feet, in
1909. In its turn, southern pine (Pinus palustris and
probably also Pinus~taeda) dominated the markets little
if any less completely than white pine; but the South is
following the course of other regions, and the remaining
supplies of virgin pine are only about one-fifth of the
original stand. Within a single decade southern pine
production promises to exceed by lIttle, if any, the needs
of the South.
" A great start has been made in the last chapter of the
history of virgin softwood stands. Since 1894 Pacific
'coast and Rocky Mountain timber has been forcing its
way increasingly into the Middle Western and Ea~tern
IS
218 EMPIRE FORESTRY
markets. Within the year it has dominated those of the

Lake States and has even entered in appreciable quantities
those of the South itself. To the West only, of all our
heritage of magnificent softwood forests, can the country
look to an increasing cut; but even here there are already
local evidences of depletion, warnings that the conclusion
of the story will be the same as that of other regions and
in far less time than has been estimated.
"Hardwood depletion and the migration of centres
of production has followed along much the same line,
although regional boundarie~ have been much less
distinct. Cutting began early in New England and
along the Atlantic coast, spread slowly to the westward
through New York and Pennsylvania as local supplies
were cut out, and became important in Ohio and the
Middle Atlantic States after water and rail transportation
was developed. From here it spread north into the
Lake States and south into Kentucky and Tennessee
and the southern Appalachian Mountains. The stands
of these various regions have been successively depleted.
In New England and New York, aside from second
growth, largely in farm wood lots, there remain only
the stands of hardwoods in the north. The commercial
cut of the Middle Western States is almost a thing of the
past. That of the Lake States has fallen off materially,
as has also even that of the southern Appalachians.
The end of the cut in the Appalachian States is pretty
definitely in sight. The only reserve of importance is
the southern Mississippi Valley, and even here it is
doubtful if future production will for any length of
time materially exceed the average output of the last
few years."
Chapters dealing in detail with each of the timber
regions mentioned above teem with valuable historical
information from which a few quotations may be made.
Of New England:-
H With the exception of a few small areas, New
England in 1620 was a virgin forest, comprising some
39 million acres. In 1920 not more than 5 per cent. of
this virgin forest remains. The present forest area is
nearly 25 million acres. Of this about 8 per cent. or
2 million acres, is virgin forest, chiefly in Maine, with
scattered areas in Ne\v Hampshire and Vermont. The
last remnant of virgin forest in Connecticut \vas cut

within the past decade. Of the 24,7°°,°00 acres now
classed as forest land 44 per cent. or 10,760,000, is in
saw timber or pulp wood, while 34 per cent. or8,370,ooo
acres, contains nothing but fuel wood, and 22 per cent.
or 5,570,000 acres, is non productive. With nearly three-
fourths of the saw timber and pulp-wood area in Maine,
the poor condition of the remaining New England
forests is apparent.
"The annual drain upon the saw timber of about
2 billion board feet is nearly three and one-half times
the annual growth of 610 million board feet. The annual
drain upon the fuel wood of 235 million cubic feet is
less by 106 million cubic feet than the growth of 341
million cubic feet a year. It is apparent, therefore, that
the growth of low-grade material is somewhat in excess
of the actual demands. In' regard to lumber, pulp, and
other high-grade material, however, the situation is any-
thing but encouraging.
"Up to thirty or forty years ago New England was
not only self-supporting in timber but exported large
quantities. Within the past thirty years it has become
an importing region, and it is estimated that fully 30 per
cent. of all the lumber used now comes from outside the
region. This is an addition to the importations of large
quantities of pulp wood."
Of New York:-
"Practically the entire State of New York ,vas ori-
ginally covered with a magnificent forest of white pine,
(Pinus strobus), spruce (Picea alba, Picea rubra, and
Picea nigra), hemlock (Truga canadensis), and hard-
woods. The lumber industry was one of the first to
be developed. It reached its highest volume between
1830 and 1840 and was already declining at the time of
the Civil War. In 1850 New York ranked first among
the States in amount of lumber cut and' contributed 20
per cent. of the total cut of the entire country. Since
then it has been steadily declining in relative importance
until to-day it stands in twenty-fifth place and contri-
butes only I per cent. of the total cut. Jts actual cut has
decreased froul over 1,300 million feet prior to 1850 to
less than 350 million."
220 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Of the Lake States :-

H The history of lumbering in the Lake States during the
greater part of the past century is substantially the
history of white-pine exploitation. Lumbering began
in Michigan and Wisconsin about 1835. Pine in enor-
mous quantities drew lunlbermen from the east, and
before 1870 these States captured the lead in lumber
production. They held it until superseded by the
southern pine region, between 1900 and 1910. The
peak of production was passed in 1892, when the re-
ported output was a little more than 8,900,000,000 board
feet-largely white pine. This was an increase of 123
per cent. over the cut of 1873. In 1899 Wisconsin,
Michigan, and Minnesota, in the order named, were
still the leading three States, with a total production of
8,700,000,000 feet, two-thirds pine; but in 1918 they
had fallen to eighth, thirteenth and eleventh, respectively,
and their total output had fallen to 3,220,000,000 board
feet, of which only 35 per cent. was white pine-mostly
from Minnesota. Wisconsin now produces less than the
second-growth cut of either Maine or New Hampshire,
and Michigan, from leading the country from 1870 to
1895, now actually cuts less than half as much as
Massach usetts.
"As the Lake States forests dwindled, white-pine
lumber ,vent down, both in quantity and quality, and
Norway (Pinus resinosa) and jack pines (Pinus Banksiana)
and even tamarack (Larix americana) were admitted as
lower grades of 'northern pine lumber.' The fine quality
timber which gave white pine its reputation is now nearly
all gone. In Minnesota two-thirds or more of the cut
is box lumber. Only small, scattered remnants of the
old-growth white-pine forests remain in Wisconsin and
upper Michigan and in lower Michigan the most widely
known tract covers about 100 acres.
" Figures indicate that the total rate of cutting is more
than three times the total rate of growth, and that the
stand suitable for lumber is being cut more than three
times as rapidly as it is growing. Furthermore, the
larger part of the cut is from old-growth stands in the
north, while nearly all the growth is in widely scattered
second-growth stands. The cut is relatively concentrated,
while the growth is widely distributed, and without
reference to the commercial advantages of location.

This is a consideration of great significance for the future
of the wood-using industries. The concentrated supplies
are steadily waning. Their disappearance \vill mean the
death of industries unable to adapt their production to a
supply limited by the rate of growth or to import.
" Fire renders millions of acres of cut-over forest land
in the Lake States unproductive. If fires could be kept
out, the growth on these repeatedly burned lands
would probably eventually increase 50 per cent., and
could be increased still further by intensive management.
"The average annual per capita consumption of lumber
in the Lake States is probably not far from the average
for the whole countrY-30o board feet. Assuming
a 12 per cent. increase in population since 1910 (the
increase for the previous decade was at the rate of 14.06
per cent.), the present population of the Lake States is
about 8,000,000. The total annual consumption of
lumber in the three States is thus about 2,426,000,000
board feet, or 70 per cent. of the lumber produced.
"Comparison with the estimates of future cut above
given indicates that by 1925 the local consumption will
be equal to the local production, assuming no increase
in population and the same per capita rate of con-
sumption. At the end of a decade, allowing for a 10 fer
cent. increase in population, consumption will exceed cut
by nearly 50 per cent. In other words, the per capita
consumption must either fall from 300 to nearly 200
board feet per year or the Lake States must import
nearly one-third of the lumber needed for home use.
With each succeeding year the discrepancy between
consumption and local supply will become greater.
Much western fir and pine lumber is already being
consumed in the Lake States, and as the local cut
decreases they will depend more and more upon the far
West."
Of the Southern Yellow-Pine (Pin us palustris and
probably also Pinus taeda) region, which includes the
South Atlantic and Gulf States : -
"The Pine forests of the South-eastern United States t
beginning along the Atlantic coast, have been exploited

for Naval stores and other forest products from the time'
of the first settlements. No extensive development of the
222 EMPIRE FORESTRY
lumber industry, however, took place until the seventies

of the last century. Before the Civil War, a limited
amount of southern pine lumber was shipped to
Baltimore and Philadelphia in schooners by saw-mills
on the eastern shore of Maryland and near tidewater in
Virginia. After the Civil War the industry spread to
Georgia, Mississippi and the other Gulf States. The
markets north of the Ohio river made their first demands
for southern pine about 1875. By that time the North-
eastern States had lost their leadership in lumber produc-
tion, and the Lake States were coming to the front with
about 35 per cent. of the country's cut. The great
development of the southern pine industry began in the
early nineties. About 1892 yellow pine from the Gulf
States and Arkansas began to crowd white pine in the
markets north of the Ohio river. Vast quantities were
used in the construction of the World's Fair buildings
in Chicago. An extensive demand was created by the
lo\v prices in the early nineties. This demand spread
into the Lake States, the Prairie States and the Eastern
States. At the end of the nineties, southern yellow pine
was leading the country in the cut of soft woods. In
1909, its production reached the peak, with nearly half of
the entire country's cut of soft woods, and from then on
began to decline.
"Southern yellow pine is still the most important
single factor in the lumber production of the United
States, furnishing about 41 per cent. of the cut of soft-
wood lumber and 35 per cent. of the entire lumber cut.
It will remain an important factor for at least the next
ten or fifteen years. Within the next eight or ten years,
however, it is certain to undergo profound changes.
it Four-fifths of the original yellow pine forests has
been cut since 1870. Out of the more than 100 million
acres of yellow pine land that has been cut over, about
29 million acres now supports second growth of mer-
chantable sizes, and nearly 3 I million acres, cut over
recently, second growth not merchantable. About 31
million acres of cut-over land has not come back to pine,
although much of it is more suitable for timber growth
than for agriculture. As the non-restocking areas do not
produce any new growth and new growth in virgin
tilIlber is offset by deterioration, the total area on which
yellow pine is now growing is about 60 million acres.
" The amount of yellow pine that is cut is thus about

three times the annual growth. In saw timber the
disparity is even greater. The annual growth upon the
areas of merchantable timber is in the neighbourhood of
3 billion feet, while the cut of saw timber is 16 billion
feet. In other words, the present cut of saw timber is
more than five times the present annual production.
"If the present merchantable second growth were not
cut into for the next ten or fifteen years, but were allowed
to grow at its present rate, and the unmerchantable
second growth were allowed to reach merchantable size
without being prematurely turpentined, the annual
growth of saw timber would be considerably increased.
This merchantable second growth, however, is now also
being cut and its area decreased at a rate of not less than
It million acres a year. About a quarter of the present
yellow pine cut comes from second growth. Within the
next twenty or twenty-five years the entire area of the
present merchantable second growth may be completely
cut over, and large areas will not come back to pine
unless there is a decided change in the present procedure
in regard to protecting the cut-over land from fire and
hogs.
"It is doubtful if the South will ever again grow
timber to the sizes \vhich we find in the virgin stands.
The second growth now cut for saw timber is inferior in
quality to the old stands. \Vhile trees in the virgin long-
leaf pine (Pinus palustris) stands yield on an average from
three to four logs which run six or seven logs to a
thousand feet, trees in the second growth stands average
at most two or two and a half logs, per tree, and the logs
run fifteen to the thousand. The amount of upper grades
that is sawed from second growth is much smaller than
from virgin timber. For instance, a mill tally on a
certain operation showed that virgin timber sawed out on
the average about 55 per cent. of the high grades, while
second growth barely yielded 19 per cent. An inferior
forest is, therefore, succeeding the virgin timber and the
highest grades are not being replaced at all.
" Deterioration is taking place not only in grades but
also in species. The most valuable timber trees of the
southern pines are longleaf and slash pines, both for their
timber qualities and as a source of Naval stores. The
224 EMPIRE FORESTRY
longleaf pine, particularly throughout the Gulf States, as

a rule does not come in on cut-over land, because of
sparse seed production and the grazing of hogs. Unless
cut-over longleaf pine land is protected by hog-proof
fences or by stock laws, the areas of longleaf pine will be
greatly diminished. The original proportion of longleaf
in the southern pine forest has already been reduced for
the remaining merchantable timber from two-thirds to a
little less than half. North Carolina, which once had.
large areas of longleaf pine and was famous as the
I Longleaf Pine State,' can boast now of hardly 50 ,000
acres of second growth longleaf pine widely scattered in

small areas.
U In about ten years the yellow pine region promises to
take second place as a national lumber-producing centre..
H After 1931 the South will become more and more an
importing region. In fifteen years the South will become
dependent for its own needs upon large importations of
lumber from the Pacific coast."
Of the Rocky Mountain region :-
"Of the Rocky Mountain States, only western Montana
and Idaho now produce lumber above their needs and
can increase their output in the near future. It would
seem that the forests of Montana and Idaho, with some
130 billion feet of saw timber and a present cut of only I
billion; Colorado, with over 25 billion feet and a cut of
100 million; Arizona and New Mexico, with 39 billion
feet and a cut of only 132 million, are capable of sustain-
ing a larger lumber industry for a considerable time.
H It should be remembered, however, that the region is
still under-developed and that its requirements for

lumber may also be expected to increase with its rapidly
growing population. Furthermore, within the next
twelve years over 95 per cent. of the existing sawmills in
the southern yellow pine region will cut out. The
Pacific Coast and western Montana and Idaho will have
to assume the main burden of supplying saw timber to
the entire country. Thi~ means more rapid cutting of
the remaining stands and a big increase in the existing
deficit in annual growth.
U Considering saw tirnber alone, the annual drain is
about seven times the growth. If we compare the cut of
all forest products \vith the entire growth in cubic feet"
the cut and devastation is two and one-half times the

growth."
Of the Pacific Coast, which is of special importance
since it constitutes the chief remaining reserve of virgin
timber:-
II The commercial forest area of the Pacific Coast
States has been reduced to approximately 57,586,000
acres. A large percentage of this, about 39,370,000 acres,
is in virgin stands, not all, however, of accessible high-
grade timber, for there is a large percentage of relatively
inferior and inaccessible areas. This is an important
factor which is usually overlooked in the consideration
of the western timber supply. Second growth of saw-
timber size covers about 5,292,000 acres, and smaller
second growth 6,425,000 acres, while non-restocking
areas cover 6,500,000 acres.
11 Of the volume of the original forest no satisfactory
statistics are available. The present stand, however, is

about 1,141,031 million board feet, or practically half of
the remaining saw timber in the United States. Oregon
leads with a total stand of 493,700 million feet; that of
Washington is 334 billion; and that of California
313,331 million. Six hundred and eighty-six billion, or
more than half of the total, occurs in the Douglas fir belt
of western Oregon and Washington.
H Douglas fir comprises 558,57 1 million feet, and of
this 505 billion, or nearly one-fourth of the remaining
stand of saw timber in the United States, is in Washington
and Oregon.
11 The total area cut over is approximately 6,125,000
acres, of which two-thirds is in Washington and Oregon,

and a very large percentage west of the Cascades in the
Douglas fir belt. As already indicated, the total non-
restocking area of the Pacific Coast States is estimated
at 6,500,000 acres, but this is only a part of the sum total of
depletion, since there has been great and needless loss
from the destruction of virgin stands by fire and other
causes on a part of 6,425,000 acres now supporting second
growth. The area burned over annually in these three
States is shown by Forest Service data to amount to
450,000 acres, and the loss in timber to about 600,000,000,
board feet.
H Total growth in cubic feet amounts to 706,000,000.
226 EMPIRE FORESTRY
One reason for these comparatively low figures is, of

