UNIT 5: REVENUE AND EXPENSE RECOGNITON

Contents:
5.0 Aims And Objectives.
5.1. Introduction.
5.2 Revenue Recognition.
5.2.1 Revenue Recognized At Delivery.
5.2.2 Revenue Recognition Before Delivery.
5.2.3 Revenue Recognition After Delivery.
5.3 Revenue Recognition For Service Sales.
5.4 Expense Recognition.
5.5 Recognition Of Gains And Losses.
5.6 Summary.
5.7 Answers To Check Your Progress.
5.8 Model Examination Question.
5.9 Glossary.

5.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aims of this unit are to discuss and illustrate revenue and expense transactions, and the
accounting methods used to recognize revenue and expenses.

After you have studied this unit, you will:

 understand the theory and conceptual framework underlying revenue recognition
practices.
 be familiar with the revenue and expense principles as they apply to revenue and
expense recognition.
 be able to apply acceptable methods of accounting for revenue from long term
construction contracts and know under what circumstances each is appropriate.
 be able to apply the installment method and the cost recovery method of revenue
recognition and know under what circumstances each is appropriate.
 be familiar with the four methods of revenue recognition for service sales.

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  understand the framework linking expense recognition to revenue recognition.
5.1. INTRODUCTION.

One of the most difficult issues facing accountants concerns the recognition of revenue and
expenses by a business enterprise. Although general rules and guidelines exist, the significant
variety of marketing methods for products and services make it difficult to apply the rules
consistently in all situations.

The recognition issue refers to the difficulty of deciding when a business transaction should
be recorded. The recognition issue is not always solved easily. Consider the case of an
advertising agency that is asked by a client to prepare a major advertising campaign. People
may work on the campaign several hours a day for a number of weeks. Value is added to the
plan as the employees develop it. Should this added value be recognized as the campaign is
being produced or at the time it is completed? Normally, the increase in value is recorded at
the time the plan is finished and the client is billed for it. However, if a plan is going to take a
long period to develop, the agency and the client may agree that the client will be billed at key
points during its development.

5.2. REVENUE RECOGNITION.

The objective of any business enterprise is to generate income that will provide owners with a
return on their investment. The major source of income for most enterprises is from its
operation - the process of generating revenue by providing goods and services to outsiders.
Operations involve the incurring of costs and expenses, and unless a satisfactory level of
revenue is generated a loss or a low level of income will result, no matter how carefully costs
and expenses are controlled. Consequently, the meaning of revenue and the criteria for its
recognition are important not only to accountants but also to enterprise and to the users of its
financial statements.

In today’s more complex and uncertain business environment, accountants are faced with two
tasks relating to revenue i.e. to determine when revenue is realized and the birr amount at
which it is recognized in the accounting records. Because of new and frequently complex
ways of structuring business transactions, and because of the many new products and services

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developed in recent years, revenue recognition has become one of the most challenging
problems in financial accounting.

SFAC No 5 defines recognition as the recording of an item in the accounts and financial
statements as an asset, liability, revenue, expense, gain, or loss. Recognition includes
depiction of an item in both words and numbers, with the amount included in the summarized
figures reported in the financial statements

Four fundamental criteria must be met before an item can be recognized. These are definition
(the item or the event must meet the definition of one of the financial statement elements
(asset, revenue, expense etc), measurability (the item or event must have a relevant attribute
that is reliably measurable, that is, a characteristic, trait, or aspect that can be quantified and
measured. Examples are historical cost, current cost, market value etc), Relevance
(information about the item or event is capable of making a difference in users decisions),
Reliability (information about the item is representational faithful, verifiable, and neutral).

In addition to the above four general recognition criteria, the revenue principle provides that
revenue should be recognized in the financial statements when it is earned and it is realized or
realizable.

Revenues are earned when the company has substantially accomplished all that it must do to
be entitled to receive the associated benefits of the revenue. In general, revenue is
recognizable when the earning process is completed or virtually completed.

Earning process is the profit – directed activities of a business enterprise through which
revenue is earned; such activities may include purchasing, manufacturing, selling, rendering
services, delivering and servicing products sold, allowing others to use enterprise resources,
etc.

