Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.

, 23, 1581–1592, 2019

https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1581-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Developing GIS-based water poverty and rainwater harvesting

suitability maps for domestic use in the Dead Sea region
(West Bank, Palestine)
Sameer M. Shadeed1 , Tariq G. Judeh1 , and Mohammad N. Almasri2
1 Water and Environmental Studies Institute, An-Najah National University, Nablus, West Bank, Palestine
2 Civil Engineering Department, An-Najah National University, Nablus, West Bank, Palestine

Correspondence: Sameer M. Shadeed ([email protected])

Received: 21 June 2018 – Discussion started: 28 June 2018

Revised: 25 February 2019 – Accepted: 26 February 2019 – Published: 18 March 2019

Abstract. In the arid region of the Dead Sea, water shortage 2011). This situation deteriorated further due to the popula-
and the inability to satisfy the increasing domestic water de- tion growth and climate change that imposed a tremendous
mand threatens sustainable development. In such situations, stress on the conventional water supplies (PWA, 2011). The
domestic rainwater harvesting is considered an efficient way existing political situation limits the Palestinians’ accessibil-
to combat water poverty. This paper aims to develop do- ity to their water resources, and this further deepens the water
mestic water poverty (DWP) and domestic rainwater harvest- problems (Judeh et al., 2017). In 2015, the estimated annual
ing suitability (DRWHS) maps for the West Bank, Palestine. water supply–demand gap for domestic purposes for the en-
The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and the GIS-based tire West Bank was 32 million m3 (MCM) (PCBS, 2015).
weighted overlay summation process (WOSP) were utilized DWP (domestic water poverty) is a term that describes
in the development of these maps. Results of the DWP map the competency of water service providers to constantly pro-
indicate that 57 % of the West Bank is under high to very vide customers with clean, sustainable and affordable domes-
high poverty of domestic water. The DRWHS map shows that tic water (Feitelson and Chenoweth, 2002). It is measured
60 % of the West Bank is highly suitable for domestic rain- by using an index called the domestic water poverty index
water harvesting. Spatial intersection (combined mapping) (DWPI) (Sullivan et al., 2003). The DWPI can be attributed
between DWP and DRWHS maps indicates that around 31 % to several factors associated with water availability, socio-
of the total West Bank areas could be classified as high poten- economic conditions, environmental implications and the po-
tial locations (hotspot areas) for adopting rainwater harvest- litical situation (Coppin and Richards, 1990; Sullivan et al.,
ing techniques for domestic purposes. The developed maps 2003). DWP mapping is a simple and efficient approach to
are valuable to the stakeholders to better identify the best ar- identify the spatial extent of water-poor/rich areas at differ-
eas of rainwater harvesting in the West Bank. ent levels of jurisdiction areas (Thakur et al., 2017). This ap-
proach has been applied in the analysis of water stresses in
many countries all over the world such as the US (James et
al., 2007), Nepal (Thakur et al., 2017) and Palestine (West
1 Introduction Bank) (Isaac et al., 2008).
A DWP map has several pros as it demonstrates the rela-
Water is a key factor for sustainable development. In the 21st tionship between the physical availability of water, its qual-
century, the main challenge for millions of people world- ity and suitability for domestic use, and its accessibility. It is
wide is the lack of access to safe and clean water for domes- also a tool for monitoring programs in the water sector, and
tic purposes (Worm and Hattum, 2006). In the West Bank it helps in improving the situation of communities that suffer
(Palestine), water shortage is a problem that jeopardizes the from water poverty (van der Vyver and Jordaan, 2011).
sustainability of water availability for different uses (PWA,

Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.