course, the fact that so much of the territory is occupied
by virgin stands. Total depletion in cubic feet amounts
to 2,500,000,000. Depletion is therefore approximately
three and one-half times the growth. The depletion in
timber of saw timber size is approximately nine times
the growth of the same class of material.
H Many operations now being seriously considered for
Oregon will require transportation and other investments
running into millions of dollars before any timber can
he taken out.
It The lumber cut for the Pacific Coast States as a
whole will undoubtedly increase very materially during
the next ten years. Local demands will also increase,
but not In proportion to the cut. Large additional
amounts will be available for the eastern markets. A
gradual rise in logging costs is inevitable as the more
accessible stands are cut out and it becomes more and
more necessary to extend operations to the rougher
tnountainous logging chances, with lighter and more
broken stands and larger percentages of the less desirable
species. The timber resources of the Pacific Coast States
are very large, but it would be very unwise to over-
estimate them, for much less than the total stand is
readily available. Existing transportation facilities to
the East are already overburdened with present traffic,
and they will have to be very materially increased to
meet the probable reduction in the eastern and southern
lumber cut during the next ten years."
Newsprint supplies are dealt with in a special section.
One of the illun1inating charts in which this report
abounds brings out the rather startling fact that the price
of pulpwood has increased since 1900 in the same ratio
as the consumption. Both have been trebled by a steady
rise persisting through these twenty years. The contract
price for newsprint-thanks to the introduction of
cheaper methods of manufacture-remained fairly steady
till 1916. Between that year and 1920 it was doubled
and in the latter year spot prices were pushed to four
times the 1900 price, so far did the supply fall short of
the demand. Alaska, situated in the same latitude as
Norway and Sweden, is now regarded as the principal
·reserve of pulpwood, but the removal of the machinery
to that region will entail heavy capital outlay.
"The lumber industry has followed the timber, but a

much smaller investment per unit of output is required
in the lumber mill than in the pulp and paper plant. On
a prewar basis an investment of approximately $1,5°0
per thousand board feet of daily product is required in
lumber manufacture, \vhereas pulp and paper establish-
ments require approximately $50,000 per thousand feet
of daily consumption. Large investments have therefore
tended to hold the pulp and paper industry in the regions
in which it was first established, and timber has been
hauled increasing distances to the mills. A rail and
water transport exceeding 500 miles is now not un-
common."
The effect of depletion on the prices of timber and on
the wood-using industries are discussed at some length.
This side of the question is so much affected by the War
and its influence on wages that the argument appears to
a foreign reader somewhat inconclusive. The estimates
of the remaining reserves of timber are admittedly based
on incomplete inforlnation and represent no more than.
an intelligent shot. These, like all the other data, are
frankly discussed and are as accurate as the industry of
the American forest service can make them. But, quite
.apart from all speculations, the indisputable facts recorded
in the report must impress themselves deeply on every
thoughtful reader. There is no denying that American
wood-users have been thrown back on timber which
they once considered second best and third best, simply
because the choicer kinds are exhau~ted, or that their
payments for transport have formidably increased since
they destroyed the forests at their doors and began to
fall back on distant supplies.
There is not space here to review the relnedies pro-
posed. Every forester will guess what they are, protec-
tion from fire and grazing, reinstatement by natural
regeneration or planting with the appropriate legislation
and grants. A Canadian pen would be more apt to deal
with this side of the subject. Enough to say that' the
introductory letter to the President of the United States
concludes with these hopeful words :-
It The solution of the problem presented by forest
depletion in the United States is a national policy of re-
forestation. Increased and \videly distributed production
228 EMPIRE FORESTRY
of wood is the most effective attack upon excessive prices

and monopolistic tendencies. Depletion has not resulted
from the use of forests but from their devastation, from
our failure, while drawing upon our reservoirs of virgin
timber, to use also our timber-growing land. If our
enormous areas of forest growing land, now idle or largely
idle, which are not required for any other economic use,
can be restored to timber growth, a future supply of
forest products adequate in the main to the needs of the
country will be assured."
No reader can close this remarkable document without
a grave presentiment of timber famine and no British
reader should forget t~at in the event of such a world
disaster the United Kingdom is destined to be the chief
victim.
THE SYLVICULTURAL TREA1"MENT OF
THE MORE IMPORTANT TIMBER-
PRODUCING EUCALYPTS.
By G. E. BROCKWAY.
(Continued from the preceding N'umber.)
REGENERATION UNDER A SHELTER WOOD.
THIS system is largely made use of in Europe for the

protection of the young crop which may be tender in its
very early youth. Owing to the strong light-demanding
character of our indigenous trees, the young trees will
soon languish and die if they are not given a full supply
of light. This system is chiefly followed in this country
where the forester considers that there is an insufficiency
of seed in the soil, and so leaves a few mother trees until
a seed year arrives, after ""hich they rnay be either ring-
barked or felled.
We pointed out that there were three main systelns of
regeneration under shelterwood. We will treat of each
in turn.
The first is the compartment system. The compart-
ments are large areas eguivalent to several years' cutting,
depending on the frequency of the seed years. Different
blocks are treated in turn, until the whole forest is even-
tually covered. In a mixed forest, a skilled forester is
often able to regulate the proportions of the chief species
of the mixture which COlne up in the re-growth. For
instance, in a forest containIng a mixture of tallowwood
(Euc. microcorys) and Blackbutt (Euc. pilulares) the for-
ester may desire to obtain re-growth of one or the other
species only. ;
If he wished to obtain a crop of young tallowwood, he
would leave a large number of trees of that species-he
might even leave some old blackbutts standing also.
Owing to the fact that tallowwood is of a less light-
23° EMPIRE FORESTRY
demanding nature than the other species, the regenera..

tion would consist mainly of the former. If a seed year
arrives, or if it is considered that sufficient seed has
germinated, the mother-trees should be ringbarked.
Supposing that blackbutt regeneration were required
on a similar area, the procedure would be to remove all
trees except a few mother-trees of that species. There
being ample light for the development of the light...
demanding species, it would soon overshadow the tallow-
wood, which grows more slowly, especially in its young
stages, and thus a forest of young blackbutt would be
obtained.
Group Systetn.-In the group system small patches all
over the forest form the points of attack. A patch of
mature trees is removed, and regeneration is obtained
either naturally or artificially on the area so cleared..
These patches are enlarged by belts running around them,
and ultimately they all become connected.
Selection Systeln.-In this system single trees or small
groups are removed throughout the whole forest, so
that no part of it is at rest. The present system through-
out Australia of limiting the cutting to trees above a
certain girth is really a faulty selection system. Its great
fault is that the selection is done usually by the sawmiller
or hewer, and not, as it should be, by the forester. Thus
it is not uncommon for large healthy trees to be removed,
while small suppressed trees, which may produce a small
amount of timber, have to be left, whether the miller
desires it or not.
Regeneration under shelter wood will be of great im-
portance in Australian Forestry. Owing to the peculiar
conditions in which our forests are at present, some
modifications may possibly have to be made in the details
of management. So far as our present knowledge goes,
it seems likely that the compartment and the selection
systems will be of more importance than the group
system.
The compartment systeln will be followed in those
forests which have been £frequently burnt by bush fires
and so contain practically all faulty trees.
The selection system will be made use of in the forests
growing in the wetter areas, where fires are infrequent
or where a certain amount of protection from fire has
been secured.
It was recently decided to treat the six thousand acres

of prime tuart (near Cape!, W.A.) in this manner, and a
careful study was therefore made of the subject. The
data obtained will apply largely to other Eucalpyt forests
under their natural conditions. The stocking was low
and patchy and there was a large number of over-mature
trees, often reaching thirty feet in girth. There were
no young seedlings present on any areas in which cattle
had been grazing. The youngest trees present had
diameters of 10 to 16 in. These trees are probably the
result of a heavy cutting which took place about thirty-
six years ago, and they are found in patches, probably
where the tops of the original trees fell.
The svlvicultural treatment will involve the removal or
the ringbarking of the over-mature trees as soon as a
favourable opportunity arrives, i.e., when it is considered
that there is sufficient seed in the ground. Another portion
of tuart country on the same reserve was investigated.
All the trees were measured and divided into diameter
classes, and on examination of the figures obtained, a
further problem presented itself.
rrhe number of trees on the area (1,000 acres) oluitting
useless ones, was as follows : -
3,066 sound trees over 72 in. girth B H.
353 50 per cent. good trees over 72 in. girth B H.
1,722 trees 50 in. to 72 in. girth.
1,828 trees under 50 in. girth B H.
6,969 == total number of trees on the area.
The above figures illustrate the extent to which this
forest is understocked. It has been found that the
average annual girth increment for this species is about
·7 of an inch. Thus it should take thirty years for all
the trees between 50 and 72 in. to reach merchantable
size (72 in. and over). It would therefore appear that
the felling of the mature trees should be spread over
thirty years, which means that about one hundred trees
per year could be cut. This, however, would leave only
3,550 of the present crop of trees, that is, if they all
forrued good logs, which is improbable, to be cut during
the balance of the rotation of a hundred years.
It is clear that if this area is worked on a selection
system to ensure a perpetual yield, the felling must
23 2 EMPIRE FORESTRY
be done at the rate of one hundred trees per year for

thirty years, and about forty or fifty per year for the
following seventy years. As an alternative, about seventy
trees per year might be cut during the whole period.
Although this means the leaving of mature trees on
the area, it is probable that this procedure will be fol-
lowed, as many of these commercially mature trees are
putting on considerable increment, and will continue
to do so for many years.
Although the above information would be classed
under the heading of "working plans," it gives never-
theless some idea of the state of the average protected
Eucalypt forest.
REGENERATION BY COPPICE.
The sylvicultural systems employed for obtaining this
type of regeneration are two. The first deals purely with
coppice, and entails clearfelling, i.e., we have pure
coppice. The second is a combination of high forest
and coppice, and is known as coppice with standards.
In Europe this type of forest is usually known as coppice
under standards, but the Australian eucalypts are usually
such strong light-demanders that the stool shoots will
not flourish under the shade of older trees, and so we
get the term coppice with standards. The usual method
employed is to segregate the standards in small groups
throughout the coppice growth.
Fortunately, eucalypts coppice very freely, and this
fact is being turned to practical use in various parts of
Australia where round timber for mining is required.
The coppicing power of the genus, however, is not with-
Qut its drawbacks in localities where there are mixed
forests, and only one species of stool shoot is desired, or
in forests which are heavily stocked with poor class
material, where the forester desires that only a limited
number of the stools should produce shoots. In such
cases the only way to surmount the difficulty appears to
be the frequent use of the axe in knocking off undesir-
able shoots, or judicious use of sodium arsenate on the
stumps which it is desirable should be killed.
In dealing with this question, one is led to inquire into
the number of crops one lot of stools will produce. This,
of course, varies with the locality. In the drier regions,

not more than t\VO, or perhaps three, are obtainable, but
where there are more congenial conditions, as many as
six crops can be expected. Of course, at the end of each
rotation, some of the stools die and have to be replaced
by seedlings.
With practically all the members of the genus a crop
of stool shoots will result at any time of the year, accord-
ing to the season when the mother trees are cut down.
The difficulties, however, do not end when we have
obtained the shoots, as it is necessary to carry them
through the hot days of sumluer and the frosts of winter.
Cutting in autumn or spring tends to give the best
results, subject to species and locality. The shoots
appear from three to eight weeks after the trees are
felled.
It is evident that all species do not require the same
treatment. Three types will, therefore, be dealt with,
viz. (I) Such species as are found in the colder and wetter
localities; (2) those found under somewhat warmer and
less humid conditions; (3) those whIch grow under
conditions of great heat and dryness.
In the first type we have mainly fast-growing species,
such as Karri (Euc. diversicolor), Tasmanian blue gum
(Euc. globulus), Swamp luahogany (Euc. robusta),Black-
butt (Euc. pilularis) , Tallowwood (EUC.11'ticrocorys), Moun-
tain ash (Euc. gigantea), besides numerous other species
of less importance. We first take an area of country
which has been "cut out" and burnt over numerous
times. It will be noticed that most of the younger timber
is of a poor class, o\ving partly to its suppression by trees
which were of no use to the miller, and partly to the bad
effect of bush fires. All the timber on the area, except
perhaps the few young trees which show promise of
developing into mlll logs, is felled when most of the
danger from frosts is past. This is in most districts
about the end of August or the beginning of September.
Of course, if there is protection from the early morning
sun the work can be carried out much earlier. None of
the stumps should be more than four to six inches high.
As much of the felled timber should be utilized as
possible, and the top should be collected into small
stacks, and if there is very much danger from fire, it is,
16
234 EMPIRE FORESTRY
perhaps, just as well to burn them. This burning is

necessary if seedlings are required to fill up spaces in the
coppice. The seedlings need a great deal of protection
from the fast-gro\ving stool shoots, especially in mixed
forests where some of the inferior species are greater
shade-bearers than the better varieties. This is notice-
able in forests containing such a mixture as tallowwood
and blackbutt, as the former is a n1uch better shade-
bearer than the latter. It is also the more valuable
timber.
The shoots should be thinned about their third year,
by which time they ought to be at least 20 ft. high.
Usually two, but sometimes three, shoots are left per
stool, preferably as far apart from one another as possible.
Naturally only healthy shoots with good leaders are left.
Tt is said to be advisable, when thinning, to prune the
shoots, but this does not appear to be absolutely essen-
tial, as the lower limbs soon drop off of their own accord,
and it is very rare to find many of the side shoots persist,
as is the case with conifers. The length of rotation for
these fast-growing eucalypts should not be more than
about twenty years, as by that time they have developed
shoots with diameters of 12 inches or thereabouts. Also
by this time the phenomenally rapid gro\vth has slowed
down somewhat. Twelve inches is about the diameter
usually required for mining timber.
As our second type we \vilI now take such species as
grow in localities \vith warmer, but less hUlnid conditions.
It is amongst trees of this type that most of the coppicing
is at present being carried out, as it is in such localities
that many of our mines are found. Examples of this
type of forest may be seen near some of the mining
centres of Victoria, and during last year work in this
direction was carried out near Collie (W.A.). Trees
belonging to this class are Jarrah (Euc. 11/zarginata),
Stringybark (Euc. obliqua), Manaa gum (Euc. vi1ninalis),
Spotted gum (Euc. maculata), and woolybutt (Euc.
radiata), as \vell as a large number of others.
The nlethod of treatment is similar to, although not
identical with, that applied to the first type. These
forests are not subject to such severe frosts as those in
the damper localities, so that coppicing may be carried
out earlier. If there is a reasonable amount of protec-
TREATMENT OF TIMBER-PRODUCING EUCALYPTS 23'S
tion, it is better that the coppicing should be carried out

in the autumn, so that there is a dense canopy of leaves
protecting the stump during the follo\ving SUlnmer. If
this canopy is absent, the stulnp under the direct rays
of the sun is liable to crack, and so becomes more subject
to the attack of numerous destructive organisms. More.
over, if the cutting is left till the spring, there is a chance
that poor results will be obtaIned from the seedlings,
which will, in many cases, be killed by the hot weather.
At the age of one year, shoots belonging to this type
are usually about 4 to 6 ft. in height. At three years
they are about IS feet, and it is then that thinning should
take place. At the end of a twenty-year rotation poles
with a diameter of 8 or 9 inches are obtainable, while after
a further ten years poles of 12 or 13 inches in diameter
will have developed.
The figures dealing with height and diameter growth
are only approximate, and are liable to vary with differ-
ent individual species gro\ving under different sets of
conditions.
As our third type we will mention those eucalypts
growing in the more arid regions. Species of this type
are Euc. hentiphloia or Grey box, Sugar gum (Euc.
corynocalyx) , Wandoo (Euc. redunca), Salmon gum (Euc.
saln'lanophloia). To this list we might add Yate (Euc.
cornuta) and Red gum (Euc. rostrata). Although these
two species are often found in regions where the rainfall
is small, they are, nevertheless, only found along water-
courses where there is a good supply of subsoil water.
It must be noted, however, that these two species also
flourish in much damper localities, so that they might be
classed with the previous type.
Probably satisfactory coppice will never be obtained
from these dry area eucalypts. According to the Forester
at Kalgoorlie, not more than 70 per cent. of the stools of
the local eucalypts throw out shoots. Better results have
been obtained at Bundaleer, where the rainfall is about
20 inches. The low rainfall in these areas will not permit
of fast growth, nor of dense stocking. The great ex-
tremes of temperature, due to the distance of these
localities from the sea, also act as a hindrance to coppice
regeneration. If the felling is carried out in the autumn
there is danger from frost, and if carried out in the
spring there is the long dry summer to contend with.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
I t appears that the only satisfactory method of obtain-

ing regeneration in the very dry areas is from seed. If,
however, the area is not restocked as soon as the timber
crop is removed, it is practically impossible to obtain
any regeneration at all.
A word may be said regarding the standards which are
often left. These are usually thinned at the end of each
rotation, as their extraction does not affect the surround-
ing forest. About ninety years is the length of time
required by most eucalypts to mature, and that is equi-
valent to four or five rotations of the coppice.
SPACING REQUIRED BY EUCALYPTS.