Revenue is realized when cash is received for the goods or services sold. Revenue is
considered realizable when claims to cash (for example, non cash assets such as accounts or
notes receivable) are received that are determined to be readily comfortable into known
amount of cash. This criteria is also met if the product is a commodity, such as gold or wheat,
for which there is a public market in which essentially unlimited amounts of the product can

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be bought or sold at the known market price. In the measurement of revenue, realization
generally means that a measurable transaction (such as sale) or an event (such as the rendering
of services) has been completed or is sufficiently finalized to warrant the recording of earned
revenue in the accounting records. The selection of the critical event indicating that revenue
has been realized (earned) is the foundation of the revenue realization principle. In addition,
revenue to be recognized collection of the claims from customers and clients who have
purchased goods and services should be reasonably assured.

In general, revenues are recognized (formally recorded in the accounting records) as soon as
all criteria are met. An accounting issue is to determine when the criteria are met for different
types of revenue – generating transactions.

In making many revenue & expense recognition decisions, accountants may rely on estimates
and professional judgments. For example, the amount spent for material, labor, and other
services may be measured objectively, however, the continuous transformation of these cost
inputs into more valuable outputs is an internal process that requires estimates based on
subjective judgment. In tracing the effect of this process and portraying it in terms of birr,
accountants do not have objective external evidence supporting market transactions as a basis
for measurement and recording.

However, generally accepted accounting principles provide few guidelines for making
estimates and for exercising professional judgment in specific revenue & expense recognition
situations.

Check your progress – 1

i. Briefly describe the three revenue realization conditions.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________.
ii. Briefly describe the importance of evidence, estimates and professional judgment and
experience in the process of recognizing revenue & expense in the accounting records.
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________.

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Stages at which revenues are recognized.
The delivery of goods or services to a customer is a significant event that occurs in virtually
all revenue – generating transitions. Given this fact, three broad timing categories of revenue
recognition can be identified:
1. Revenue recognized on delivery of the product or service (the point of sale)
2. Revenue recognized before delivery of the product or service.
3. Revenue recognized after delivery of the product or service.
For most companies and for most goods and services, however, revenue is recognized at the
time of delivery of the goods or services to the customer: Revenue is them considered both
earned and realized or realizable when the product or service is delivered.

Revenue is sometimes recognized before delivery when the earning process extends over
several accounting periods and it is considered important (i.e. relevant) to provide revenue
information before the earning process is complete. For example, when there is a contract to
produce a product for a known birr amount that will be received when the product is delivered
(i.e. it is realizable), revenue can be recognized as it is earned, before the product is delivered
to the customer.

Revenue is sometimes recognized after delivery when there are concerns about the amount of
revenue that will be realized. Revenue has been earned, but recognition is delayed until the
amount realizable is determined. In these situations, providing reliable revenue information is
considered more important than early, potentially more relevant but less reliable, revenue
information.

5.2.1. Revenue Recognized at Delivery (Point of Sale)

The conditions for revenue recognition are usually met at the time goods or services are
delivered. Thus, revenue from the sale of goods is usually recognized at the date of sale,
which is the date the goods are delivered to the customer. Revenue from services rendered is
likewise recognized when the services have been performed. This is the point – of – sale
method, sometimes called the sales method or the delivery methods of revenue recognition.

Some costs associated with servicing a product or service sold with a guarantee or warranty
may be incurred after delivery. When these cost can be reasonably estimated, revenue is still

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recognized at the date of sale, with a provision made for future warranty cost. In this case,
revenue is considered earned and realizable.

One may question why accountants choose so late a stage in the earning process to recognize
revenue and thus net income.

The answer comes in two parts: (1) At any point prior to sale, the expected selling price of a
product and the ability to sell it at a profit may be so uncertain that they do not constitute
sufficient evidence to justify an upward valuation of the product, and (2) for most business
enterprises the actual sale of a product is the most important step – the critical event – in the
earning process. Until a sale is made and the product is delivered to and accepted by the
customer, the future stream of revenue is both uncertain and unearned.
Shipment of goods on consignment does not constitute sales. In a consignment, goods are
transferred to another party (the consignee), who acts as an agent for the owner of the goods
(the consignor). Title to the goods remains with the owner until the agent sells the goods to
ultimate customers, at which time a sales transaction takes place and revenue is recognized by
the consignor.

1. Installment method:
Business enterprises that sell goods on the installment plan may use the installment method of
accounting only when accrual accounting is not considered appropriate. The installment
method is widely used for income tax purposes because it postpones the payment of income
taxes until installment receivables are collected. However, the installment method is not
acceptable for financial accounting unless considerable doubt exists as to the collectibles of
the receivables and a reasonable estimate of doubtful accounts expense can’t be is made.