1582 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

Generally, water-poor areas should look for new, safe, sus-

tainable and unconventional sources of water. For instance,
rainwater harvesting (RWH) is considered a viable alterna-
tive to secure water (Abdulrazzak, 2003). In arid and semi-
arid regions, adopting RWH will potentially enhance the
economic, environmental and social development under un-
certainty of water supply (UNEP, 2009). In Palestine, and
given the uncertain groundwater supply, RWH is considered
a sustainable option to bridge the increasing domestic water
supply–demand gap (Shadeed, 2011).
RWH is the process of collecting and storing rainwater in
order to be used afterwards for different uses among which
is the domestic one (Gould and Nissen-Petersen, 1999). It
is considered an ancient technology dating back to biblical
times and was practiced in Palestine and Greece 4000 years
ago (Critchley et al., 1991).
The use of RWH for domestic purposes entails that water
quality is sufficiently good and within the permissible lim-
its of drinking water quality standards. Mostly, the quality of
harvested water can be controlled by proper practices (e.g.,
cleaning of the collecting surface such as roofs and remov-
ing the discharge of the first storm) and simple disinfections
techniques when needed (African Development Bank, 2010;
Meera and Ahammed, 2018). Figure 1. Regional setting of the West Bank.
In arid and semi-arid regions, domestic water productivity
was enhanced by adopting RWH for many years (Boers et al.,
1986; Bruins et al., 1986; Critchley et al., 1991; Abu-Awwad by constructing a pairwise comparison matrix to assign rela-
and Shatanawi, 1997; van Wesemael et al., 1998; Oweis et tive importance (weight) for each criterion based on a pref-
al., 1999; Li et al., 2000; Li and Gong, 2002; Rosegrant et al., erence scoring scale (Saaty, 1980). The GIS-based weighted
2002; Ngigi et al., 2005; Ngigi, 2006; Oweis and Hachum, overlay summation process (WOSP) was then used to de-
2006; Rockström and Barron, 2007; Mwenge Kahinda et velop both the DWP and DRWHS maps.
al., 2007; Campisano et al., 2017; Singh and Turkiya, 2017; A key output in this research is the creation of spatial in-
Tamaddun et al., 2018). In the West Bank, RWH is widely tersection between DWP and DRWHS maps for the entire
used at the household level in rural areas (Shadeed, 2011). West Bank. The developed map identifies the spatial distri-
About 50 % of the entire West Bank area is classified as bution of water needs (water-poor areas) and spatial distribu-
suitable to highly suitable for RWH for different uses (e.g., tion of the potential of RWH techniques for domestic water
domestic and agricultural) (Shadeed, 2011). RWH is being use. This in turn can provide the key decision makers with a
practiced in the Faria catchment located in the northeastern tool to identify potential locations where the implementation
part of the West Bank, and this helps in bridging the domestic of RWH techniques could be most successful for domestic
water supply–demand gap (Shadeed and Lange, 2010). uses in Palestine.
This research aims at mapping the DWP and DRWHS (do-
mestic rainwater harvesting suitability) maps for the entire
West Bank. An integrated approach using GIS-based multi- 2 Materials and methods
criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was adopted. The MCDA
approach is widely used in DWP (van der Vyver and Jordaan, 2.1 Study area
2011; Thakur et al., 2017; Sullivan et al., 2003; Isaac et al.,
2008) and RWH suitability studies (Shadeed, 2011; Galarza- West Bank (Palestine) is located to the west of the Dead Sea.
Molina et al., 2015; Hussein and Shariff, 2015; Singh et al., It has an area of about 5860 km2 . Administratively, it is di-
2016; Singhai et al., 2017; Jha et al., 2014). vided into 11 governorates with a total population of approx-
The MCDA approach entails that the choice is built on a imately 2.9 million (PCBS, 2017) (see Fig. 1).
predetermined and limited number of decision variables (cri- The ground surface elevations range between 1022 m
teria) described by their attributes. Hence, the most influen- above mean sea level (a.m.s.l.) in the south (in Hebron) and
tial criteria (layers) that affect both DWP and DRWHS map- 410 m below mean sea level (b.m.s.l.) in the proximity of the
ping were identified, weighted and scored using AHP (ana- Dead Sea (in Jericho) (UNEP, 2003). The West Bank climate
lytical hierarchy process). The AHP approach was adopted can be generally described as a Mediterranean one, which

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/

S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping 1583

Figure 2. Methodological framework for developing DWP and DRWHS maps.

experiences extreme seasonal variations. The climate varies Table 1. Water poverty index (WPI) components and the associated
between hot dry in summer and wet cold in winter with short influencing factors.
transitional seasons (Shadeed, 2008). Rainfall shows high
spatial and temporal variation, with a long-term annual av- WPI key components Influencing factors