To obtain satisfactory results it is necessary to keep the
forest in a healthy state. The quantity and the quality
t)f the crop must not be impaired by bad spacing. We
will now discuss the conditions necessary to ensure good
results.
The spacing of the trees must vary with the individual
species and with the locality. It should, however, be
such that the young plants are able to retain their cro\vns
right to the ground for the first three or four years. As
the trees grow older the crowns become larger and the
lower limbs die and fall off. Trees grown in this manner
are sturdy, and well able to stand being blown about by
the wind, and if thinning is carried out they have suffi-
cient vigour to take full advantage of the extra supply of
light. Where the lower limbs have fallen off, only small
heart knots are left, and these do no harm to the tree.
It will also be noticed that by keeping healthy crowns on
the young trees one is able to protect the soil for the
first few years, by the end of which time the roots have
penetrated to the lower layers and are able to tap the
subsoil water.
To obtain the best results with the slower-growing
species, spacing of about 5 ft. by 5 ft., or 6 ft. by 6 ft. is
sufficiently open for the first few years; but thinning
soon has to be carried out. With the faster growers the
spacing must be as great as 8 ft. by 8 ft., or 10 ft. by 10 ft.,
or it may be as high as 15 ft. by IS ft.
With all except the slower-growing eucalypts, it seems
a lesser evil to overcrowd than to plant too spar~ely.
By "too sparsely 11 we mean at distances greater than
IS ft.
If the trees are too sparse, due to poor regeneration or
to their being planted too far apart, the lower branches
remain too long, and become too big. Some of these
branches may have to be removed by means of an axe
or saw; and this, of course, has a bad effect on the
quality of the timber, besides throwing it open to the
attacks of fungi, and at thesalne time additional expense
is involved.
Then there is always the danger from fire. If the ttees
are very far apart a considerable amount of undergrowth
comes up amongst them, and this is al\vays a menace
throughout the hot months of the year.
The evils of overcro\vding -must not be neglected. The
trees grown under such conditions are usually weedy, and
if they are thinned, they are too unhealthy to support a
large cro\vn, and so are unable to take advantage of the
extra supply of light gi ven them. It will be noticed also
that the canopy is very scanty owing to the unhealthy
nature of the trees, and also to the fact that they beat one
another about \vhenever there is a high wind blowing.
This state of affairs, although very common with some
types of trees, is not often found among eucalypts. This
is due to phenomenally rapid growth in their young
stages. Certain of the trees obtain a lead and very soon
make the most of their advantage, overshado\ving and
killing most of the weaker ones. This is nature's method
of thinning, depending really on the survival of the fittest.
There is one species, viz., Euc. rostrata, which does not
thin out very readily. 'rhickets of this tree may be seen
between the Forest of Kuitpo and Meadows, South
Australia. In the danlper parts of this State, and in other
States also, we find the young stringy barks becoming
sOlnewhat overcrowded.
A more scientific method of thinning is necessary in
the coastal forests of New South Wales and Victoria,
where there are numerous types of trees in a mixture.
Where the saw-miller has removed the big timber, the
normal forest conditions have been upset. If the fires
allo\v it, a large amount of regrowth comes up, and if
allowed to grow unattended one finds that usually the less
valuable trees are the faster growers and tend to suppress
·EMPIRE FORltSTHY
the slower-growing but more valuable species. In con-

sequence one finds that grey iron bark (Euc. paniculata)
and tallow-wood (Euc. 1nicrocot'Ys) are becoming rare even
in their natural habitat.
Where planting takes place it has been found to be finan-
cially unsound to plant any closer than about 8 it. by 8 ft.
for the majority of eucalypts. Very often we find planted
forests being less hampered by the temporary setback due
to transplanting than trees which, though grown under
natural conditions, have to recover from the effects of
overcrowding, after they have fought their way through
the mass of regro\vth which often occurs around them.
If thinning operations can be carried out while the trees
are still young, so much the better, but in this case one
has to take into account the expense of the operation.
Where the trees are widely spaced, care must be taken
to fill up any blanks, as soon as they occur, with strong
healthy young trees. If one neglects to do this at once,
the surrounding trees send their limbs out over the space.
After the trees are more than t\VO years old, it is useless to
fill in the blanks, as the young trees will not have a chance
to grow properly. If the blanks are only small, they are
not worth troubling about.
Special treatment must be given to trees such as Euc.
saln~anophoia (salmon gum), which are found in very dry
areas where the rainfall often does not exceed ten inches.
Here the spacing must be very ,vide, owing to the insuffi-
ciency of water in the soil to support a dense crop. The
wide spacing in this case appears to have no bad effect
on the tree, and in fact it is not uncommon to see such
trees as salmon gum, although growing quite isolated,
possessing clean trunks of perhaps thirty feet in length.
The same might be sdid of sugar gums, \vhich grow in
areas of somewhat higher rainfall. Plantations of sugar
gums in these areas look quite satisfactory from a distance,
but it will be found on inspection that only the outer" t\VO
or three rows exhibit much growth, while the centre of
the block" is practically useless. Some of the finest sugar
gums I have seen were growing in a long strip about four
rows in width. l'here were fewer side branches than one
would expect and the trees gave promise of developing
1nto fine mill logs. In this case the trees were set purely
for ornamental purposes, but good financial returns should
be obtained froln trees grown in this manner.
TREATMENT Ol~ TIMBER-PRODUCING EUCALYPTS 239
THINNING.
By the time a complete canopy has been formed,
several types of trees will be noticed. These are dominant,
sub-dominant, dominated and suppressed. As the upwarcl
race for light proceeds the last two classes lag further and
further behind, and the weaker ones ultimately give up
the struggle.
In Europe forests are given light thinnings every five
to ten years. In these thinnings all the dead and dying
trees, as well as some of the dominated ones, are renl0ved.
The removal of these unhealthy trees helps to prevent the
spread of disease. In Australia these frequent thinnings
are not always possible on account of the expense incurred,
nor are they absolutely essential, except at rare Intervals.
It has been found that the organisms which attack dead
tinlber, make very little impression as a rule on a healthy
eucalypt so that in most cases no marked evil effects are
noticed when the dead timber is not removed. If, how-
ever, there is a market for the thinnings, they should be
made to help pay for the upkeep of the forest, and not be
left for the white ants and the various fungi to destroy.
All top and timber for which there is no sale should be
stacked and not left scattered about the forest, as is usually
the case in Australian forests. The stacking of tops
lessens the evil effects of bush fires, but one must never-
theless see that an efficient system of fire-breaks is in
,existence also.
With the eucalypts the frequent thinnings, in evidence
in other countries, must be replaced by heavier but less
frequent thinnings, somewhat similar to crown thinnings.
These heavy thinnings would cause trees, \vhich are not
such great light-demanders, to spread out and become
bushy, but the eucalypts, when once they have a start,
will produce fairly good stems even if widely spaced.
Closer spacing is necessary for such species as Euc.
propinqua, Euc. 1nicrocorys, &c., which are able to bear a
-certain amount of shade, so that their lower branches are
hard to kill. Red gum (Euc. rostrata) and to a slighter
extent jarrah (Euc. 11targinata), if openly spaced, tend to
fork a great deal and become bushy.
One would think that these frequent thinnings would
open up the leaf canopy too much, but such is not the
case. We pointed out previously that in very close stands
EMPIRE FORESTRY
of eucalypts the canopy is less dense than where the trees

are grown more sparsely, and enjoy better health.
There are no special ages at which the forest should
be thinned. It should simply be thinned when it needs
it, preferably in winter time. It must be borne in mind
that the state of the crown of a tree is an indication of
its vigour. When trees are developing great length of
trunk relative to the size of the crown, it is evident that
a thinning is necessary. It has been found that, to
obtain the best results from a eucalypt, the crown should
represent from one-third to one-half the total height of
the tree. For various reasons the heavy cro\vn thinning
may have to be carried out somewhat before the prin-
cipal height-growth of the stand has been reached.
One of these reasons is that all eucalypts, with the excep-
tion of mountain ash, are subject to heart rot and to the
attacks of white ants in their hearts. From this it will
be clear that, to obtain a reasonably high recovery, logs
of large diameter must be obtained. It may therefore be
more advisable to obtain a forty-foot log with a large
diameter than a sixty-foot log of a somewhat smaller
diameter,
Secondly, it will be noticed that the foliage of euca-
lypts is usually concentrated at or near the ends of the
branches. Thus to produce a healthy crown, which is
essential for good developlnent, there must be a large
nunlber of lilnbs, and many of them must come from
comparatively low down the stem. If, however, all these
limbs are to be forced to grow straight up and compete
with one another, little is gained; but if a heavy thinning
takes place, these limbs are enabled to grow outwards
rather than upwards, and so a greater area of leaf surface
is produced.
It is not advisable from a financial standpoint to
attempt to produce the very great length of log which is
possessed by some of the trees in virgin forest. Except
for special purposes no logs greater than sixty feet in
length should be attempted, and in many cases much
shorter ones are quite satisfactory.
When the forester considers that it is inadvisable to
attempt to force the trees any higher, the main crown
thinning must be carried out. This must be the heaviest
of them all, and the only trees which should be left are
TREATl\'IENT OF TIMBER-PRODUCING EUCALYPTS 241
those \vhich he considers are good enough to form part

of the final crop. These consist of dominant and sub-
dominant trees, and very often a good tree of the former
type may need to be removed, because it is suppressing
a sub-dominant tree which is producing a better quality
log.
Some idea is necessary of the number of trees \vhich
can be left for the final crop. This number depends
largely on the individual species, its rate of growth, &c.,
and also on the type of timber that is required. Owing
to the large area covered by the crown of a healthy tree,
the number must be comparatively small. This area of
cro\vn is usually well over thirty feet in diameter, so that
forty or fifty trees may be set down as a maximum where
large-sized timber is required.
Where special tilnber of great length is required, for
piles, poles, &c., considerable modifications must be
made in the treatment. The thinnings must be ~less
drastic and the crown thinnings must be postponed for
a considerable time. This, as one would expect, requires
a longer rotation.
We must now deal with the thinning of mixed forests.
Here our attention must be directed towards the retain-
ing of the right distribution of species. Where we have
a tree of a valuable species being suppressed by one of
an inferior species, the latter must be removed, unless of
course the former is too much suppressed to take advan-
tage of an extra supply of light. It is the duty of the
officer in charge, however, to see that no valuable tree is
suppressed to so great an extent; it is therefore essential
not to postpone thinning operations until too late.
It is usually advisable to have t\VO species of trees
growing on an area. In this case the slower grower of
the two n1ust be a shade-bearer. In such cases a con-
siderable amount of protection is given to the ground,
and the area is utilized to a greater extent. A second
type of mixed forest, \vhich gives good results, is one in
which one species of tree is useful in large sizes, while
the other is useful in the pole stage. '"fhe thinnings
should be arranged in such a way that the latter species
only need to be removed during the early thinnings.
Under this system, where the trees removed are of com-
mercial use, frequent thinnings may be 'l;lndertaken;
'ElIPIRE FOI<ESIRY
whereas in the pure forest,where these furnish no return,

the thinnings must be less frequent and less thorough.
Before leaving the question of "thinning/' we will
mention a discussion which has arisen in European
circles. This discussion deals with the effect of the
suppressed trees on the dominant and sub-dominant.
It has been found that, apart from acting as harbourers
of disease, they play a very unimportant part. This
means that the root competition which they offer is
negligible. This principle should apply to forests in the
damper parts of Australia; but when we consider forests
growing in our drier areas, the circumstances are so
markedly different that it would be folly to suggest that
results obtained under European conditions are in any
way applicable. It must be borne in mind that the
supply of water for these forests is limited, and every
drop removed by the suppressed trees will lessen the
supply for the dominant ones.
FELLING OF TIMBER.
The rotation of the various species may vary from fifty
or sixty years to quite double that period. The best
season of the year for cutting is probably the "rinter, but
at present, in most of our forests, cutting is carried on
throughout the whole year. This cutting in summer has
possibly led to some of our timbers receiving a bad name
even in our own country. Winter cutting offers better
conditions for seasoning and prevents case hardening to
a great extent.
RATE OF GROWTH OF SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS.
Very frequently persons interested in forestry are asked
. how long a certain species of Eucalypt takes to reach
milIable size. In very few cases are we able to ans\ver
that question \vith any degree of accuracy. This is due
largely to the fact that most of the Eucalypts do not show
any well-defined annual rings. Mountain ash (Euc.
gigantea) is an exception. This tree is found on the
Southern Highlands (N.S.W.) at a height of three or
four thousand feet, and grows to its greatest perfection in
the deep volcanic soil on the sides of the hills. A further
peculiarity of this fast-gro\ving tree is that it retains a
sound heart.
The following·data were discovered by making a stem