Under the installment method, the seller recognizes gross profit on sales in proportion to the
cash collected. If the rate of gross profit on installment sales is 40%, each birr of cash
collected on the installment receivables represents 40 cents of gross profit and 60 cents of cost
recovery.

Repossessions are common under the installment sales method because this method is used
only when there is substantial uncertainty of collection.

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Revenue Recognition when Right of Return Exists
Even when a sale occurs, the recognition of revenue may be delayed because of unusual terms
surrounding the sales transaction. For example, in the recorded music and book publishing
industries it is common practice to give retail stores the right to return products sold and
delivered to them if they cannot resell these products. When such a right of return exists, the
seller continues to be exposed to the usual risks of ownership, and revenue is recognized on
the date of sale only if all of the following conditions are met.
1. The seller’s price to the buyer is substantially fixed or determinable on the date of
sale.
2. The buyer has paid the seller, or is obligated to pay the seller and the obligations not
contingent on resale of the product.
3. The buyer’s obligation to the seller would not be changed in the event of theft or
physical destruction or damage of the product.
4. the buyer acquiring the product for resale has economic substance apart from that
provided by the seller.
5. the seller does not have a significant obligations for future performance to bring about
resale of the product by the buyer.
6. the amount of future returns can be reasonable estimated.

If these conditions are met and sales are recorded, provision for any costs or losses that may
be expected in connection with any returns is made on the date of sale. The sales and cost of
goods sold in the income statement exclude the portion for which returns are expected, and
the allowance for estimated returns is deducted from trade accounts receivable in the balance
sheet. Transactions for which revenue recognition is postponed are record as sales when the
return privilege expires.

Sales on installment plan.

A sale of goods or services on the installment plan generally provides for a cash down
payment and a series of additional monthly payments. Because payments extend over a long
period, the seller customarily charges interest and carrying charges on the unpaid balance of
installment receivables. Revenue from installment sales is recorded in the same manner as
from regular sales, unless the collection of the installment receivable is not assured and there

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is no reasonable basis for estimating the probability of collection. If the accrual basis of
accounting is not considered appropriate, an alternative method of revenue recognition such
as the installment method or the recovery method which will be discussed later must be used.

Check your progress - 2

1. What is a consignment? How revenue is recognized on consignment transactions?
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________.

5.2.2. Revenue Recognition Before Delivery

In some instances the earning process extends over several accounting periods. Delivery of
the final products may occur years after the initiation of the product. Examples are
construction of large ships, bridges, office buildings, and development of space exploration
equipment. Contracts for these projects often provide for progress billings at various points in
the construction process.

If the builder (seller) waits until the constriction is completed to recognize revenue, the
information on revenue and expense included in the financial statements will be reliable, but
may not be relevant for decision making because the – information is not timely. In such
instances, it often is worthwhile to trade – off reliability in order to provide more timely,
relevant earnings information. This is the case for a company engaging in long – construction
contracts.

GAAP provides two methods of accounting for revenue on long – term constructs:
1. Completed – contract method: under this method revenues, expenses, and gross profit are
recognized only when the contract is completed. As construction costs are incurred they
are accumulated in an inventory account (construction in progress). Progress billings are
not recorded as revenues but are accumulated in a contra inventory account (billings on
construction progress. At the completion of the contract, all the accounts are closed and
the entire gross profit from the construction project is recognized.
2. Percentage – of – completion method: Under this method revenue, expenses and gross
profit are recognized each accounting period based on the estimate of the percentage of
completion of the construction project.

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The percentage - -of – completion method recognizes revenue on a long – term project as the
contract is being completed, thus timely information is provided. However, it contains
estimates and is not as reliable as information in the completed – contract method.

Management of a company has little freedom of choice in deciding between these alternative
methods of accounting for long – term contracts. When estimate of costs to complete and
extent of progress toward completion of long-term construction contracts are reasonably
dependable, the percentage – of - completion method is preferable. When lack of dependable
estimates or inherent hazards cause forecasts to be doubtful, the completed – contract method
is preferable.

Measuring progress toward completion of a long – term construction project is accomplished

with input measures or out put measures.