erage of 450 mm, which is equivalent to a rainfall volume of Access Time to collect water (TCW)
Losses in water networks (LWN)
about 2500 MCM (PWA, 2013). Most of the annual rainfall
Population served by water networks (PSWN)
(about 80 %) occurs in winter (Shadeed, 2012).
Capacity Productivity (P )
Water supply for different uses in the West Bank is very Citizens above poverty line (CAPL)
limited and does not suffice to satisfy the increasing water Illiteracy (I )
demand. The existing political situation adds another con- Average unit price of water (AUPW)
straint on the availability and accessibility of water resources Environment Population connected to sewer networks (PCSN)
for Palestinians. Water supply is available either from lo- Contaminated water samples by coliform (CWSC)
NO3 concentrations in groundwater (NO3 )
cal groundwater wells and springs or purchased from the
Israeli water company Mekorot. In 2015, the domestic wa- Resources Per capita domestic water supply (PCDWS)
ter supply–demand gap in the West Bank was 65 MCM Use Per capita domestic water consumption (PCDWC)
(PCBS, 2015). Existing DRWH techniques (e.g., rooftops)
contributed to about 4 MCM for the domestic use in the West
Bank (PWA, 2016).
Sea in Jericho to 1000 m a.m.s.l. in the mountains of Hebron
Under average conditions, the West Bank has high runoff
(MoLG, 2017).
curve numbers with an average value of about 70 (Shadeed
and Almasri, 2010). Needless to mention that a high curve
number value implies a high runoff generation and this suits 2.2 Methodology
the implementation of the RWH techniques.
The land use map of the West Bank is classified into four The overall methodological framework used in this research
main classes: rough grazing (62 %), agricultural practices for developing both DWP and DRWHS maps is illustrated in
(32 %), built-up areas (5 %) and Israeli settlements (1 %) Fig. 2.
(MoLG, 2017). The West Bank is characterized by different The water poverty index gives the water poverty consider-
soil textures such as clay, clay loam, loamy, sandy loam and ing five key components: access, capacity, environment, re-
bare rock covering 47 %, 31 %, 9 %, 8 % and 5 % of the study source and use (Gould and Nissen-Petersen, 1999). The five
area respectively (MoLG, 2017). The elevations in the study key components were represented by 12 influencing criteria
area ranges from 375 m b.m.s.l. in the vicinity of the Dead (see Table 1). For these criteria, data were collected from dif-
ferent sources which include the Palestinian Water Author-

www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019

1584 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

Table 2. AHP pairwise comparison matrix for the domestic water poverty index.

Criteria TCW LWN PSWN P CAPL I AUPW PCSN CWSC NO3 PCDWS PCDWC Weight
TCW 1.00 3.00 2.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 3.00 0.50 2.00 4.00 0.50 0.12
LWN 0.33 1.00 0.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 0.50 2.00 0.20 0.50 2.00 0.17 0.07
PSWN 0.50 2.00 1.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 2.00 3.00 0.50 2.00 4.00 0.33 0.10
P 0.20 0.33 0.25 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.25 0.50 0.14 0.33 0.50 0.13 0.03
CAPL 0.20 0.25 0.20 0.50 1.00 2.00 0.25 0.33 0.14 0.25 0.50 0.13 0.02
I 0.14 0.20 0.20 0.33 0.50 1.00 0.20 0.25 0.13 0.20 0.33 0.11 0.01
AUPW 0.50 2.00 0.50 4.00 4.00 5.00 1.00 3.00 0.33 2.00 3.00 0.25 0.09
PCSN 0.33 0.50 0.33 2.00 3.00 4.00 0.33 1.00 0.20 0.50 2.00 0.17 0.05
CWSC 2.00 5.00 2.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 3.00 5.00 1.00 4.00 6.00 0.50 0.18
NO3 0.50 2.00 0.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 0.50 2.00 0.25 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.08
PCDWS 0.25 0.50 0.25 2.00 2.00 3.00 0.33 0.50 0.17 0.33 1.00 0.14 0.04
PCDWC 2.00 6.00 3.00 8.00 8.00 9.00 4.00 6.00 2.00 5.00 7.00 1.00 0.21

Table 3. The AHP pairwise comparison matrix for the domestic consistency was measured by estimating the consistency ra-
rainwater harvesting suitability index. tio using the following formulas (Saaty, 1980):