analysis : -
Age Height Diameter Volume
2i years 20 ft. I in.
6 40 " 2i "
20 " 68 " 9 " 20 CUI ft.
40 tt 90 " 18 " 75"
60 " 1 10 " 28 " 180
80 " 126 " 36 " 300
96 140 " 42 " 4 20
The minimum girth at which this tree can be cut is
84 inches; which, as the above table shows, is attained at
about its sixtieth year. This tree, it must be remembered,
is one of the fastest growers known, and an 84-inch girth
appears rather a slnall tree for such a species, especially
when we consider that for karri the ulinimum girth limit
is 108 inches and for jarrah 90 inches.
Definite data with regard to the rate of growth of most
of the important Eucalypts will be available in from ten
to t\venty years time; the experiments have not yet been
completed. One way in which a large volume of data
can be obtained is by taking measurements of trees which
have grown up as a result of heavy fellings of the original
crop. Thus at Karridale, in West Australia, they were
able to identify areas \vhich were cut over in certain years,
and this gave them a clue to the age of the crop of re-
growth which followed the felling.
In a few cases holdings have been taken up by settlers
and then abandoned, \vith the result that the tilnber has
again taken possession. Here also is a chance to obtain
information, but it is often difficult to be sure, to a few
years, when the cleared area was overrun by the forest.
By making use of data obtained by the above methods,
one is able to give some account of the growth of the tree
for the first thirty or forty years of its life. To obtain
information about other older trees one has to turn to a
somewhat indirect method. Trees of girths of various
sizes are measured every three or five years and the rate
of increase is noted in each case. When we know the
rate at which trees of a certain girth are increasing, we
know how long they will take to grow a certain amount
and attain the size of the next class, and so on with the
different classes up to those which are commercially
mature. By this method we know the rate of growth of
244 EMPIRE FORESTRY
trees of any girth, and it is a comparatively easy matter

to arrive at the time taken to reach commercial si~e.
In the present condition of our forests we have
dominant and suppressed trees all mixed, but measure-
ments should be made only of the former class, as they
are the only trees of appreciable commercial importance.
The suppressed trees put on practically no growth, and
measurements of them would be very misleading. By
this method it has been discovered that for Tuart the
annual girth increment is, on the average, about ·7 in.
It therefore requires about a hundred years to obtain a
Tuart of marketable size, namely of a girth of 72 in.
It is highly probable that the numerous bush fires.
passing through our forests have the effect of retarding
tree growth, so that all sample flats lnust be well pro-
tected in order that reliable data may be obtained.
We often hear of trees maturing (commercially) in
forty years. This may be true of some of the inferior
species of Eucalypts, but results lead one to believe that
these calculations are usually some"\vhat low.
PROTECTION OF THE FOREST IN ITS YOUNG STATE.

(1) Protection fro11t Fire.-Fire is' luore dangerolls to a
forest in its young stages than at any other period of its
existence, because the bark is then thin, and the crowns
are very close to the ground. Fire will ahnost invariably
kill young conifers, but this is not the case with young
eucalypts. These possess a peculiar swelling just below
the ground, and, if the burning has not been too fierce,
this sends up new shoots in place of the one which has
been destroyed. Here we might draw attention to the
effects of dense and sparse stocking on the amount of
inflammable material. If the trees are planted at great
distances apart, a large amount of grass, scrub, &c.,.
comes up between the trees and this is liable to cause
serious fires. If the stocking is not quite so sparse, or
even if it is dense, there is very little undergrowth, so that
danger from fire is lessened. The only protection from
fire is a good system of firebreaks.
(2) Protection front A nimals.- Where there is young re-
generation no grazing should be allowed, except perhaps.
that of horses, and even then a limit should be placed on
the nunlber permitted to graze on the area. An instance

·of the evil effects of grazing may be seen in the No. I and
No. 2 State Forests, West Australia. Of all this area of
Tuart country, <:>nly three compartments out of seventeen
have been fenced and so protected from cattle and sheep.
These are the only compartments which show any young
plants at all.
With regard to undomesticated animals, we might
mention the rabbit and the hare. Although wallabies
and kangaroos also do a certain amount of damage, it is
limited mainlv to the dense brush forests. Rabbits and
hares do more damage in the drier areas than in the
coastal forests, but they appear to pay much more
attention to young conifers than to eucalypts. Some-
times they gnaw off the young trees and leave them lying
on the ground. When the destruction wrought by these
animals is of any magnitude, one must fence the areas
with It-in. mesh wire netting.
(3) Protection front Weeds.-When we speak of weeds
we mean not only grass and scrub, but also undesirable
species of eucalypts. The young trees are usually suffi-
ciently fast-growing to keep themselves from being
suppressed by grass and scrub. Very often these act as
nurses to the young eucalypts, and in some cases (e.g.,
Acacia pycl'lantha) may even form the basis of a forest
industry~ With regard to the undesirable eucalypts,
imlnediate attention is only necessary if they are faster
.growers than the valuable species. If, on the other hand,
they are slower growers, they may do more good than
harm if left, especially in widely-spaced plantations,
where they help to maintain a fairly dense canopy and so
protect the soil.
By the time the trees have developed a complete forest
cover, most of the weeds have been suppressed, and the
tops have been carried up to a considerable height, and
so danger from grazing and from fires has decreased. By
this time another important point has become apparent,
viz., the necessity for thinning.
After this stage the harm done by grazing and by weeds
is negligible, but protection from fire is still necessary.
With regard to insect pests, white ants (termites) are of
most importance. These usually confine their attention
to dead timber and to the hearts of the trees. A con-
EMPIRE FORESTRY
siderable amount of damage is done by the so-called

wood-borers, but these also require an entrance to the
tree through dead tissue. Owing to the enormous area
covered by the eucalypts, it is at present impossible to
carry out protective measures against insects. Generally
speaking, hovlever, the genus is fairly free from insect
pests.
Some eucalypts, e.g., jarrah, are particularly free from
fungus attacks, but. others, such as Tuart, are just the
reverse. These probably will never be done away with,
but they can be checked to a great extent by the removal
of over-mature tiluber, which usually harbours the pests.
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247
THE CENTRAL FOREST RESEARCH

INSTITUTE AT DEHRA DUN, INDIA.
By SIR GEORGE HART, K.B.E.,. C.I.E.
THE' commencement of systelIlatic Forest Research in

Jndia may be said to date from 1906, when at the
instance of Sir S. Eardley-Wilmot, then Inspector-
General of Forests in India, a Forest Research Institute
was established at Dehra Dun. It is hardly necessary
to say that previous to J906 much valuable scientific
\vork had been carried out by individual forest officers:
but though the result of these efforts was often p_ublished,
a great deal of useful work was lost for want of a proper
organization. To some extent this state of affairs may
be regarded as a reproach to the Service as a whole. It
was, however, inevitable; ,for even now the strength of
the Service is ll1uch below that required for the work to
be done. Again until recent years, and indeed to sOple
extent even now, the judgment passed on the success
of the forest administration depended largely on the
financial results of the working, so that the meagre staff
employed was compelled to devote the whole of its time
to organization, and, as Professor Stebbing has clearly
shown in the first volume of his work on "The Forests
of India," often in face of po\verful opposition. It is
not so many years ago that the writer of this article, on
being sent to a certain large province as Conservator of
Forests and calling on the Head of the Administration
for the first time, was informed by that powerful official
that he would never think of looking on forest work
from any point of view other than the financial results.
Splendid as has been the work done for India by the
members of the, Indian Civil Service, few if any of these
officers had, when they con1menced their duties, any
knowledge of the necessity of good forest management
for the general welfare of the country, and as under the
pre-Reform conditions, these men ruled India anq, in
several provinces at any rate, a very large proportion of
EMPIRE FORESTRY
them never came into personal·contact with the forest

officers or their work, it will be clear that the need for
Forest Research stood a very small chance of recognition.
Though the Research Institute was established in 1906,
it was not till 1914 that the buildings were completed.
In 1915 more land was taken up to provide for the
requirements of the probationers for the Provincial
Forest Service, for whose training the research officers
were partly responsible. The main building contains"
museums and offices for the Sylvicultural, Economic
.and Zoological Branches as well as the general library
and lecture rooms, while the Botanical and Chemical
Branches and the various laboratories and workshops
are housed in separate buildings. Attached are quarters
for forty students, a fine playing-field, and residences
for two research officers and the house tutor in charge
of the Provincial Service classes. The whole Institute,
which is under the administrative control of the In-
spector-General of Forests, is in charge of a President,
with research officers in control of each of the five main
branches mentioned above. In addition specialists are
.appointed temporarily when necessary and are attached
to the Institute to carry out investigations in subjects of
particular economic importance. Thus a cellulose expert
'has been employed for some years past to investigate
possible new sources of paper-making materials, of
which the forests of India contain abundant supplies.
A tannin expert was also engaged to study the question
of tanning materials; but though much valuable work
has been accomplished during the past four or five years,
it has, it is understood, been decided that the present
condition of the tanning' industry in India does not
justify the continuance of tan research after May, 1923,
when the engagement of the expert will terminate.
From 1906 onwards research work has been prose-
cuted as energetically as was possible with the small
staff and the inadequate plant and annual money grants
provided. It would occupy too much space to give even
.a brief summary of the work done; and all that can be
said is that steady progress was made in all branches,
and that the staff was strengthened occasionally by the
addition of assistants to the research officers. Those
-interested in this subject will find full information given
in the annual Progress Report of Forest Research Work
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE AT. DEHRA DUN 249
in India, which contains a list of the Institute's publica-

tions.
About five years after the completion of the buildings,
when the experience gained during the war had enforced
recognition of the extreme importance of scientific re-
search of all kinds, it was realized that if a serious
attempt was to be made to cope with the vast mass :of
work to be done, expansion on a very considerable
scale was inevitable, and a new scheme was accordingly
prepared. This scheme, which received the approv",l
of the Government of India and was sanctioned bv the
Secretary of State for India on February 2$, 1920, "Com-
prised the acquisition of a new site covering 1,200 acres
of land, the erection of new buildings, including quarters
for the staff, workshops and laboratories, and the appoint-
ment of an increased staff for research, wiihout reference
to educational purposes other than the provision of
quarters for the Provincial Service students. It should
be noted that an area of 1,000 acres was considered to
be sufficient to provide for all requirements, including
experimental and demonstration areas and allowance
for future expansion of staff and equipment; but that
as the commencement 9f a separate Chemical Service
was then under consideration and as it was held to be
desirable that the central Chemical and Forest Research
Institutes should be in close communication, an addi...
tional area of 200 acres was allotted for that purpose. In
passing it may be stated that, although the whole 1,200
acres has been acquired, it does not now seem likely that
a separate chemical service will be formed, at any rate
for some considerable time to come. The scheme was
estimated to cost a total of Rs. 3,058,000, or approxi-
mately £2°4,000, the details being :-
Acquisition of 1,200 aores ... ..• ... RS.480,000
Plant, equipment and buildings for laboratories and
workshofs ... ..- ... ... ... ... 400,000
Erection 0 main Forest Research Institute building..• 1,000,000
Quarters for 60 students... ... ... . 150 ,000
Residem:es for 22 Imperial Service Officers . 41 8.000
Residences for 16 Provincial Service Officers ..• 160,000
Clerks' quarters ... 100,000
Menials' quarters... ... 50 ,000
Field Assistants' quarters . . . ... 50,000
Roads, water supply, laying out and contingencies 250,000
Rs. 3,058,'000
EMPIRE FORESTRY
The land, however, was much more expensive than was

anticipated, and this, together with the enormous increase
in the price of building operations and the cost of con-
siderable additions resulting from a visit paid by the
Forest Economist to similar institutions in America, has,
it is understood, raised the cost to Rs. 10,200,000, or
approximately £680,000. This is a very large sum; but
it is less than one-half of the net revenue of the Indian
forests for the year 1917-18 and so can hardly be regarded
as an excessive expenditure on ensuring the full develop-
ment of Indi",ls vast forest resources.
As regards staff, the scheme raised the status of the
President to that of a Chief Conservator of Forests, made
the five research officers the heads of their respective
branches, divided each branch, other than Sylviculture,
into, a number of sections, each in charge of Imperial
Service officers or men of similar status, and provided
as&istants for each section, as shown in the following
statement :-
Branch Sections Assistants attached Remarks
to sections
Sylvicultural Two
Botanical Systematic One
CEcological One
Mycological One
Zoological Systematic Two
Four regional ... Three
Chemical . Biological and Distil-
lation Three
Economic Wood technology One Imperial Service
Officer
Seasoning Three One Imperial Ser-
vice Officer
Timber testing Three
Wood preservation One
Minor forest products... One
Paper pulp •.. ... One
Mechanical engineering One
Wood working One (veneers)
One (saw-mill)
One (workshop)
The Sylvicultural Branch was not divided into sections
as the work of this branch at the Central Institute was
to be mainly statistical, the field work being carried out
in the, provinces by local research officers. Officers of
this kind have now been appointed in several provinces.
Unfortunately, however, sanction to this comprehensive
scheme only meant that it could be carried out whenever
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE AT DEHRA DUN 251
the Government of India were able to provide funds for

the purpose, and so far this has only been possible to a
limited extent. The present position is that the land has
been acquired, that most, if not all, of the plant required
for the various sections of the Economic Branch has
been purchased, that a sum of Rs. 700,000 (approxi-
Inately £46,000) has been sanctioned for the erection of
the laboratories and workshops of the Economic Branch,
and that it is proposed to proceed with one wing of
the main institute building in order to permit of the
transfer of the Economic and Zoological Branches to
the new site: residences for the officers of the two
branches, an insectary and quarters for the assistants,
clerks, menials and labourers will also be constructed.
The object of this transfer appears to be not so much
to improve the facilities for research as to permit of the
utilization of the greater part of the present Institute for
the combined training of Indian recruits for the Imperial
Branch of the Service and of the Provincial Service
students; the Government of India, as constituted at
present, being very anxious to commence the training in
India of Indian recruits for the I.F.S. with the least
possible delay, and it h.aving been proved that it will
be much cheaper to provide fully for two branches of the
Institute on the new site than to establish new educational
buildings and equipment. .
The following extract from an article that appeared in
the Indian Forester, February, 1921, gives some interesting
details regarding the plant, laboratories and workshops of
the Economic Branch.
" The workshop and laboratories of the Economic
Section will be divided into two groups, one containing
shops chiefly dependent on steam, the other on electric
power. The latter block of buildings is to consist of a
minor forest products laboratory, suitably equipped, a
timber-testing workshop fitted with one ten-thousand, one
thirty-thousand, and one one hundred-thousand pound
universal testing machine, two impact machines, a dog-
spike-pull machine, an expansion-contraction machine and
a warp-testing machine; a wood workshop with saws,
lathes, saw-facing machines, &c., a veneeer or three-ply
laboratory fitted with a 36-inch veneer cutter, presses, &c.,
and an iron workshop to carry out running repairs.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
Adjoining these workshops are the offices of the various

