The Cellular Level of Organization

THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
History of Cells
– The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by scientist Robert
Hooke in 1665.
– Antonie van Leeuwenhoek became the first person to observe living and moving cells under a
microscope.
Parts of a Cell
The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:
1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
– Cytosol Organelles
3. Nucleus
– Chromosomes Genes
Parts of a Cell
The Plasma Membrane
 The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm
of the cell
Fluid mosaic model
– Proteins float in fluid lipid bilayer
Membrane lipids:
1. Phospholipid:
 Polar/hydrophilic (water-loving) “head”

 Nonpolar/hydrophobic (water-fearing) “tail”
2. Cholesterol
 20% of membrane lipid

 Stabilize membrane
 Maintain fluidity
3. Glycolipids
 Lipid + sugar attached

 5% membrane lipid
 For cell recognition
Membrane Proteins
Two types of membrane proteins are
 Integral (also called transmembrane) proteins
 Peripheral proteins
1. Integral Proteins
 Inserted into lipid bilayer

 Have both hydrophilic & hydrophobic regions
 Functions: enzymes, transport, receptors (relay messages)
2. Peripheral Proteins
 Attached loosely to membrane

 Functions: support, enzymes, movement, linkage
Glycoprotein
 Protein + sugar attached
 Serves as specific biological marker → cell recognition
Functions of Membrane Proteins
 Membrane proteins can serve a variety of functions
The different proteins help determine many of the functions of the cell membrane
Membrane Fluidity
Membranes are fluid structures because most of the membrane lipids and many of the membrane
proteins move easily in the bilayer
 Membrane lipids and proteins are mobile in their own half of the bilayer
Cholesterol serves to stabilize the membrane and reduce membrane fluidity
Membrane Permeability
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
 The lipid bilayer is always permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules
Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or transporters increase the permeability of the
membrane
 Macromolecules are only able to pass through the plasma membrane by vesicular transport
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
• A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other
•An electrical gradient is the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma
membrane and the other
• Together, these gradients make up an electrochemical gradient
Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
Transport processes that move substances across the cell membrane are:
 Passive processes
 Simple diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active processes
 Active transport
 Vesicular transport
Passive Processes
 Simple Diffusion
Diffusion is influenced by:
1. Steepness of the concentration gradient
2. Temperature
3. Mass of diffusion substance
4. Surface area
5. Diffusion distance
 Facilitated Diffusion
Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through the lipid
bilayer
The processes involved are:
 Channel mediated facilitated diffusion
 Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
 The net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
Tonicity
 Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells
Active Processes
Primary Active Transport
 Energy derived from ATP changes the shape of a transporter protein which pumps a substance
across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient
Secondary Active Transport
 Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive other
substances against their own concentration gradients
Active Transport in Vesicles: Exocytosis & Transcytosis
Exocytosis
 membrane-enclosed secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular fluid
Transcytosis
 a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis used to move substances from one side of a cell,
across it, and out the other side
A Comparison of Transport Types

Parts of a Cell: Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytosol is also known as the intracellular fluid portion of the cytoplasm Organelles are the
specialized structures that have specific shapes and perform specific functions
Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm

 Provides the cell with an internal framework
Ribosomes
Made of protein and RNA
Sites of protein synthesis
Found at two locations
 Free in the cytoplasm

 Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
Two types of ER
– Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Studded with ribosomes

 Site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed
– Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
Golgi apparatus
– Modifies and packages proteins
– Produces different types of packages
 Secretory vesicles
 Cell membrane components
 Lysosomes
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Lysosomes
 Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cell

Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are structures that are similar in shape to lysosomes, but are smaller and contain
enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize (break down) organic substances
Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 Detoxify harmful substances

 Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
Proteasomes
 Proteasomes are barrel-shaped structures that destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins
by cutting long proteins into smaller peptides
Mitochondria
 “Powerhouses” of the cell

 Change shape continuously
 Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food
 Provides ATP for cellular energy
The Nucleus
– Control center of the cell
– Contains genetic material (DNA)
Three regions
 Nuclear membrane
 Nucleolus
 Chromatin
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the cell’s hereditary units, called genes, which are arranged in
chromosomes
Nuclear Membrane
 Barrier of nucleus
 Consists of a double phospholipid membrane
 Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the cell
Nucleoli
 Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli

 Sites of ribosome production
– Ribosomes then migrate to the cytoplasm through nuclear pores
Protein Synthesis: Transcription
 Transcription occurs in the nucleus and is the process by which genetic information encoded in
DNA is copied onto a strand of RNA to direct protein synthesis
Protein Synthesis: Translation
 Translation occurs in the nucleus and is the process of reading the mRNA nucleotide sequence
to determine the amino acid sequence of the newly formed protein
Cell Division
 Cell division is a process by which cells reproduce themselves

 Cell cycle
Mitotic Phase: Prophase
 During prophase chromatin condenses into chromosomes
Mitotic Phase: Metaphase
 During metaphase centromeres of chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
Mitotic Phase: Anaphase
 During anaphase centromeres of chromosomes split and sister chromatids move toward
opposite poles of the cell
Mitotic Phase: Telophase
 During telophase the mitotic spindle dissolves, chromosomes regain their chromatin
appearance, and a new nuclear membrane forms
Cytokinesis
 During cytokinesis a cleavage furrow forms and eventually the cytoplasm of the parent cell fully
splits
 When this is complete, interphase begins
Control of Cell Destiny
3 possible destinies:
1. Remain alive and functioning without dividing
2. Grow and divide
3. Die
Aging and Cells
As we age:
 Our cells gradually deteriorate in their ability function normally and in their ability to respond to
environmental stresses
 The numbers of our body cells decreases
 We lose the integrity of the extracellular components of our tissues
Free radicals

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What are the main components of the cell membrane and what are their functions?

What are the main components of the cell membrane and what are their functions?

What are some of the organelles in the cell and what are their main functions?

What are some of the organelles in the cell and what are their main functions?

The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

1. Plasma (cell) membrane

Fluid mosaic model

– Proteins float in fluid lipid bilayer

 Polar/hydrophilic (water-loving) “head”

 20% of membrane lipid

 Lipid + sugar attached

Two types of membrane proteins are

 Integral (also called transmembrane) proteins

 Inserted into lipid bilayer

 Attached loosely to membrane

 Protein + sugar attached

 Serves as specific biological marker → cell recognition

Functions of Membrane Proteins

 Membrane proteins can serve a variety of functions

Cholesterol serves to stabilize the membrane and reduce membrane fluidity

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable

 The lipid bilayer is always permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules

Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane

• Together, these gradients make up an electrochemical gradient

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

Diffusion is influenced by:

1. Steepness of the concentration gradient

3. Mass of diffusion substance

The processes involved are:

 Channel mediated facilitated diffusion

 Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

Primary Active Transport

Secondary Active Transport

A Comparison of Transport Types

 Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm

Made of protein and RNA

Sites of protein synthesis

Found at two locations

 Free in the cytoplasm

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances

– Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Studded with ribosomes

– Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

– Modifies and packages proteins

– Produces different types of packages

 Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials within the cell

– Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes

 Detoxify harmful substances

– Replicate by pinching in half

 “Powerhouses” of the cell

– Control center of the cell

– Contains genetic material (DNA)

 Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli

– Ribosomes then migrate to the cytoplasm through nuclear pores

Protein Synthesis: Transcription

Protein Synthesis: Translation