Criteria RD CN SS LU Weight CI
CR = ,
RI
RD 1.00 1.50 1.50 2.50 0.35
λ−n
CN 0.67 1.00 1.50 2.50 0.31 CI = ,
SS 0.67 0.67 1.00 1.50 0.21 n−1
LU 0.40 0.40 0.67 1.00 0.13
where CR is the consistency ratio, CI is the consistency in-
dex, RI is a random consistency index, λ is a normalized prin-
cipal eigenvector and n is the number of constraints (criteria).
ity (PWA), Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) The matrix is consistent if the CR value is smaller than
and water service providers (e.g., municipalities). It is worth or equal to 0.1; otherwise, it is considered inconsistent and
mentioning that the majority of the utilized data are avail- needs to be revised (Saaty, 2000). According to the different
able at a coarse resolution (e.g., governorate level). In the preference values used in the pairwise comparison matrices
West Bank, rainwater is being harvested for domestic water shown in Tables 2 and 3, the CR values for DWP and DR-
supply using different techniques among which rooftops is WHS matrices are 0.04 and 0.01 respectively. So, both of
the most important. Cisterns (pear shaped) and reservoirs are them are consistent.
commonly used in the West Bank for storing the harvested Each of the criteria used in DWP and DRWHS maps were
rainwater (PWA, 2013). In general, the most influential cri- divided into five sub-criteria, and each of them were subjec-
teria for DRWH suitability mapping in the West Bank were tively assigned a score from 1 to 10 (see Tables 4 and 5).
identified. These criteria are rainfall depth (RD), curve num- For instance, values which are close to 10 have the high-
ber (CN), surface slope (SS) and land use (LU). The spa- est DWP and DRWHS. Thereafter, rasterization (cell size of
tial extent of the long-term average annual RD was obtained 100 m by 100 m) of the different criteria based on their sub-
from the records of the existing rain gauges using the inverse criteria scores was processed by GIS (see Figs. 3 and 4).
distance weighting method (IDW). The CN map was devel- GIS is used to estimate DWPI and DRWHSI (DRWHS in-
oped for the entire West Bank (Shadeed and Almasri, 2010). dex) through the application of WOSP for the different lay-
A 25 m × 25 m digital elevation model was processed to de- ers (criteria) used. WOSP method applies a weighted linear
termine the SS layer. The LU map available at the Ministry formula in decision-making analysis (Store and Jokimäki,
of Local Government (MoLG) database was used. 2003). This method allows the manipulation of various spa-
Different weights were assigned for the different criteria tial input layers by aggregating the weighted cell values to-
used in each map by conducting the AHP pairwise compari- gether. Each input layer is multiplied by its assigned weight
son matrix. The matrices were filled using a scoring system and the results are summed as (DWPI or DRWHSI)j =
(preference values) from 1 to 9 in order to reflect the pref-
P n
i=1 Wi · Sij , where (DWPI or DRWHSI) j is the final cell
erence and importance of the criteria (Saaty, 1980) (see Ta-
P
index, Wi is a normalized weight ( Wi = 1), Sij is the score
bles 2 and 3). of the ith cell with respect to the j th layer and n is the num-
Once the pairwise comparison matrices were completed, ber of cells in each j th layer (Malczewski, 1999).
the AHP provides researchers the opportunity to check and
enhance the matrices’ consistency. However, the matrices’

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/

S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping 1585

Figure 3. The score rasters of the 12 DWP criteria for the West Bank.

Figure 4. The score rasters of the four DRWHS criteria for the West Bank.

www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019

1586 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

Table 4. DWP scoring assigned for the sub-criteria.

Number Criteria Sub-criteria Score Number Criteria Sub-criteria Score

1 TCW < 6 (days month−1 ) 10 7 AUPW > 5.2 (NIS m−3 ) 9
6–12 8 4.6–5.2 7
13–19 6 3.9–4.5 5
20–26 4 3.2–3.8 3
> 26 2 < 3.2 1
2 LWN ≥ 36 (%) 8 8 PCSN ≤ 20 (%) 10
31–35.9 7 21–30 9
26–30.9 5 31–40 8
21–25.9 4 41–50 7
< 21 2 > 50 5
3 PSWN 76–80 (%) 6 9 CWSC 26–30 (%) 10
81–85 5 21–25 8
86–90 4 16–20 6
91-95 3 11–15 4
96–100 1 6–10 2
4 P < 1 (employee/1000 capita) 9 10 NO3 ≥ 80 (mg L−1 ) 10
1.0–1.4 7 60–79 8
1.5–1.9 5 40–59 6
2.0–2.4 3 20-39 3
≥ 2.5 1 < 20 1
5 CAPL 65.1–72 (%) 9 11 PCDWS < 80 10
72.1–79 7 80–119 8
79.1–86 5 120–159 7
86.1–93 3 160–199 5
93.1–100 1 ≥ 200 2
6 I 4.5–5.0 (%) 6 12 PCDWC < 40 10
3.9–4.4 5 40–79 8
3.3–3.8 4 80–119 6
2.7–3.2 3 120–159 4
2.1–2.6 2 ≥ 160 2

Table 5. The domestic rainwater harvesting suitability scoring assigned for the sub-criteria.

Number Criteria Sub-criteria Score Number Criteria Sub-criteria Score

1 RD 153.0–262.1 (mm) 1 3 SS ≥ 24.0 1
262.2–371.3 3 18–23.9 3
371.4–480.5 5 12–17.9 5
480.6–589.7 7 6–11.9 7
589.8–699.0 9 ≤ 5.9 9
2 CN ≤ 50 1 4 LU Israeli settlements 1
51–60 3 Forest and rough grazing 3
61–70 5 Permanent crops and irrigated farming 3
71–80 7 Arable land 3
> 80 9 Built-up areas 7

3 Results and discussion water poverty categories: very low, low, moderate, high and
very high.
3.1 DWP map Figure 5 shows that the governorates characterized by very
high DWP are in the southern (Hebron) and northern parts
Figure 5 depicts the DWP map for the West Bank. Using (Jenin) of the West Bank which have 36 % of the total West
the natural breaks approach, the map was classified into five

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/

S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping 1587

Figure 5. DWP map for the West Bank. Figure 7. DRWHS map for the West Bank.

terized by moderate, low to very low DWP conditions oc-

cupy 43 % of the total West Bank area, which includes 40 %
of the total West Bank population. Hence, there is a dire need
to look into adaptive and sustainable domestic water alterna-
tives among which RWH would be a successful one to alle-
viate domestic water shortage in the highly water-poor areas.