sectional officers. The laboratories and workshops which
are dependent on steam power \viII form the first group,
and will consist of a hall to take the tan extract plant
(presumably this will not now be built. G.S.H.); another
for the paper pulp section, fitted with a fractional digester
plant and a 36-inch paper-making machine; a section
composed of four Sturtevant drying-kilns and a battery
of three Tiemann steamspray kilns; and, lastly a hall in
which will be located an absolutely up-to-date experi-
mental pressure creosoting 'plant.
"Ei~ht-hundred-feet go-do\vns, connected with the
laboratories by tramline, have also been provided, and to
complete the outfit a sawmill has been purchased to supply
timber to the various sections."
By no means all of the posts sanctioned under the new
scheme have yet been filled, owing partly to the difficulty
of obtaining competent specialists, but mainly to lack of
funds. Still the staff has been strengthened considerably
since the scheme was sanctioned, as a forest officer has
been placed in charge of the minor forest products
section and experts .engaged to control the sections of
season'ing, timber testing and systematic zoology.
The outlook for the future is not very encouraging, for
in the present state of the country's finances it is very
difficult to obtain funds to work the present staff
efficiently, while expansion seems out of the question.
Presumably the whole matter will be reviewed by the
Retrenchment Commission which is to be at work in
India during the coming cold-weather season, and the
best that it seems possible to hope for is that the justifi-
cation for the enlarged Research Institute will be recog-
nized, and that nothing worse will be decided on than the
holding of vacant posts in abeyance until the financial
situation permits of their being filled. .
In conclusion the writer desires to express his thanks
to his friend Mr. W. F. Perree, C.I.E., President of the
Research Institute, who was good enough to send him a
note, without which much of this article could not have
been written.
253
FEMELSCHLAGBETRIEB-
A SWISS
SYSTEM OF FOREST MANAGEME'NT.
By R. MACLAGf\N GORRIE.
As a general definition it may be said that this system,

which is also known in Switzerland as "la methode des
coupes jardinatoires," is a shelterwood compartment
system, in which successive regeneration fellings are
made throughout a long regeneration period. It is thus
a compro,mise between the uniform compartment system
with regeneration by groups, as practised in many of the
French beach and'oak forests, and that of the pure selec-
tion system, as practised in Haute Savoie and in many
parts of the Swiss Jura and Alpine regions. In theory it
differs from the former in that the regeneration period
is prolonged over a spell of years amounting to as much
as half of the usual 100-year rotation fo rconifers, and
from the latter in that the wood remains practically
untouched during the other half of the rotation.
In practice, a division of anything up to 200 hecta.;res
is kept intact, with only the usual thin,nings and cleaning
until towards the time when natural regeneration may
safely be expected. The best groups of young seedlings,
with a minimum size of about 25 yards squ~re, are en-
couraged by slightly heavier thinnings immediatelY3;bo~e
them, and these are repeated frequently. The heavy and
precipitate seeding felling of the French system i~ un-
known here, and the abundant crops of weeds and the
frequent failures in regeneration so often seen in France
are avoided almost entirely.
Modifications in the amo\lnt of thinning in order ,to
favour any species are introduced now. If th,e crop is
of pure silver fir, the admission of light must be slow,;
if of pure beech, or of spruce and beech, the fellings can
be more frequent and heavier. When silver ,fir has to be
254 EMPIRE FORESTRY
favoured against the other two the light admission must

be very slow until the silver fir has become firmly estab-
lished, after which the gradual removal of the final crop
will allow groups of beech to come up as well. On
ground suitable for a large volume production of silver
fir, it is often thought advisable to wait until the eightieth
or ninetieth year before opening out the canopy, in order
to ensure a good silver fir crop. If spruce is desired, the
thinnings must be more sudden and heavier than for
either of the other two species, though as a rule spruce
is depended on to fill up the gaps left between groups
of beech and silver already established, and if any plant-
ing up of blanks has to be done, spruce is generally used.
It is often found that in a mixed crop of beech and silver
fir the beech comes away fast, and may be anything up
to twenty feet in height before the silver, which seeded
at the same time as the beech, commences active height
growth, but by the end of another fifteen to twenty years
the majority of the beech has been overtaken by the
silver and is removed in the early thinnings. Even
where the mature crop is of pure conifers a considerable
seeding of beech can be depended on because the beech-
mast is carried by birds and animals and wind from
neighbouring areas.
The groups of regeneration are gradually enlarged,
fellings being carried out every two to three years in the
areas under treatment, until finally the groups are fused
and the whole division has been regenerated. This, as
has been said, may take anything up to fifty years, and
as the finest stems of the old crop are conserved till the
very last they have a splendid opportunity for putting on
a large increment. A large price is obtained locally for
this heavy fir tiIIlber, as much as 140 francs per cubic
metre being obtained at the present time. The following
points are emphasized in the management :-
(I) A seeding thinning must never be undertaken unless
sufficiently thick and healthy natural regeneration has
appeared to warrant commencing a regeneration group.
(2) Groups once commenced should be encouraged
by enlarging them concentrically in ever widening circles.
Where the nominal rotation is 100 years, trees of 70 years
or even younger may be sacrificed in order to ensure
the regeneration. The money lost in cutting these im-
FEMELSCHLAGBETRIEB 255
mature trees is more than repaid by the extra price gained
by the few remaining standards, and by the early
establishment of the new crop.
(3) Thinnings should always be carried out with' a
view to preserving the best and most promising standards
for the final crop. As a rule thinnings are made Hpar
le haut," and are repeated every five to six years.
(4) All thinnings and felIings are done by departmental
labour. Only skilled woodmen are employed and great
care is used while felling standards, to cause as little
damage as possible to the young growth; if necessary,
large branches are lopped before the trunk is felled.
Extraction routes are carefully marked and must be
adhered to, so that damage to young growth is sur-
prisingly small.
The usual method of sale is to agree on a price per
cubic metre for certain trees before they are felled, then
after they have been felled and removed to the roadside
the. buyer pays that price per cubic metre on the quantity
whlch the logged material is found to contain. Every
twenty years the working plan is revised, though no hard
and fast rules are made prescribing fixed coupes or
periodic blocks to be regenerated; in fact the forest
officer is left an entirely free hand in the selection of new
regeneration zones, and if need be he can commence
regeneration thinnings in any division of the forest which
he thinks best. In addition to these revisions, an
enumeration of all timber of over 16 cm. diameter at
breast height. throughout the forest is made every ten
years, and calculations from the figures obtained in this
way fix the possibility and the maximum annual cut for
the following ten years. By using Heyer's formula for
the calculation of the possibility, an opportunity is given
for continuous progress towards the formation of a
normal forest, and in this respect this system, as practised
in the Bienne forests, resembles the Hmethode du controle"
of the Neuchatel forests, though the latter is more highly
intensified in its progress towards the maximum output,
and is applied to a strict selection system only.
The particular advantages of the Femelschlagbetrieb are
as follows :-
(I) It favours the regeneration of mixed shade-bearers.
(2) Regeneration is obtained early and failure ,is
minimized.
EMPIR'E FORESTRY
(3) It Value-increment" is obtained on trees of the

final crop_
(4) A continuous supply of timber of all sizes is pro.
vided for the neighbouring agricultural communities.
(5) The uneven canopy provides almost as efficient
protection against snow and wind breakage as the true
selection system gives.
(6) Weed growth is prevented and the humus layer is
well preserved.
(7) It is elastic and gives the forest officer a free hand.
(8) By using Heyer's formula, it tends to evolve a
normal forest.
(9) It is useful for the conversion stage in changing an
even aged wood into a selection wood, as is being done
in several parts of Switzerland at the present time.
The disadvantages may be summarized thus : -
(I) The raising of light demanders is difficult.,
(2) It is a highly intensive system and can only be
carried out efficiently when one forest officer remains in
charge for a period of years.
(3) Departmental felling by trained workers is essential
to reduce damage to young growth to a minimum.
(4) The fellings occur over a scattered area.
257
A NOTE ON THE DURABILITY OF

INDIAN TEAK.
By S. M. EDWARDES, C.S.I., C.V.O.
THE antiquity of the Indian export trade in teak

(Tectolla grandis) is proved by various references to it in
the works of ancient writers. The earliest of these is
Ptoletny, the author of U Periplus" (circa A.D. 80), who
speaks of "great vessels with brass, and timbers and beams
of teak," being· despatched regularly from Barygaza (the
modern Broach in Western India) to the ports of the
Persian Gulf. The word "teak," it may be noted, is
merely a European corruption of the Tamil word tekku"
and was probably adopted owing to the fact that Euro-
peans first became acquainted with the wood in Malabar,
which was exporting this timber to Babylon three cen..
turies before the Christian era, and is still in our own day
one of the two great sources of supply. The trade
appears to have continued throughout the centuries"
unchecked by the political vicissitudes of India; for
AI-Masudi records the export in the middle of the tenth
century of enormous teak logs to the depots of Basra"
Irak and Egypt. The Portuguese, after the establish-
ment of their empire in the East, were not slow to
perceive the value of this timber as an article of export.
Several of their historians make reference to it; for
example, P. Francesco de Sousa, who speaks in his
Oriente Conquistado of "teca (teak) which is a wood net
subject to decay" : while in 1597, we find the King of
Portugal enjoining the Government of Goa U not to
allow the Turks to export· any timber (i.e., teak) from the
Kingdom of Pegu."
As regards the durability of teak,. we have in the first
place the evidence of Dr. Sayee, the famous Assyrio-
logist, that Indian teak was discovered in the ruins of Ur
of the Chaldees, thus proving that commerce by sea be..
tween India and Babylon was carried on about 3000 B.e.,
EMPIRE FORESTRY
when Ur Bagas, the first King of united Babylonia, ruled

in Ur. Again, exploration has discovered fine beams of
teak, still undecayed, in the walls of the great palace of
the Sassanid Kings at Seleucia or Ctesiphon, which dates
from the middle of the sixth century. Even more re-
markable are the teak ribs which to this day ornament
the roof of the great chaitya or Buddhist chapel, exca-
vated from the solid rock, at Karli in the Poona district
of the Bombay Presidency. This great cave has been
described by Fergusson in his History oj Eastern and
Indian Architecture as the largest and most cOlnplete
Buddhist chapel hitherto discovered in India, and he
gives good reason for believing that, together with the
monks' cells surrounding it, it was excavated not very
long after stone first came into use as a building material
in India. From other evidence, and from the researches
of archc:eologists, we know that the general use of stone
in northern India for building, sculpture and decoration,
dates from the reign of the Mauryan Emperor Asoka
(273-232 B.e.), and experts are agreed that these caves
at Karli near Poona were probably hewn out of the
living rock about the year ~o B.e., and that the great teak
ribs which ornament the semicircular roof are coeval with
the excavation. The writer of this note twice visited
these caves during his years of service in India, once in
190 3, and again in 1911; and he can testify to the fact
that the ribs of teak, which overhang the dagoba or relic-
shrine of the Buddha, are as perfect as on the day, two
thousand years ago, when the pious excavator of the
caves gazed upon his finished work and found it good.
As one stands before the sculptured pillars of the shrine
and tries to recall all that has happened in India during
that long period, the longevity of these teak timbers
strikes the imagination with redoubled force. Great
empires, like that of the Guptas, of Vijayanagar, of the
Moguls and the Marathas, have risen and decayed: even
the religion, in honour of which the beams were origin-
ally hewn and set in their places in this rock monastery,
vanished from India as a living creed many centuries ago.
But the timbers have defied the ravages of time, and
stand immutable as the great hill-ranges which dominate
western India.
The history of ship-building in India offers further
L. _i ~~) ~
THE DURABILITY OF INDIAN TEAK 259
proof, if it be needed, of the extraordinary durability of

teak. The first master-builder of the Bombay Govern..
ment Dockyard was a Parsi, Lavji Nasarvanji Wadia,
who commenced building ships of teak in 1735 and,
on his death in 1774, handed down his knowledge a.nd
reputation to his grandsons. They and their descen-
dants served the East India Company as shipbuilders
until 1837, and during this period of a little over a cen-
tury they constructed 170 war vessels and other craft for
the Company, 34 warships for the Royal Navy, 87
merchant vessels for private firms, and three ships for
the Imam of Muscat. These ships were all built of teak,
and many of them lasted for fifty or sixty years, as, for
example, the Bombay, built for the Bombay Marine in
1739, and described as "a staunch and stout vessel" in
1800. The brig Euphrates, built in 1828, was perfectly
sound in the hull in 19°°; while H.M.S. Meeanee, built
at Bombay in 1844, and serving in 1905 as a hospital
ship in Hong-Kong harbour, was reported at the latter
date absolutelv sound. Lieut.-Colonel A. Walker, author
of Considerations on the Affairs of 11ldia, wrote in 181 I :
U It i~ calculated that every ship in the Navy of Great
Britain is renewed every twelve years. It is well-
known that teak-wood built ships last fifty years and
upwards "; and barely ten years earlier Rear-Admiral Sir
T. Troubridge had written to Framji Wadia, who held
the post of master builder at that date (1802), H I have
pledged myself you will produce ships that will eclipse
those built in England." The Admiral's statement was
put to the test, and proved to be perfectly true. Many
teak-wood ships, built in the Bombay dockyard, were
purchased for the British Navy after they had been
running fourteen or fifteen years, and were found to be
perfectly strong and seaworthy. The Sir Edward Hughes
performed eight voyages as an Indiaman before she was
acquired by the Royal Navy; whereas no Indiaman built
in Europe was capable of completing more than six
voyages with safety.
One of the most remarkable of these teak-built ships
was the Swallow, which the Wadias launched in 1777.
She commenced her career as a Company's packet-boat,
making several trips to England. She then joined the
Bombay Marine, but reverted shortly afterwards to the
260 EMPIRE FORESTRY
packet service. In 1800 she was sold to the Danes, and

sailed to the West Indies, where she was seized by a
British man-of-war for breach of treaty and condemned
as prize. She was next purchased by the Admiralty, and
served for several years as a war sloop, and finally, having
again become a merchant vessel, she ran out to India
and was lost on the James and Mary shoal in the·
Hooghly in 1823. Among the finest battleships built of
Indian teak and launched from the Bombay dockyard,
was the Ganges, which afterwards served as the flagship
of Sir Edward Codrington at the battle of Navarino.
The last ship built by the Wadias was the Investigator,
which was still in commission in 1909 as the head
vessel of the Indian Marine Survey. Surely the English
traveller, Dr. Fryer (1675), was justified in calling the teak
tree It this Prince of the Indian forest." Its qualities.
were certainly an important factor in the gradual rise of
British naval power in the East.
261
THE CHENCHUS.
l
A WILD TRIBE OF THE MADRAS FORESTS.
OF the wild tribes of the Madras Presidency, the