1. In put measures:
The effort devoted to a project to date is compared with the total effort expected to be
required in order to complete the project. Examples are cost incurred to date compared with
total estimated costs for the project and labor hours worked compared with total estimated
labor required to complete the project Among input measures, the cost – to – cost method is
the most common. The cost – to - cost method measures the percentage completed by the
ratio of the costs incurred to date to the current estimate of the total cost required to complete
the project:
total costs incurred to date
Percent complete = -------------------------------------------------
Most recent estimate of total costs of the project

The most recent estimate of total project costs is the sum of the total costs incurred to date
plus the estimated costs yet to be incurred to complete the project. Once the percentage
completed has been computed, the amount of revenue to be recognized in the current period is
determined as:

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Current period revenue = (percent complete X total revenue from contract) – total revenue
Recognized in
prior periods

2. Out put measures:

Results to date are compared with total results when the project is completed. Examples are
number of stories to be built and miles of highway completed compared with total miles to be
completed.

Illustration:
Illustration: FENOTE construction company engaged into contract with a municipality to
construct a 10 kilometer highway. Total contract price is Br. 900,000.

Additional data: Year 1 year 2 year 3

Construction costs incurred during the year ...........Br.125,000 Br. 495,000 Br. 145,000
Estimated cost to complete the project
at the end of the year ............................................. Br.625,000 Br. 155,000 0
Operating costs incurred (selling , Administrative)Br. 15,000 Br. 30,000 12,000

Required : using the above data compute the realized profit on contract revenue for each year
under the following methods of accounting for construction – type contracts:
(a) Percentage - of –completion method (cost – to cost)
(b) Completed – contract method.

Solution:
(a) Percentage – of – completion method
 Revenue recognized to date = Actual cost incurred to date X contract price
Newly estimated total cost to
complete the projects
 revenue recognized for = Revenue recognized _ Revenue recognized until the
end of the previous year
a particular year to date

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There fore,
fore,
Revenue recognized for year 1 = 125,000 X 900,000
750,000
= Br. 150,000

Revenue recognized for year 2 = 620,000 X 900,000 - 150,000

775,000
= 720,000 – 150,000
= Br. 570,000

Revenue recognized for year 3 = 765,000 X 900,000 - (150,000 X 570,000)

765,000
= Br. 180,000

Fenote Construction Company

Realized Gross Profit On Contract Revenue – Percentage Of Completion Method.
For Years 1,2 And3
YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3
Contract Revenue Br. 150,000 Br. 570,000 Br. 180,000
Costs Incurred 125,000 495,000 145,000
Realized Gross Profit On Contract Revenue Br. 25,000 Br. 75,000 Br. 35,000
Operating Expenses 15,000 30,000 12,000
Net Income Br. 10,000 Br. 45,000 Br.23,000
Br.23,000

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(B) Completed – contract method.
YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3

Contract revenue Br. 0 Br. 0 Br. 0

construction costs incurred.................................... 0 0 0
Gross profit Br. 0 Br. 0 Br. 0
Operating expenses Br. 15,000 Br. 30,000 Br.12,000
Br.12,000
Net income Br. (15,000) Br. (30,000
(30,000)) Br.(123,000)
Br.(123,000)

Some additional methods that have been proposed, and generally rejected, for the realization
of revenue prior to delivery of the product are production, accretion, discovery, receipt of
order, and billing.

The recognition of revenue prior to delivery generally is viewed as a departure from the
revenue realization principle. Recognition of revenue on construction – type contracts under
the percentage – 0f completion or on completion of “special order” goods has considerable
theoretical and practical support.

In general, when a sale of goods is not considered to result in revenue realization, the revenue
might be recognized at the following stages of the productive (earning) process prior to
delivery of goods to customers:
1. Prior to production.
2. During production
3. on competition of production
4. At some other stage based, for example, on production, accretion , discovery,
receipt of orders from customers, or billing of customers.

Check your progress – 3

1. What are two different approaches to determining the extent of progress toward
completion of a construction project? Identify some specific types of measurement for
each.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________.

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5.2.3. Revenue Recognition After Delivery
Under some circumstances the revenue recognition criteria are not met until some time after
delivery of the goods or service to the customer. Such is the case when :
1. The substance of the transaction if different from the form, such as in product – financing
arrangements.
2. The ultimate collectablity of the sales price is highly uncertain, such as with some long –
term installment sales
In such instance revenue may be recorded under the installment method, the cost recovery
method , or some other method based on cash collection.

2. Cost Recovery method.

The cost recovery method is sometimes called the sunk cost method. Under this method a
company recovers all the related costs incurred (the sunk costs) before it recognizes any
profit. The cost recovery method is used only for highly speculative transactions when the
ultimate realization of revenue or profit is unpredictable. The cost recovery method is also
justified when there is uncertainty regarding the ultimate collectiblity of an installment sale.