3.2 DRWHS map

Figure 7 shows the DRWHS map for the West Bank. As we

Figure 6. Area percentages of the different DWP classes in the West did before, the map was classified into five suitability cate-
Bank. gories: very low, low, moderate, high and very high.
The developed DRWHS map indicates that the areas char-
acterized as very high are distributed across the northwestern
Bank population (PCBS, 2017). The Bethlehem, Nablus and part of the West Bank, except for small portions that are lo-
Tubas governorates suffer from high DWP conditions. In cated in the middle and southern mountains. In contrast, the
contrast, the results indicate that the Qalqiliya governorate eastern part of the West Bank is classified as very low to low
has the lowest DWP, whereas low to medium DWP condi- areas. It is clear that the developed DRWHS map is highly
tions are prevailing in the other governorates. However, the influenced by both RD and CN criteria. This is because the
area percentages of the different DWP classes in the West trend for rainfall and runoff potential increases in the north-
Bank are presented in Fig. 6. west and decreases in the southeast. The area percentages of
Generally, the results presented in the previous figure show the different DRWHS classes in the different West Bank gov-
the domestic-water-poor areas in the West Bank. High to very ernorates are illustrated in Fig. 8.
high DWP conditions cover 57 % of the total West Bank area In general, about 60 % of the total West Bank area is clas-
where 60 % of Palestinians live. Moreover, the areas charac- sified as high to very high for different DRWH techniques.

www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019

1588 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

Figure 8. Area percentages of the different DRWHS classes in the different West Bank governorates.

Additionally, it is obvious that the high to very high DRWHS norates of the West Bank. The area percentages of the four
areas are dominant (70 %–95 %) in 6 out of 11 governorates. intersection zones are shown in Fig. 10. It is noticed that the
This indicates the high potential of adopting different DRWH four zones equal 31 % of the total West Bank area. Such re-
techniques (e.g., rooftop) in trying to bridge the increasing sults can help decision makers to develop sustainable wa-
domestic water supply–demand gap in the West Bank. ter management options among which proper DRWH tech-
niques is the most important to satisfy domestic water needs
3.3 DWPM–DRWHSM intersection predominantly in the identified hotspot areas.
The obtained results were verified using the available data
The developed DWP and DRWHS maps urged the need of DRWH activities (digging of cisterns and building of
to identify zones of high to very high DWP and DRWHS reservoirs) in the middle and northern parts of the West Bank
(hotspot areas). Accordingly, spatial intersections (combined governorates for the period from 1994 to 2017 (PHG, 2018).
mapping) between both maps were accomplished under the Results are illustrated in Fig. 11. It is clear that DRWH ac-
GIS environment for four intersection zones. These are tivities in the last 22 years were concentrated (about 74 %)
very high poverty–very high suitability, very high poverty– in the identified hotspot areas in the Nablus, Jenin and Tubas
high suitability, high poverty–very high suitability, and high governorates. Thus, the adoption of DRWH techniques (e.g.,
poverty–high suitability (see Fig. 9). Results indicate that rooftop) in these areas is of high importance to alleviate wa-
hotspot areas are located mostly in the northern (Jenin, Tubas ter shortage for domestic uses. The DWP and DRWHS com-
and Nablus) and southern (Bethlehem and Hebron) gover- bined mapping has several advantages. It is easy to use under

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/

S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping 1589

Figure 11. Percentages of DRWH activities in the northern gover-

norates of the West Bank.

4 Conclusions

In this paper, maps of DWP and DRWHS were developed

and utilized to identify the suitable locations for the im-
plementation of water harvesting in order to reduce water
poverty. The MCDA was employed to account for the influ-
encing criteria according to their importance in the mapping
of the DWP and DRWHS. The AHP pairwise comparison
matrix approach was adopted to assign the criteria weights.
Results show that 57 % of the West Bank is under high to
very high DWP. The DRWHS map indicates that high to
Figure 9. DWP–DRWHS map intersection for the entire West very high suitable areas are concentrated in the north-western
Bank.
parts of the West Bank. The high to very high DWP and DR-
WHS areas account for more than 30 % of the total West
Bank area and are mostly located in the northern and south-
ern parts. Since the MCDA entails subjectivity in assigning
the weights and the scores, it is important to conduct a sensi-
tivity analysis. This can be done by altering the weights and
scores and thereafter examining the impacts on the DWP and
DRWHS maps. Despite the fact that the available data are
limited, this research managed to provide a novel insight to-
wards the identification of high domestic-water-poor areas.
This facilitates the implementation of different DRWH tech-
niques that could be successful. This implies the applicability
of this research in situations where data are limited. The work
furnished herein assists the decision makers to derive proper
Figure 10. Area percentages of the four intersection zones. water management strategies to bridge the gap between the
supply and the demand in the West Bank. The results from
this study can be applied to the entire Dead Sea region, which
undergoes serious water shortage challenges. It is good to
the GIS environment, it can be applied at any region in the consider other spatial analysis levels for the development of
world once the driving factors (criteria) are made available the maps like the watershed outlines. Finally, further research
and it helps decision makers to rely on DRWH techniques as is recommended to validate the combined map over different
a viable water management option for the benefit of end users West Bank areas.
in water-vulnerable areas. The method has some drawbacks.
For instance, the accuracy of the developed map is highly in-
fluenced by the resolution and dynamic changes (e.g., urban-
ization) of the data. The socio-economic constraints were not
considered in this study and need to be studied first in more
detail for a realistic implementation of new RWH systems.