Chenchus of the Nallamalais present the ugliest problem
to the administration. They are a forest tribe, living in
small villages or gudems, scattered here and there in the
forests on the eastern and western slopes of the Nalla-
malais which traverse the Kurnool district from north to
south. Few of them care to till the land. They live
partly by collecting forest produce, by grazing cattle and
by hunting. But no small share of their livelihood is
derived from theft, dacoity and the levy of blackmail
from the neighbouring peasants and from the pilgrims
who visit the Srisailam temple. All observers agree in
describing them as idle, improvident, drunken, thievish
and brutal. Unlike the Khonds of Ganjam, they appear
to have few good qualities to set off against these short-
comings. They are not remarkable for intelligence, but
they have learnt to distil arrack and to manufacture ser-
viceable bows and arrows, and some of them are in
possession of firearms. At home, they burn the forest
in order the more easily to pick up the Ippa flower which
they distiL They then get drunk, quarrel and shoot each
other. Outside the forests, they plunder the peasants
and pilgrims who come within their reach, murdering
those who are rash enough to resist. We are apt in these
days to despise the bow and arrow, hut our forefathers
knew better, and so do those who come in contact with
the Chenchus. In fact, no constable, fo[~st watcher or
excise peon dare interfere with a Chenchu carrying bow
and arrows, and the pilgrim or peasant stands a poor
chance of his life, if he endeavours to protect his pro-
perty.
1 This abridged account is taken from a pamphlet, "The Chenchus

and the Madras Police," issued by the official Publicity Bureau,
Madras, in 1921.
EMPIRE. FORESTRY
By the year 1914, the Chenchus had made themselves

such a nuisance to the Forest Department and to the
neighbouring peasants that the Government found it ne-
cessaryto appoint a special officer to see how the problem
could best be attacked. As a result of this officer's report,
a very remarkable experiment was tried.
A special officer was appointed to get into touch with
the Chenchus, to gain their confidence, to try and induce
them to give up dacoity and burning the forest, and to
bring them into friendly relations with all the officers
of Government. Mr. Saunders, a junior police officer,
was selected for the po~t. From 1917 to 1919 he lived
in the Nallamalais among the Chenchus. The police of
Madras are often blamed because they do not see that it
is their duty and privilege to act as moral reformers; but
Mr. Saunders certainly did not deserve this reproach.
He regarded himself not as an ordinary police officer,
but as a missionary of humanity; and if the converts he
made were few and unsatisfactory, that was not his fault
The self-sacrificing zeal with which he devoted himself
to his work was beyond praise. His experiences during
those two years were something more than extraordinary.
Nothing can illustrate so well the nature of the Chenchus
and the difficulties which he had to face as the following
extract from one of his reports :-
It While there was no work, the Chenchus, as was
inevitable, became more troublesome. I spent much of
my time in Bairluti and the neighbourhood, trying to
keep them quiet. It was an eventful experience largtely
concerned with suppressing drunken brawls and efforts
to prevent more serious misdemeanours. April, 1917,
was one of the worst months. The Chenchus were drunk
almost continuously from beginning to end, and I had to
go to the gudem at all hours of the day and night to stop
fights and quarrels. They generally recognized me, but
were often far too drunk to understand or to take any
notice of what I said. On one occasion at about
I a.m., two of them were having a particularly hot
quarrel; fearing bloodshed, I left my bed, albeit most
reluctantly, and went into the gudem. I called to them
to stop, but they took no notice of me. I tripped up
one and left him on the ground groping for his anta-
gonist; the other I picked up and carried off to his
,
THE CHENCHUS
hut, where I put him to bed and left him to the

tender mercies of his wife. J then went back to the"
first man and found him with his bow and arrows
lookin~ for the· other Chenchu and uttering most san-
guinary threats of vengeance for having been knocked
down by him. I took him back to the bungalow with
me and put him to sleep on the verandah near my
cot, that he might not carry his threats into execution.
This sobered him somewhat and he proceeded to tell me
in the orthodox way that he was 'quite all right.' I
assured him that I was satisfied on this point, but he
remained unconvinced; and as he dropped off to sleep,
I heard him murmur) 'Abba ba, suppose he gets angry in
the morning.'
.4 This particular individual is a fairly common type
of Chenchu. He can work quite well. When led to
work and looked after, he is not really vicious; but
has no will of his own and follows anyone else, whether
for good or evil. He has taken part in a number of
dacoities, mostly under the influence of arrack and bad
companions. He is by nature born lazy, and will not
lift a little finger if he can avoid it. To this end he
has two wives, who are made to dig roots for him or
otherwise support him by their earnings as coolies.
As long as there is arrack available, .he cannot keep
away from it, and, while i under its influence, he is
quite irresponsible for his actions; he is capable of
carrying out the threats I referred to; in fact I regret to
have to record that he has recently killed another Chenchu
at night in the jungle under very similar condItions.
* * * * *
ItA frequent cause of the quarrels in this gudem was a
girl about fifteen years old called Atchi, but always
addressed by the nick-name of Komati. She had been
duly betrothed to a man called Bodigadu. He" was in
appearance a loose-lipped and weak-kneed wreck, and
was generally admitted even by the Chenchus to be a
waster. Komati refused to go and live with him. This
was a great grievance, and there was open war between
Bodigadu and the girl's relations. Whenever Bodigadu
and his companions were sufficiently primed with arrack,
they would make a raid upon the relations and try to
carry off the girl. I had frustrated a number of these
EMPIRE FORESTRY
attempts and determined to put an end to it if possible.

About midday on May 4 there was an uproar in the
gudem and I found another of these incidents in pro-
gress. I stopped it as usual, and then called all the
gUdem together, and sug~ested that they should hold a
panchayat (caste council) and settle the matter. Either
the girl had to go to her husband, or he had to be repaid
the expenses he had incurred at the time of betrothal
and the girl's parents declared free to marry her to some
one else. My proposal met with general approval, and
we all sat down under the big tamarind tree to thresh
the matter out. The girl was brought before the pan-
chayat and asked if she would go to her husband. She
refused to go. The husband was then asked to divorce
her on payment of the betrothal expenses. This led to
great argument as to what the expenses had been, and it
was as much as I could do to stop the quarrels and fights
incidental to the discussion. At one stage the girl was
asked what her objection was to Bodigadu. It was
admitted that h~ was not pretty to look at, but his sup-
porters urged that he was no worse than many of the
panchayatdars (members of the caste council). This
untimely personal allusion deeply offended the pan-
chayatdars and a sort of general melee ensued. I t was
in due course, but with no little difficulty, suppressed and
business was resumed. One of the elders of the ~udem
undertook to offer the required explanation. He turned
to me with an engaging twinkle in his eye and said, I You
remember, Swami, when you were riding your bicycle
the other day, the tyre punctured and went off soft?
Well, Bodigadu is just like that.' This was received with
uproarious approval by all except the individual referred
to, and eventually he was paid Rs. 20 plus Rs. 5 for the
panckayatdars. He agreed to leave Komati sever-ely
alone and not to interfere with. her parents or relations,
and in token of this a blaze 'was 'made upon the tamarind
tree•.
H By these events the tale of the panchayat spread to
other gudems. It happened. at the time tbat the RS.25
to be paid to the prospective husband was not forth-
coming. Fearing lest, after ail, the disputes would not
be ended, I advanced tbeRs. 25 without further argu-
'ment and brought the proceedings to a close. Many
THECHENCHUS
weeks later at Pasurutla there was a dreadful scene. It

is the custom in polite C',henchu society far a man who
carries off another man's wife or betrothed to pay eom-
pensation in cash. Here a certain Chenchu buck was
under the ne.cessity of paying up, and indignan·t1y com-
plained that I had put up the price of wives. He asserted
that the outside limit was Rs. 8 or Rs. 10, and practicatly
said I w.as traitor to my sex in having admitted such
an outrageous claitn as Rs. 25 in the panchayat,and
above all in having put down the cash. Another shock
was in store for me. 'When I advanced the Rs. 25 I
never expected or wanted to see it again and was content
to think the quarrelling would cease, and in time forgot
all about it. Nearly t\velve months later, while I was
talking to one of the older and better behaved men at
Bairluti, he made several allusions to my , wife.' Asl
had had no matrinlonial ventures, I set out to find out
what he meant. I then learnt that no man 'would marry
the unfortunate girl .Komati for fear that I should come
down on him for the repayment of the money, and in
the meantime she was referred to as my wife by right of
purchase; I hurriedly caused it to be made known that
I would bestow the Rs. 25 as dowry on any prospective
husband. Truly these panchayats are traps for the
unwary."
* * * *
For two years Mr. Saundersworked among ·th~
Chenchus, doing the work of a pioneer of civilization.
With the help of the forest and agricultural departments;
he set about teaching the Chenchusto cultivate the land.
He worked with his own hands side by side with tht
Ch.enc~hus in the field, hoping, by his example, to over..
come their· idleness. He grew mulberry bushes and
obtained silkworms from Mysore. The lac insect ·was
introduced from the Central Provinces. He arranged
with the Forest Department to provide the Chenchus with
regular coolie work by which they could earn a living
wage.· He opened schools for th~ Chenchusand when
the trained teachers fled away, he recruited the best sub-
stitutes he could get from among the few educated men
in the neighbouring villages. He enticed the Chenchu
children to the school by the bait of parched rice .and
dholl. He laboured to teach them physical drill, the
18
266 EMPIRE FORESTRY
habit of washing and the game of football. The diffi-

culties he met with were extraordinary. The trained
teachers obtained for the school were -frightened away by
fever and arrows. The moment the children became
bored, they vanished in the jungle, and school hours had
to be limited to an hour in the morning and an hour in
the evening. Cholera, smallpox and drought made their
appearance. The Forest Department sometimes found
it impossible to provide honest work for the Chenchus
to do; the indolence and drunkenness of the Chenchu
seemed sufficient to defeat all efforts to establish village
industries among them; while Mr. Saunders' own health
was giving way under repeated attacks of malaria.
At the same time, Chenchu crime instead of diminish-
ing began to increase with alarming rapidity. This was
partly due to the drought which added to the difficulty
often experienced by the Chenchus in finding means for
earning an honest living. But it was probably also due
in part to the protection which the Chenchus had recently
received from the attentions of the ordinary police. To
give Mr. Saunders every chance of winning the confidence
of the ~henchus, the ordinary police had avoided inter-
fering with the Chenchu gude1fls. The result was that
the bad characters amon~ the Chenchus had enjoyed an
unusual immunity in their enterprises, and they were able
to delnonstrate to the rising generation that it was
possible with little or no risk to gain by crime in a single
night far more than could be earned by six months'
honest labour. Their school of thought naturally
acquired considerable prestige, and Mr. Saunders found
himself unable to counteract its influence.
So, in the end, after two years' devoted work and much
fever, Mr. Saunders himself had to own that what he
was doing "did not seem to be leading anywhere." His
experiment had. been a failure, the kind of failure that is
not less honourable than success. It had become plain
that the Chenchus could not be reformed till they had
been made to understand that crime does not pay. And
if this was necessary in the interests of the Chenchus
themselves, it was even more necessary in the interests
of their unfortunate neighbours. For, in the words of
the district magistrate, "to offer schools and c0-operation
to the Chenchus in their present temper is like offering
chicken bones to a tiger."
REVIEW.
THE FORESTS OF INDIA.
By E. P. STEBBING.
(2 Vols. 42S.; Vol. I.The Bodley Head, I922.)
THE first volume of Professor Stebbing's book "The

Forests of India" deals only with the period ending in
1864 and is divided into four parts. The first of these is .
of a general and introductory character, in which the
author sketches the geographical} physiugraphical and
geological conditions, the early history of the country,
the position of the forests at the time the British first
began to achieve supremacy in the middle of the eighteenth
century, and then concludes with a chapter devoted to
the character and distribution of the forests.
The other three parts deal with the periods 1796 to 1850,
1850 to 1857, and 1858 to 1864. Each comprises, first, a
general summary and then more detailed descriptions of
the occurrences in the various provinces, a method of
treatment leading to a good deal of repetition which,
though possibly unavoidable, is rather irritating. The
book teems with long quotations from official reports and
despatches and, in the first part, from standard works
such as Holdich's "India," Strachey's H India," and
Oldham's H Evolution of Indian Geography," and interest-
ing as much of this material is, we cannot help thinking
that the size of the work might have been reduced with-
out any loss of utility, if many of the extracts from official
papers had been summarized instead of being quoted in
full. The summaries, too~ were hardly required and, in
any case, should have been given at the end of each part
and not at the beginning, while we think that by devoting
no less than 90 pages to operations in the Panjab during
1858 to 1864, out of the 238 pages allotted to this period
for-the whole of India, Professor Stebbing has shown
some want of proportion. Again, it seems to us that the
268 EMPIRE FORESTRY
chapter devoted to the character and condition of the

forests might have been better than it is; indeed, although
the author has followed the arrangement adopted in
Ribbentrop's " Forestry in British India," his regret that
Troup's " Silviculture of Indian Trees" was not published
until after he had written this chapter is made evident in
a footnote. For the forest officer this is one of the most
important of. the subjects treated and we must confess
that considering the size of the book we think it unduly
compressed and that a careful perusal left us with a some-
what confused impression. It is, for instance, hardly
accurate to describe deciduous, or semi-deciduous trees
such as Dalbergia latijolia, Pterocarpus, Lagerstramia and
Terminalia as forming part of an U evergreen forest growth
of large trees:' Teak, too, though the principal timber
exported from the forests of South-west India, is confined
mainly to the deciduoU's and semi-deciduous forests and
does not occur generally in the true evergreen on the
western slopes of the ·Ghats. Again, in dealing with the
Burmese evergreen, the author includes Dipterocarpus
turbinatus and Dipterocarpus alatus, which are true ever-
greens, in a list of " leaf-shedding trees which tower above
the mass of evergreens.'" We should have thought, also,
that Professor Stebbing would have known that the Xylia
of Southern India has been fixed as Xy.lia xylocarpa (Hole,
Indian Forester XXXVIII, p. 463, 1912) and that Xylia
dolabrijorlnis is confined to Burma and Arakan, even
though this alteration in botanical nomenclature did not
take place till after the publication of the well-known
works of Gamble and Brandis. Finally, it is strange
tbat neither Mysore nor Coorg are mentioned in the sub-
region of the sandal wood, considering that the out-turn
of this valuable wood from these two localities is much
greater than that of all the districts named, unJess, indeed,
Professor Stebbing means to include Mysore and Coorg
in H the northern slopes of the Nilgiris." .
Nevertheless Professor Stebbing is to be ,congratulated
'On the production ·of this book which is a monument to
his industry, which for the first time collects together in
one place the early forest history of India, and which is
of the greatest interest to all who are in any way con-
cerned with the progress of forestry in India or else-
where. It ·draws a picture of .all the most accessible of
REVIEW
the areas containing valuable forests, subjected from the

earliest times to every possible form of injury, principally
uncontrolled exploitation, regular annual burning and
shifting cultivation. And it shows how the few who had
either the necessary scientific kno\vledge or the foresight
to realize the importance of conserving her forests had to
overcon1e, not only the hostility of the people" accustomed
for centuries to use the forests as they pleased, and the
greed of the timber merchants, but .also the stupid ignor-
ance of the earlier executive and administrative British
officials who, though there were many honourable excep-
tions, seem to have held that the best way to ensure the
permanence of the timber supplies necessary for the de-
velopment of the country \vas to make over the forests on
long leases, or in perpetuity, to private enterprise.
As some of those to whom the lessons to be learned
from this book should be useful, may not have the oppor-
tunity, or the time, to study it carefully, we propose to
draw attention as briefly as possible to the principal
events of the four periods with which Professor Stebbing
has dealt. Previous to 1796 the important points to note
are that the ancient practice of the ownership of all
forest and waste land being vested in the de facto rulers
of the country, \vho, without any idea of protection,
made certain trees royal so that they could obtain revenue
by their sale, led to the ultimate formation of a Govern-
Inent forest estate and of the Indian Forest Service; also
that the advent of the British to power in India tended
to increase the pace of forest destruction owing to the
requirements for military and other purposes and the
efforts of the British Admiralty to replace the failing
supplies of English oak by teak from India for use in the
construction of the fleet.
Exploitation of the most accessible and valuable areas
in Bombay, Madras, Tenasserim, proceeded practically
without check throughout the period 1796 to 1850, and
it· is interesting to note that the few attempts made to
ascertain the condition of the forests and take measures
to prevent their destruction were due to the spur applied
from England regarding the extent to which the King's
Navy might rely on supplies of teak to replace oak, and
not to any\ awakening on the part of the local officials.
Men with scientific knowledge like Wallich and Heifer,
EMPIRE lC'ORESTRY
and executive officers like Tremenheere, Guthrie and