Under the cost recovery method, no profit is recognized until the cost of the products sold is
fully recovered. In the period of sale, the cost of the products is deducted from sales (net of
the deferred gross profit) in the income statement. The deferred gross profit also is deducted
from the related receivable in the balance sheet. Collections of principal reduce the
receivable, and any collections of interest are credited to the deferred gross profit ledger
account. Deferred gross profit subsequently recognized as earned is presented as a separate
item of revenue in the income statement.

Illustration: For installment method and cost recovery method.

On June 1,1997, Booker productions sells a large amount of unusual merchandise to a retailer.
The demand for the merchandise is unknown, the retailer is of questionable financial strength,
and thus it is highly uncertain as to whether Booker will ever be paid the full sales price. The
facts regarding the transaction and subsequent events are:

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 Sales price for merchandise Br. 140,000 100%
Cost of merchandise sold 84,000 60%
Gross margin Br. 56,000
Cash Collected in 1997 Br. 40,000
Cash collected in 1998 Br. 55,000
Cash collected in 1999 Br. 15,000
Total cash inflows Br. 110,000

At December 31, 1999, it is determined that no more cash will be collected from this
transaction.

Required:
1. Show the entries to account for this transaction using the installment sales method.
2. Shaw the entries to account for this transaction using the cost recovery method
3. Show summary comparative income statements for all three years for both methods.

Solution:
Requirements 1 and 2 are shown in side –by – side columns to illustrate the difference
between the two methods. Entries that differ between the two methods are shown in bold face.

Installment Method Cost recovery method

To record sales and cost of sales:
Installment sales receivable 140,000 140,000
Installment sales 140,000 140,000
Cost of installment sales 84,000 84,000
Merchandise inventory 84,000 84,000
To record cash payments received during 1997:
Cash 40,000 40,000
Installment sales receivable 40,000 40,000

At December 31, 1997, to record deferred gross margin and amount of realized gross margin
during 1997, and to close temporary accounts:

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 Installment Method Cost recovery method
Installment sales $ 140,000 $ 140,000
Cost of installment sales 84,000 84,000
Deferred gross margin 56,000 56,000
Deferred gross margin(Br. 40,000 X 0.4) 16,000
Realized gross margin 16,000
1998 entries to record cash received and to record realized gross margin
Installment Method Cost recovery Method
Cash 15,000 15,000
Installment sales receivable 15,000 15,000
Deferred gross margin 6,000+ 15,000*
Realized gross margin 6,000 15,000

+ Br. 15,000 X 0.4 =Br.6,000

* since all costs have been recurred, the full amount of cash represents realized gross margin.
To record write off of amount not expected to be collected.
Deferred gross, margin 12,000+ 30,000*
Loss on write –off of installment sale receivable 18,000 -0-
Installment sales receivable 30,000 30,000

+Under the installment sales method, the remaining deferred gross margin at the time of the
write –off is Br.56,000 – 22,000 – Br.22,000 – Br.6000 = Br.12,000.
*Under the cost recovery method, the remaining deferred gross margin at the time of the write
–off is Br.56,000 – Br. 0 – Br. 11,000 – Br.15,000 = 30,000
In both cases the balance in the installment accounts receivable is Br.30,000 (Br.
140,000 – Br.55,000 – 15,000)
3. Comparative income statement under the two methods are :
(In all cases, for years ending December 31).

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(amount in thousands) Installment Method Cost Recovery Method
1997 1998 1999 Total 1997 1998 1999 Total
Total
Installment sales Br.140 Br. 0 Br. 0 Br. 140,000 Br.140 Br. 0 Br. 0 Br.140,000
Cost of sales 84 0 0 84 84 0 0 84
Gross margin 56 0 0 56 56 0 0 56
Less: Deferred margin (56) 0 0 (56) 56 0 0 (56)
Add: Realized gross margin 16 22 6 44 0 11 15 26
Income (before write – off) 16 22 6 44 0 11 15 26
Write-off of un collectible receivable - - (18) (18) - - 0 0
Income Br. 16 Br.22 Br.(12) Br.26 Br. 0 Br.11 Br.15 Br.26

In general, revenue recognition under the installment and cost recovery methods of
accounting is based to a considerable extent on the timing of cash receipts.