www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019

1590 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

Data availability. The GIS data used in this study can be found in Campisano, A., D’Amico, G., and Modica, C.: Water saving and
the Supplement. cost analysis of large-scale implementation of domestic rain wa-
ter harvesting in Minor Mediterranean Islands, Water, 9, 916,
https://doi.org/10.3390/w9120916, 2017.
Supplement. The supplement related to this article is available Coppin, N. J. and Richards, I. G.: Use of Vegetation in Civil Engi-
online at: https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1581-2019-supplement. neering, 3rd edition, Construction Industry Research and Infor-
mation Association, London, 1990.
Critchley, W., Siegert, K., Chapman, C., and Finkel, M.: Water har-
Author contributions. SMS was involved in the formulation of the vesting: a manual for the design and construction of water har-
general idea of the research, conceptual modeling, results inter- vesting schemes for plant production, Food and Agriculture Or-
pretation, and manuscript preparation and writing. TGJ provided ganization of the United Nations, Rome, Open File Rep., 154 pp.,
GIS processing and he was involved in the results presentation and 1991.
manuscript preparation. MNA was involved in the manuscript edit- Feitelson, E. and Chenoweth, J.: Water poverty: To-
ing and proofreading. wards a meaningful indicator, Water Policy, 4, 263–281,
https://doi.org/10.1016/s1366-7017(02)00029-6, 2002.
Galarza-Molina, S., Torres, A., Moura, P., and Lara-Borrero, J.:
CRIDE: a case study in multi-criteria analysis for decision-
Competing interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict
making support in rainwater harvesting, Int. J. Inf. Tech. Decis.,
of interest.
14, 43–67, https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219622014500862, 2015.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E.: Rainwater Catchment Systems
for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation,
Special issue statement. This article is part of the special issue Intermediate Technology Publications, London, 1999.
“Environmental changes and hazards in the Dead Sea region Hussein, F. and Shariff, R.: Selection of rainwater harvest-
(NHESS/ACP/HESS/SE inter-journal SI)”. It is not associated with ing sites by using remote sensing and GIS techniques: A
a conference. case study of Kirkuk, Iraq, Jurnal Teknologi, 76, , 75–81,
https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v76.5955, 2015.
Isaac, J., Gigliol, I., and Hilal, J.: Domestic water vulnerability map-
Acknowledgements. This work was performed within the frame- ping in the West Bank /Occupied Palestinian Territory, Applied
work of the Palestinian Dutch Academic Cooperation Program on Research Institute, Jerusalem, Open File Rep., 24 pp., 2008.
Water (PADUCO 2), funded by the Netherlands Representative James, W., Lisa, H., and Rebecca, T.: Water and
Office (NRO) in Ramallah, Palestine. The financial support is poverty in the United States, Geoforum, 38, 801–814,
gratefully acknowledged. We are also grateful to an anonymous https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.08.007, 2007.
reviewer and to Michel Riktsen, who improved our manuscript. Jha, M., Chowdary, V., Kulkarni, Y., and Mal, B.: Rainwater
harvesting planning using geospatial techniques and multicri-
Edited by: Efrat Morin teria decision analysis, Resour. Conserv. Recy., 83, 96–111,
Reviewed by: Michel Riksen and one anonymous referee https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.12.003, 2014.
Judeh, T., Haddad, M., and Özerol, G.: Assessment
of water governance in the West Bank, Palestine,
Int. J. Global Environmental Issues, 16, 119–134,
References https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGENVI.2017.083426, 2017.
Li, F. R., Cook, S., Geballe, G. T., and Burch, W. R.: Rainwater har-
Abdulrazzak, M.: Water harvesting practices in selected countries of vesting agriculture: An integrated system for water management
the Arabian Penisula, in: Proceeding of the Conference on Water on rainfed land in China’s semiarid areas, AMBIO, 29, 477–483,
Harvesting and the Future Development, Khartoum, Sudan, 19– https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-29.8.477, 2000.
20 August 2003, 14 pp., 2003. Li, X. Y. and Gong, J. D.: Compacted microcatchments with local
Abu-Awwad, A. M. and Shatanawi, M. R.: Water harvest- earth materials for rainwater harvesting in the semiarid region of
ing and infiltration in arid areas affected by surface crust: China, J. Hydrol., 257, 134–144, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-
Examples from Jordan, J. Arid. Environ., 37, 443–452, 1694(01)00550-9, 2002.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1997.0301, 1997. Malczewski, J.: GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis, John Wi-
African Development Bank: Assessment of best practices and ex- ley & Sons Inc., New York, 1999.
perience in water harvesting: Rainwater harvesting handbook, Meera, V. and Ahammed, M.: Factors affecting the quality of roof-
ADB, Cote d’Ivoire, Open File Rep., 75 pp., 2010. harvested Rrainwater, in: Water Quality and Climate Change, Ur-
Boers, T. M., Zondervan, K., and Ben-Asher, J.: Micro-catchment- ban Ecology, edited by: Sarma, A., Singh, V., Bhattacharjya, R.,
water-harvesting (MCWH) for arid zone development, Agr. and Kartha S., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, 195–202,
Water Manage., 12, 21–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/0378- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74494-0_15, 2018.
3774(86)90003-X, 1986. MoLG.: Geomolg: Data set, Ministry of Local Government, avail-
Bruins, H. J., Evenari, M., and Nessler, U.: Rainwater-harvesting able at: https://data-molg.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets (last ac-
agriculture for food production in arid zones: The chal- cess: 26 April 2018), 2017.
lenge of the African famine, Appl. Geogr., 6, 13–32,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0143-6228(86)90026-3, 1986.