Durand, did their best to bring some form of order out
of chaos, though their efforts were always defeated by the
extraordinary want of foresight displayed by those in
authority over them. An instance of this comes from
Tenasserim, where towards the end of this period Guthrie,
with the support of the Commissioner, Durand, cancelled
certain licences for total contempt of the existence and
provisions of rules issued in 1~91. On the case being
referred to the Deputy Governor of Bengal, that official
criticized Guthrie's action as unjust and inequitable, on
the ground that the rules had been avowedly and notori-
ously a dead letter and that Government had never shown
any intention, or given any notice, of enforcing them, and
actually proposed to the Court of Directors not only to
replace the licences by leases for ninety-nine years, but
also to sell the forests outright and convey a complete
title to the purchasers. The present generation may be
thankful that the Court of Directors refused to sanction
these proposals and insisted that before any further grants
were made a sufficient area of forests should be set aside
for the supply of Government requirements. There were
two bright spots in this otherwise depressing period. One,
the ·commencement of the Nilambur teak p~antations by
Conolly, Collector of Malabar, to whose name these
splendid areas form a lasting monument, and the other
the formation of the Western and Eastern Jumna canal
plantations, which were started in 1820-21 and 1830-31, ..
,respectively, and ,,-hich had yielded handsome profits to
Government by 1847- Bombay gave a lead to the rest
of India by appointing Dr. Gibson to be Conservator
of Forests in 1847.
The period 1850-57 was marked by a moderate amount
of progress throughout India and Burma. In Bombay
there was great restriction of shifting cultivation, while
a portion of the Anamalai forest tract was worked for
teak by departmental agency with a fair amount of
success. In Madras, Cleghorn was appointed to be
Conservator of Forests in 1856. In Pegu, McClelland
was appointed Superintendent of Forests in 1852 and
in 1856 was succeeded by the late Sir Diedrich Brandis,
India's first trained forest officer. McClelland made a
great effort to put a stop to the ruinous damage caused
REVIEW
to the forests by the uncontrolled felling of permit

holders, but was not supported by the Commissioner
of Pegu. His report of 1854 and the manner in which
the Commissioner dealt with his proposals resulted,
however, in the issue of Lord Dalhousie's famous
minute of 1855, which has rightly been called the
charter of the Indian }4'orest Service. In this minute
the Government of India, under Lord Dalhousie's
guidance, at last realized the importance of the forest
question and laid down a definite policy. It is to be
noted that as regards the method of exploitation the
minute recommended that the Superintendent of Forests,
after marking and girdling the teak trees to be felled,
should give out contracts for the delivery of the timber
at Rangoon and there sell it in moderate lots to the
highest bidder at public auction. Had this policy been
followed regularly in Burma and in India generally,
there can be no doubt that the revenue derived by
Government from the forests would have been far greater
than has actually been the case. During the last few
years of this period a start was made in northern India
by the deputation of Captain Longden to examine the
Himalayan forests, and by the establishment of an
agency at Sialkot to deal with 4eodar timber from
Pangi, a portion of the Chamba Native State, where
Longden started work in 1854-55, being succeeded by
Peyton in 1856, and where 73,728 large deodars were
felled between 1853 and 1863.
N early half of Professor Stebbing's book is devoted to
the comparatively short period of 1858-1864, for with the
passing of Government from the hands of the Company
to the Crown and the strenuons labours of Brandis· and
Cleghorn, matters moved more rapidly in the direction
of a settled policy of forest conservancy, even though
the great extension of railways which followed the
Indian Mutiny gave rise to a further heavy demand on
the over-taxed resources of the accessible forests and led
to the ruin of many areas which had so far escaped the
attentions of the timber traders, particularly in the
Himalayan forests and in Central India. To nO,tice the
various occurrences in the different provinces would
occupy more space than is available; but it must be
mentioned that during this period Pearson, who after
EMPIRE FORESTRY
the conclusion of his fine work in India was responsible

for the training of a large number of forest officers at
Nancy and who, at the advanced age of over ninety, still
Inaintains the greatest interest in the doings of his old
service, was appointed to be the first Conservator of
Forests in the Central Provinces with Forsyth, the
author of that delightful book "The Highlands of
Central India," as one of his assistants. Sill1ilarly
Stewart was appointed in the Panjab and Read in Oudh.
Cleghorn worked steadily in ~ladras till 1861 and by
his great personal influence with all classes was able
to make much progress. He was then transferred to the
Panjab, where between 1862 and 1864 he displayed
wonderful energy in examining and reporting on the
forests in the valleys of the Giri, Pabar, Tons, Sutlej,
Beas, Chenab and Jhelam rivers, in which traders
\vorking for the supply of railway sleepers and other
timber for public works had already caused grave
damage. Brandis remained in Burma. till the end of
1862, when he was brought over to India to advise on
the general forest situation. In Burma he started his
since famous method of linear valuation surveys, drew
up the first working plans, introduced the method of
H taungya" regeneration, and strove hard to carry out
the policy of departmental working recommended in
Lord Dalhousie's minute of 1855 : in this, however, he
was defeated, though not entirely, the influence of the
timber-trading firms and the apathy, or opposition, of
the revenue officials being too strong for him.
The volume ends with quotations from the Govern-
ment of India's despatch of November, 1862, to the
Secretary of State, making preliminary proposals for the
formation of a regular forest department, and from the
Secretary of State's reply thereto, in which those pro-
posals were approved. And we will close this review
with a quotation from the former despatch, from which
the ,early forest policy of the British in India stands
self-condemned. "It will be understood from this ac'"
count that until quite the last few years no forest
administration has in truth existed."
273
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
ON FORESTRY AND TIMBERS.
I. The Forests of India, by E. P. Stebbing. 2 vols., 425.

Vol. i ready. Published by The Bodley Head, 1922.
(The first volume is reviewed on pp. 267 ante).
2. Reports on Timbers and Paper Materials. 4s. Published
by TOhnMurray, Albemarle Street.
(This volume contains the results of the inquiry into
the possibility of increasing the use of Indian timbers,
and of using Indian paper materials, in England,
undertaken by the Committee for India of the Imperial,
Institute. A large local demand has hitherto prevented
any large export of timber, other than teak, from India,
but there are good grounds for the belief that the export
trade in certain hard woods, which are of value for
decorative and other purposes and are at present little
known in the United Kingdom, could be considerably
expanded. The character and uses of several timbers
of this character. are described. In the section on
paper materials, India's position is the subject of
special remark in a p;eneral statement of the world's
pulp and paper-making industry. The possibility of
utilizing Indian bamboo and savannah grasses for this
purpose is discussed, and the opinion is expressed that
both materials are available in conditions and circum-
stances favourable to commercial exploitation).
3. The Drama of the Forests, Romance and Adventure, by
Arthur Heming. Illustrations by Author with repro-
ductions from a series of his paintings owned by the
Royal Ontario Museum. 21S. Published by Hodder
and Stoughton.
4. Announcements of the New York State College of
Agriculture, 1921-22 (Cornell University Official
Publication. Vol. xii, No. 13).
(Pages 54-60 of this publication are devoted to the
Department of Forestry, and describe its aims and
objects, its courses of instruction, and its sequence of
studies. Curricula intended for professional forestry
students, who mean to devote their lives to this subject,
274 EMPIRE FORESTRY
are differentiated from those framed for students who

do not wish to make forestry their major occupation).
5. Education in Forestry. Proceedings of the Second
National Conference, New Haven, Conn., December,
1920. Bulletin, 1921, No. 44 of the Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Education. Published by the
Government Printing Office, Washington, 1922.
(This publication contains the opening address of
Professor J. W. Tourney, and Reports submitted to the
Conference by various Committees, together with the
discussions and the recommendations of the Con-
ference. The subjects dealt with by the Committees
are of more than ordinary interest and include: " The
Position that Forestry Courses should take as Cultural
and Educational Discipline"; "The Scope and
Character of Training for Specialists in Foreign
Products"; cc The Field, and Scope of Vocational
Training in Forestry" ; "The Character and Extent
of Research by Schools of Forestry and Departments
of Forestry in Colleges and Universities"; The Cl
Course Leading to the Degree of Master of Forestry."

Copies of the Bulletin can be obtained at a cost of
10 cents from the Government Printing Office,
Washington.)
6. The Application to Estate Uses of Timber Grown on the
Spot. A paper read on February 8, 1921, before the
Plough Club and the Forest Society, Schools of Rural
Economy and Forestry, University of Oxford, by
George L. Courthope, M.P., Whiligh, Sussex. Oxford
University Press.
7. Journal of the Oxford University Forest Society,
Michaelmas Tenn, 1921. First Series, No. 2.
Published by the Holywell Press, Ltd., Oxford.
(The contents include: "The Pine Resin and
Turpentine Industry in India," by A. J. Gibson;
"The Use and Abuse of Hedges," by Leslie Wood;
cc The Water Catchment Areas of Great Britain," by
Professor A. Henry; The Imperial Forestry Con-
Cl
ference," by R. L. Robinson; "The Introduction of

Exotics"; ,e Forest Work in Burma," by Professor
R. S. Troup; "How Insect Pests are Tackled," by
P~ofessor H. Maxwell Lefroy;." The Conversion and
Utilization of Hardwoods," by Colonel S. S. Mallinson ;
" Has Willow Growing a Place in Forestry? " by E. S.
Bazeley; "A Few Memories of a Tour of some Forests
in Eastern .France and Alsace," by H. B. Barrett.)
8. The Timbers of British Guiana, by Herbert Stone and
Dr. W. G. Freeman. Published for the Government
of British Guiana. Illustrated with 9 photo-micro-
graphs and containing descriptions of 97 of the Colonial
woods collected by the Hon. A. G. Bell. Price Ss.
W. Rider and Son.
9. A Guide to the Identification of the Commoner Timbers
of Nigeria, by Herbert Stone and H. A. Cox,
B.A.Cantab. Illustrated with three plates. Published
for the Crown Agents for the Colonies. Price Ss. W.
Rider and Son.
10. The Indian Forester, March 1922; Vol. xlviii, No. 3.
The .,t>ioneer Press, Allahabad.
(An interesting number containing inter alia articles
on " The Femelschlag System or the System by Coupes
Jardinatoires "; on "Some Assam Rain Forests";
on " The Calorific Value of some Bombay and Burma
Timbers."
I I. The Illustrated Canadian Forestry Magazine, February,
1922; Vol. xviii, No. 2; Ottawa, Canada.
(A well-illustrated and interesting organ of forest
propaganda containing the Annual Review of the
Canadian Forestry Association's Activities for 1921.)
12. Forestry for Woodmen, by C. O. HansoD; 2nd edition.
Price 6s. 6d. The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
(In this 2nd edition little change has been made
in the original text, but two chapters have been added;
one dealing with the Forestry Act of 1919 and the
Forestry Commission, and giving a summary of recent
developments, and the other treating briefly of the
afforestation of waste land and describing the survey
which is necessary before any planting scheme can be
decided OD. The index is incomplete and should be -
ccnsiderably enlarged, whenever a third edition is
published.)
13. A Manual of Indian Timbers, an Account of the Growth,
Distribution, and Uses of the Trees and Shrubs of
India and Ceylon, with descriptions of their Wood-
Structure, by 1. S. Gamble; 3rd edition with correc-
tions and additions. Price 3 guineas. Sampson Low,
Marston & Co.
(This Manual contains valuable indice~, and two
new appendices, one giving annotated descriptions of
wood specimens received since the publication of the
2nd edition in 1902, and the other describing a collec-
tion of Assam woods supplied in 1921. A map of the
EMPIRE FORESTRY
forest areas of India might well have beeD added, and

the introduction,.whicb was written twenty years ago
for the second edition, should have contained some
account of the sciel1tific and ec·onomic progress attained
during the last two decades. These omissions t however,
detract but little from the great value of the work.)
(a) Annual Report of the Forests Commission of Victoria
for the year ended June 30, 1921. Issued gratis.
Melbourne.
(b) Forestry in Victoria, by H. Mackay; originally
issued in 19 I 4. 0 btainable free of charge from the
Forests Commission of Victoria t Melbourne.
(c) Annual Progress Report upon State Forest
Administration in South Australia for the year 1920.21,
by Waiter Gill, Conservator of Forests; Government
Printer, North Terrace, Adelaide, 192 I.
Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. i, Forest Policy in
the British Empire, by Sir William Schlich, K.C.I.E.,
late Inspector·General of Forests to the Government
of India and late Professor of Forestry, University
of Ox-ford; 4th edition, revised and enlarged. Price I Ss.
Bradbury, Agnew.
LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE EMPIRE
FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Acland, The Rt. Hon. F. D., M.P.
*Armitage. Captain C. H., C.M.G.,D.S.O.
Barr-Smith, The Hon. T. E.
*Beckett, Colonel R. M.
*Beeten, Sir Mayson
Borthwick, Dr. A. W.
Burnham,The Viscount
*Butler, Sir Harcourt, K.C.S.I., C.I~E.
:l'Clements, J. B., Esq.
::~Clutterbuck, P. H., Esq., C.I.E., C.B.E.
*Courthope. Lieutenant-Colonel G.L., M.P.
*Davies, Major D., M.P.
*Duchesne, M. C., Esq., F.S.I.
Fisher, Major R. E.
::~Forteyiot, The Lord
::~Gilmour, Sir John, Bart., D.S.D., M.P.
*Greaves, Miss H. J.
*Hill, Sir Claude, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
*Inchca:pe, The Lord, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I.
*Kitchingman, G. D., Esq.
::~Leverhulme, The Lord
Limbdi, H.H. The ThakoreSaheb of
*Lovat, The Lord, K.C.M.G., K.T.,. D.S.O.
*Lyell, The Lord
::~Maxwell, Sir John Stirling, Bart.
:*Millard, W. S., Esq.
*Morrison, H., Esq., M.P.
*Novar, The Rt. Hon. Viscount,G.C.M.G,.
*Plymou"th, The Rt. HOD. Earl, G.B.E.
Price, Sir William
*Purves, J. M., Esq.
*Rogers, C. G., Esq., C.I.E., F.L.S.
Saxton, A. C.
Stubbs, Sir Reginald E., K.C.M.G.
Udaipur, H.H. The Maharana Sahib Bahadur'of
* Founder Members.
EMPIRE FORESTRY
HONORARY LIFE MEMBER.

Nawab Sir Syed Ali ImamMoid-ul-Mulk Bahadur, K.C.S.I.
FULL MEMBERS (ANNUAL).

A1lerconway, The Rt. Hon. Lord
Allen, The Rt. Hon. Charles P.
Anantanarayanan, N., Esq.
Antrobus, Sir Cosmo G., Bart.
Ashbolt, A. H., Esq.
Baker, R. E. St. Barbe, Esq.
BaIfour, F. R. S., Esq.
Battiscombe, E., Esq.
Bates, E. F., Esq.
Bend, Captain Sir Ion H.Bart., C.B., D.S.O., M.P.
Bell, Sir Hesketh, K.C.M.G.
Bijoux, F., Esq.
Black, R., Esq.
Bonfield, P., Esq.
Bowring, The Hon. Sir Edward R.
Brasnett, N. V., Esq.
Buccleuch, The Duke of, K.T.
Buxton, The Viscount, G.e.M.G-.
Campbell, R. H., Esq.
Carr, R. H., Esq.
Caverill, P. Z., Esq.
Cheer, Lieut. E. W.
Code, W. J., Esq.
ConnoIly, The Hon. Sir James D.
Cornish, F., Esq., F.L.S., F.S.Z.
Cox, Sir E. Owen, G.B.E.
Crouchley, H. D. E., Esq.
Cubitt, E., Esq.
Dallimore, W., Esq.
Davidson, Sir William, K.C.M.G.
Denman, The Rt. Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G.
Dilke, Sir Fisher W., Bart.
Duke, Sir Frederick W., G.e.I.E., K.C.S.I.
Dwigbt, T. W.
Finlayson, E. H.
Forbes, A. C., Esq.
Fraser, J. P., Esq.
Gardner, H. M., Esq. ~.
Grainger, M. A.
Grogan, Major E. Scott, D.S.O.
LIST OF MEMBERS
Groom, Professor P.
Harris, Sir C. Alexander, K.C.M.G., C.B., C.V.O.
Hart, Sir George, K.B.E., C.I.E.
Henkel, J. S., Esq.
Henry, Professor A.
Hill, M., Esq., C.I.E.
Hodgson, Sir Frederick M., K.C.M.G.
Hohenkerk, L. S., Esq.
Home, J. H. M., Esq.
Howard, J., Esq.
Invernairn, The Lord
Islington, The Rt. HOD. The Lord, G.C.M.G.,
D.S.D.
Jellicoe, The Viscount, D.M., G.C.B., G.C.V.O.
Koenig, P., Esq.
Legat, C., Esq.
Loder, G. W. E., Esq.
Lovegrove, N. H., Esq.
Mallinson, Lieut.-Col., S. S., D.S.O., M.C.
Mackay, H., Esq.
McBride, The Hon. Sir Peter
McCrae, A., Esq.
Meyer, Sir William, G.C.I.E., R.e.S.l.
Milner, The Viscount, K.G., G.C.B., G.e.M.G.
Mitchell, H. H. G., D.B.E.
Moor, H. W., Esq.
Mulholland, F. D., Esq.
Munro, D., Esq., D.B.E.
Murray, H., Esq., C.I.E., C.B.E.
NathaD, The Rt. Hon. Sir Matthew, G.C.M.G.
North-ey, Sir Edward, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Noxon, William C., Esq.
Peake, J. P., Esq.
Pearson, A. C., Esq., C.M.G.
Pelletier, Lieut.-Col. P.
Perrins, C. "V. D., Esq.
Phipson, H. M.
Price, Sir Keith
Rammell, J. C., Esq.
Rennie, G., Esq.
Rogers, C. S., Esq.
Schlich, Sir Willia~, K.C.I.E.
Seaforth, The Rt. Hon. the Lord
Shaw-Stewart, Sir Hugh, Bart., C.B.
Sutherland, The Duke of
Smith, F. B., Esq., e.M.G. J'\~
280 EMPIRE FORESTRY
Steel, MajorS. Strang, M.P.

Stone, H., Esq.
Tennant, The Rt. Hon. H. T.
Troup, Professor R. S., C.I.E.
Turnbull, W., Esq. .
Unwin, A. H., Esq.
Ussher, C.E.E., Esq.
Weigall, Sir Archibald, R.C.M.G.
Willingdon, The Lord, G.B.E., G,C.SI!.' G•.C.I.E.
Wilson, E., Esq.
Witt, D, 0., Esq.
Wright, H. LI, Esq.
Younger, J., Esq., D.L.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS~
Cameron, D. R.
Cordeaux, Major H. E. 5., C.B., CIM.G.
Coryndon, Sir Robert T., K.C.M.G.
Davies, A. S., Esq.
Farrington, Sir Henry A., Bart.
Galway, Lieut...Col. Sir Henry L., K.C.M.G.,D.S.O.
Gorrie, R. M., Esq.
Kynock, W.
Leavitt, C., Esq.
MacFadyen, C.
Melrose, G. P., Esq.
Moir, E. M., Esq.
Morse, C. A.
Parker, H. A.
Ross, N. M.
Rowe, P., Esq.
Stevenson, Col. H. I.
Turner, 1., Esq.
White, E. J., Esq.
Wood, L. S., Esq., F.S.I.
\-
AFFILIATED MEMBERS.
Australian Forestry League
Coats, Messrs. J. and P., Ltd.
Edinburgh University Forestry Society
Mallinson and Sons, Messrs. W.
Oxford School of Forestry
Ransome and Co., Ltd" Messrs. A.
EMPIRE FORESTRY JOURNAL.
INDEX TO VOL. I.
PAGE
Aeroplane, Forest Work by 90
Aeroplane and Insect Pests 197
Aeroplane in Quebec 193
Aluminium Tree .. 191
Ancient Office of Verderer 136
Australia and the Empire Exhibition 148
Australian Forest League .. 66
BAINES, SIR FRANK. Westminster Hall 203

BALFOUR, F. R. S. The Douglas Fir Flagstaff at Kew 69
Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) .. 102
BORTHWICK, A. W. First Annual Report of the Forestry
Commission .. 72
British Guiana ·200
British Honduras . 189
BROCKWAY, G. E. Silvicultural Treatment of the more impor-
tant Eucalypts 52, 229
Burma Forests and PoHtics 180
Canada's Forests and Propaganda .. 163

Canadian Lumber Trade .. 165
Canadian Timber 94
Canadian Timber Imports to England in 1921 166
" Capper Report" (Review) 216
Chenchus 261
COURTHOPE, LT.-COL. G. L. Westminster Hall 214
Dehra Dun, Central Research Institute 247

Douglas Fir Flagstaff at Kew 69
Drying of Woods 192
Editorial Notes and Miscellanea, Vol. I., No. 1-

Empire Forestry Association .. 87
Forest Work by Aeroplane .. 90
Tasmania •. 91
Western Australia •• 92
Canadian Timber •• .94
Kauri Pine 96
South Africa .• 95
Queen Charlotte Islands 97
India.. •. 98
A Curious Forest Ceremony 100
Publicity Work in Canada .. 101
Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) 102
Evils of Forest J)estruction .. 108
Forestry and Democratic GOVernment 104
H Sylv&" •• .. 10e
, Editorial Notes and Miscellanea, Vol. I., No. 2- PAGE
An Appeal •• .• 127
Programme of the Association .• 127
Good News from Queensland and Kenya Colony 128
Empire Forestry Journal •• .. 129
Testing of Empire Timbers .. .. 130
Geddes Report on National Expenditure 132
Ancient Office of Verderer .. 136
SCottish Forestry .• .. .. 138
Scottish Forests of Antiquity .. 140
Forestry and Politics in Westem Australia 143
Forest Products Laboratory at Perth, W.A. 146
Australia and the Empire Exhibition .. 148
New South Wales.. '.' 148
Forestry in Tasmania .. 150
Tasmanian Forestry Association 153
New Zealand .. .. 156
~I:':~~~ ~~itk:<g~~::;:~i.ca
156
•• 158
canada's Forests and Forest Propaganda 163
Canadian Lumber Trade .. .. 165
" Timber Imports to England in ~921 166
Fire Prevention on Canadian Railways .. 167
Future Timber Supply of Rhodesia .• 169
~af~ia :: 171
172
Panjab Forests .. 175
Forestry in Bombay 178
Burma Forests and Politics 180
Timbers of India.. •. 181
Trade Names for Indian Timbers 184
Indian Paper Mills 185
Forest Products of Ceylon .. 186
Forest Resources of Malaya •. 187
British Honduras •. •• 189
Paper-making Pros~ts in Slam 190
An Aluminium Tree •. 101
Forest Fires Caused by Landslips 192
Drying of Woods .• .. 192
A Forest Exhibition 193
Aeroplane in Quebec •• 193
English Timber Market in 1921 193
Forestry at Oxford University 194
Famous Trees .• •• •. 195
Germany takes no Risks •• •• 196
Empire Timbers and the National Debt 196
Aeroplane and Insect Pests •• .. 197
~i:nc:~a,~:nc~~f .~e Study. ~f Forestr.~ 197
198
Roumanian Forest Exploitation 200
American Forestry Association •• 200
Doga Timber and Tannin Extraction Co. 200
Greenbeart Timber, British Guiana •• •. 200
~~b:::rf:u~=fo=tt~ent.:.ACqulsit~~n Branc~. 201
202-
Edwards, S. M. Durability of Indian Teak 257
rrree Worship in India 78
See Editorial
Empire 'Forestry Association 87
Empire Forestry Association Inaugural Meeting 3
Empire Timbers and National Debt 196
Encouragement of the Study of Forestry .. 197
English Timber Market in 1921 193
Eucalypts, The silvicultural Treat,ment of the more important 62, 229
Famous Trees 195

Femelschlagbetrieb 253
Fire Prevention on Canadian Railways 167
Forest Ceremony ... 10()
2
PA.GE
Forest Destruction 103
Forest Fires in Canada 43
Forest Fires caused by Landslips 192
Forest Products Laboratory, Perth, W.A. 146
Forest Products of Ceylon 186
Forest Resources of Malaya 187
Forestry Commission, First Annual Report of 72
Forestry and Democratic Government 104
Forestry and Politics in W. Australia 143
Forestry at Oxford University 194
Forestry in Bombay 178
Forestry in British Empire 11
Forestry in Tasmania 150
Forestry Publications 116, 273
Forests of India (Review) 267
Future Timber Supply of Rhodesia 169
Geddes Report on National Expenditure 132

GORRIE, R. M. A Swiss System of Forest Management 253
Govenling Council and Office Bearers, Empire F.A., 1922 1
Greenheart Timber and British Guiana 200
GRIMWADE RussELL, W. The Australian Forest League 66
HART, SIR GEORGE. The Central Forest Research Institute at

Dehra Dun .. 247
Inaugural Meeting Empire Forestry Association 3

India 98, 172
India, Forests of (Review) 267
India, The Timbers of 181
Indian Paper Mills, The Claims of 185
Kauri Pine 95
KILBY, W. 11. 167
Members of the Empire Forestry Association 277
·New South Wales 148

New Zeala.nd 156
Nigeris .. 171
North America. 156
Oak used in Westminster Hall 214

Oxford University, Forestry at 194
Panjab Forests .• 175

Paper-making Prospects in Siam 190
PEARSON, R. S. Timber Testing in India •• ·47
POOLE, C. E. LANE-. Western Australia. as a Producer of fine
Timber 35
Publications on Forestry .. 116, 273
Publicity Work in Canada. 101
3
PAGE
Queen Charlotte Islands .. 97
Queensland and Kenya Colony 128
Reviews-
The Chenchus •. .• •• 261
First Annual Report of Forestry Commission 72
The Forests of India .• •. 267
Silviculture of Indian Trees .• 110
Timber Depletion in U.S.A•.• 216
Rhodesia, The Future Timber Supply of 169

ROBINSON, R. L. Forestry in the Empire .. 11
Roumanian Forest Exploitation 200
SEAMAN, L. N. Timber Testing in India 47

Scottish Forestry 138
Scottish Forests of Antiquit.y 140
Silviculture of Indian Trees (Review) 110
Silvicultural Treatment of Eucalypt.s 52, 229
South Africa 95
STmLlNG-MAXwELL, SIR JOHN. Timber Depletion in the
United States 216
Swiss System of Forest Management 253
" Sylva" (Review) 109
Tasmania 91
Tasmanian Forestry Association 153
Teak, Durability of 257
Testing of Empire Timbers 130
Timber Depletion in the U.S.A. (Review of a Report by the
Forest Service) 216 .
Timber for Casks 198
Timber Supplies Department 201
Timber Testing in India .. 47
Timbers of British Columbia 158
Timbers of India 181
Trade Names for Indian Timbers.. 184
Trade Returns 1920 and 1921 125
Tree Worship in India 78
Westminster Hall 203, 214

Western Australia 92
Wastern Australia. as a. Producer of fine Timber 35
WILSON, ELLWOOD. Forest Fires in Canada. 43

Empire Forestry Vol 1, 1922

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Empire Forestry

l\fACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

VOL. I. Price: 45. net

Secretary.' Editor 01 Jour1tal.·

3. WESTERN AUSTRALIA AS A PRODUCER OF FINE

13. LIST OF FORESTRY PUBLICA.TIONS FOR 1920 AND

14. TRADE RETURNS, 1920 AND 1921 .•• 12 5

On Wednesday, Novelnber 16, 1921, at 3 p.1n.

THE Chairman, Alderman and Sheriff H. J. de Courey

such an association, and of its significance as a new and

acknowledgin~ any obligation. There are knotty points

Forest Service of India and the fine work it has done, is

can circulate information of the efforts of private indi-

of the belief that wholesale felling of forests is a matter

A short discussion followed, in which Lord Novar

FORESTRY IN- THE EMPIRE.

IT fell by chance to me to summarize in the Pro-

fact in Resolution No. 2 (Survey of Resources) and

Agri- Total land

square miles or 20 per cerlt. of the land area. The

Oak, Querctls Robur; Beech, Fagus sJ'l-

I. Padfie FIJrests ... Predominantly coniferous Mainly West of Rocky Mountains

BRITISH EAST AFRICA.

I This area is included in "Other Lands" in Table I.

bodying new legislative principles such as financial

A few exceptions are to be noticed.. Extensive planta-

1 "Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Imperial Forestry

The research position is on all fours with education

THE TIMBER SUPPLY.

I nlports and Exports.- It·is very desirable that figures of

Exports Imports Balance plus or minus

United Kingdom (19°9-13)-

States, and presumably the bulk of the sawn timber not

getting their timber supplies. \Ve have now to consider

Australia that the consumption far exceeds the incre..

to 220 in 1913-1914, while the cost of the Forest Depart-

THE British Empire Forestry Conference of 1920 was"

mind a belief that timber was of no value, and was indeed

unknown. The first settlers, struck by the similarity of

Besides jarrah and karri, the main export timbers,

why the early settlers called it "lnahogany." It possesses

there is abundance of timber, but nowhere is it found in

been any effort towards exploitation, except by settlers

Total ... £58,312,892

important bearing on Western Australia's relations with

FOREST FIRES IN CANADA.

QUEBEC has experienced the driest spring and early

exceptional ones. The second is that the old lnethod

the Government during the coming session of the legis-

TIMBER TESTING IN INDIA.

By R. S. PEAHSON, C.I.E., F. L.S., I. F.S., Forest Economist.

THOUGH the necessity of ascertaining the strength of

properties of our timbers \ve sho~ld be able to establish a

THE practice of timber testing the world over has been

later at Dehra Dun with a small machine designed and

used at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, have

1 This essay was awarded by the Council of the University of Adelaide

Lastly, we must mention the virgin forest, comn10nly

Coming back to the questton of subsotl and moisture,