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/

S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping 1591

Mwenge Kahinda, J., Taigbenu, A. E., and Boroto, R. J.: Do- Shadeed, S.: Developing a GIS-based suitability map for rainwater
mestic rainwater harvesting to improve water supply in ru- harvesting in the West Bank, Palestine, The International Confer-
ral South Africa, J. Phys. Chem. Earth., 32, 1050–1057, ence on Environmental Education for Sustainable Development:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.007, 2007. Plugging the Hole, Birzeit University, Palestine, 16–17 Novem-
Ngigi, S. N.: Hydrological impacts of land use changes on water ber 2011, 13 pp., 2011.
resources management and socio-economic development of up- Shadeed, S.: Spatio-temporal drought analysis in arid and semi-
per Ewaso Ng’iro river basin in Kenya, PhD thesis, UNESCO- arid regions: A case study from Palestine, Arab. J. Sci. Eng., 38,
IHE/Technical University of Delft, Netherlands, 148 pp., 2006. 2303–2313, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-012-0504-y, 2012.
Ngigi, S. N., Savenije, H. H. G., Rockström, J., and Gachene, C. Shadeed, S. and Almasri, M.: Application of GIS-based SCS-CN
K.: Hydro-economic evaluation of rainwater harvesting and man- method in West Bank catchments, Palestine, Water Sci. Eng.,
agement technologies: Farmers’ investment options and risks in 3, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.3882/j.issn.1674-2370.2010.01.001,
semi-arid Laikipia district of Kenya, J. Phys. Chem. Earth., 30, 2010.
772–782, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.020, 2005. Shadeed, S. and Lange, J.: Rainwater harvesting to allevi-
Oweis, T. and Hachum, A.: Water harvesting and supplemental ir- ate water scarcity under dry conditions: A case study in
rigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems Faria catchment, Palestine, Water Sci. Eng., 3, 132–143,
in West Asia and North Africa, Agr. Water Manage., 80, 57–73, https://doi.org/10.3882/j.issn.1674-2370.2010.02.002, 2010.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.004, 2006. Singh, L., Jha, M., and Chowdary, V.: Multi-criteria anal-
Oweis, T., Hachum, A., and Kijne, J.: Water harvesting and supple- ysis and GIS modelling for identifying prospective wa-
mental irrigation for improved water use efficiency in dry areas, ter harvesting and artificial recharge sites for sustain-
International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Open File able water supply, J. Clean. Prod., 142, 1436–1456,
Rep., 41 pp., 1999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.11.163, 2016.
PCBS: Water Supply-Demand Statistics, Palestinian Central Bureau Singh, O. and Turkiya, S.: Assessing potential for rooftop rainwater
of Statistics, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y9vww487 (last ac- harvesting: An option for sustainable rural domestic water supply
cess: 13 January 2018), 2015. in arid region of Haryana, J. Rural Develop., 36, 49–60, 2017.
PCBS: Preliminary census results 2017, Palestinian Central Bureau Singhai, A., Das, S., Kadam, A., Shukla, J., Bundela, D., and
of Statistics, Ramallah, Open File Rep., 82 pp., 2017. Kalashetty, M.: GIS-based multi-criteria approach for identifi-
PHG: Domestic rainwater harvesting techniques in the meddle and cation of rainwater harvesting zones in upper Betwa sub-basin
northern parts of the West Bank, Palestinian Hydrology Group, of Madhya Pradesh, India, Environ. Dev. Sustain., 17, 1–21,
Ramallah, Open File Rep., 4 pp., 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-0060-4, 2017.
PWA: Annual status report on water resources, water supply, and Store, R. and Jokimäki, J.: A GIS-based multi-scale approach
wastewater in the Occupied State of Palestine, Palestinian Water to habitat suitability modeling, Ecol. Model., 169, 1–15,
Authority, Ramallah, Open File Rep., 97 pp., 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3800(03)00203-5, 2003.
PWA: Palestinian water sector: Status report of water resources in Sullivan, C., Meigh, J., Giacomello, A., Fediw, T., Lawrence, P.,
the occupied state of Palestine, Palestinian Water Authority, Ra- Samad, M., Mlote, S., Hutton, C., Allan, J., Schulze, R., Dlamini,
mallah, Open File Rep., 22 pp., 2013. D., Cosgrove, W., Priscoli, J., Gleick, J., Smout, I., Cobbing, J.,
PWA: Water authority strategic plan 2016-2018, Palestinian Water Calow, R., Hunt, C., Hussain, A., Acreman, M., King, J., Mal-
Authority, Ramallah, Open File Rep., 25 pp., 2016. omo, S., Tate, E., O’Regan, D., Milner, S., and Steyl, I.: The
Rockström, J. and Barron, J.: Water productivity in rainfed sys- water poverty index: Development and application at the com-
tems: Overview of challenges and analysis of opportunities in munity scale, United Nations Sustainable Development Journal,
water scarcity prone savannahs, Irrigation Sci., 25, 299–311, 27, 189–199, https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.00054, 2003.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-007-0062-3, 2007. Tamaddun, K., Kalra, A., and Ahmad, S.: Potential of rooftop rain-
Rosegrant, M. W., Cai, X., and Cline, S. A.: World water and food to water harvesting to meet outdoor water demand in arid regions, J.
2025: Dealing with scarcity, International Food Policy Research Arid Land, 10, 68–83, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-017-0110-
Institute, Washington DC, Open File Rep., 338 pp., 2002. 7, 2018.
Saaty, T. L.: The Analytic Hierarchy Process: Planning, Priority Set- Thakur, J., Mahesh, N., and Mohanan, A.: Water poverty in up-
ting, Resource Allocation, McGraw-Hill International Book Co., per Bagmati River Basin in Nepal, Water Sci., 31, 93–108,
New York, 1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2016.12.001, 2017.
Saaty, T. L.: Fundamentals of decision making with the analytic UNEP: Desk study on the environment in the Occupied Palestinian
hierarchy process, in: The Analytic Hierarchy Process in Nat- Territories, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi,
ural Resource and Environmental Decision Making, edited by: Open File Rep., 194 pp., 2003.
Schmoldt, D. L., Kangas, J., Mendoza, G. A., and Pesonen, M., UNEP: Rainwater harvesting: A lifeline for human well-being,
Springer, Dordrecht, 15–35, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015- United Nations Environment Programme, Stockholm, Open File
9799-9_2, 2000. Rep., 80 pp., 2009.
Shadeed, S.: Up to Date Hydrological Modeling in Arid and Semi- van der Vyver, C. and Jordaan, D.: Water poverty mapping and
arid Catchment, the Case of Faria Catchment, West Bank, Pales- its role in assisting water management, Communications of
tine, PhD thesis, Faculty of Forest and Environmental Sci- the IBIMA, 2011, 941217, https://doi.org/10.5171/2011.941217,
ences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg im Breisgau, Ger- 2011.
many, 216 pp., 2008. van Wesemael, B., Poesen, J., Benet, A. S., Barrionuevo, L. C.,
and Puigdefábregas, J.: Collection and storage of runoff from

www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019

1592 S. M. Shadeed et al.: DWP–DRWHS mapping

hillslopes in a semi-arid environment: Geomorphic and hydro- Worm, J. and Hattum, V.: Rainwater harvesting for domestic use,
logic aspects of the aljibe system in Almeria Province, Spain, J. Agromisa Foundation and CTA., Wageningen, Open File Rep.,
Arid Environ., 40, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1998.0429, 85 pp., 2006.
1998.

Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1581–1592, 2019 www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/23/1581/2019/