3. Cash Collection method.

The recognition of revenue may be delayed beyond the point of sale until additional evidence
confirms the sales transaction. For example, a significant degree of uncertainty may exist as
to the collectibles of receivables resulting from revenue transactions, or a sales transaction
may be lacking in economic substance and therefore may after inadequate evidence of
revenue realization. Under these circumstances revenue is recognized as cash is collected,
and costs incurred are either recognized as expense or deferred, as considered appropriate in a
specific situation. An extreme application of this test of revenue realization is the cash basis
of accounting described in chapter 3.

Check your progress – 4

1. Under what circumstances revenue might be recognized after the delivery of goods to
customers?
______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.

5.3. REVENUE RECOGNITION FOR SERVICE SALES.

For companies that provide services rather than products, revenue recognition follows
procedures similar to those for tangible goods transactions. The four methods of revenue
recognition for service sales are:

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 1. Specific performance
2. Proportional performance
3. Completed performance
4. Cash Collection method

Specific performance.
The specific performance method is used to account for service revenue that is earned by
performing a single act. For example, a real estate broker earns sales commission revenue on
completion on a real estate transaction, a dentist earns revenue on completion of a tooth
filling; a laundry earns revenue on competition of the cleaning.

Franchise revenue: SFAS No 45, “Accounting for Franchise Fee Revenue” deals with a
particular type of service sale, franchises. It prescribes the specific performance method to
account for franchise fee revenue, which a franchiser earns by selling a franchise. For
revenue recognition purposes, it is often difficult to determine the point at which the
franchisor has “substantially performed” the service required to earn the franchise fee
revenue.

Example: Assume that on April 1, 1997, Chicago Pizza Corporation (franchisor) sold a
franchise to Arthur Wilson (franchisee) for Br. 20,000 cash down and received a note that
required five annual payments of Br. 8,739 beginning on March 31, 1998. The interest rate is
14% and the note therefore has a present value of Br. 30,000.

Two situations are examined:

Case A.
A. If no additional services are to be performed by the franchisor and collectiblity is
reasonably assured, Chicago pizza should recognize the entire amount (the Br. 20,000 cash
payment and Br. 30,000 note receivable)
As revenue on April 1, as follows:

Cash--------------------------------- 20,000
Notes receivable ----------------- 30,000
Franchise fee revenue ------------------------ 50,000

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Case B.
B. If Chicago pizza has additional services to perform for the franchisee, such as
outfitting the new pizza restaurant, no franchise fee revenue would be recognized on
April 1, 1997.
Rather, the entry would be:
Cash ----------------------------------------------20,000
Notes receivable ------------------------------ 30,000
Deferred franchise fee revenue --------------------50,000
On December 31,1997, Chicago pizza would make the following entry to accrue interest on
the notes receivable:
Note receivable---------------------------------------------- --------------3150
Deferred franchise fee revenue (Br.30,000 X ).14 X 9/12) ------------- 3150

Assume that Chicago completes its obligations to the franchisee in January 1998, after having
spent Br.2000 in the process. The entry to record this expenditure and recognize revenue
would be:

Deferred franchise fee revenue------------------------------------------ 50,000

Franchise service expense ---------------------------------------------- 2,000
Franchise fee revenue -------------------------------------------------------50,000
Prepaid expense, franchise services -------------------------------------- 2,000

Expenditures in 1997 by the franchisor related to the franchise would be deferred as prepaid
expenses until the associated franchise fee is recognizes until the associated franchise fee is
recognized, in conformity with the matching principle.

Proportional performance method.

The proportional performance method is used to recognize service revenue that is earned by
more than a single act and only when the service extends beyond one accounting period.
Under this method, revenue is recognized based on the proportional performance of each act.
The proportional performance method of accounting for service revenue is similar to the
percentage – of – completion method. Proportional measurement takes different forms
depending on the type of service transaction.

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 A. similar performance acts: an equal amount of service revenue is recognized for each
such act (for example, processing of monthly mortgage payments by a mortgage
banker).
B. Dissimilar performance acts: service revenue is recognized in proportion to the
server’s direct costs to perform each act (for example, providing lessons,
examinations, and grading by a correspondence school)
C. Similar acts with a fixed period of performance: service revenue is recognized by the
straight line method over the fixed period unless another method is more appropriate
(for example, providing maintenance services on equipment for a fixed periodic fee)

Completed – Performance method.

The completed performance method is used to recognize service revenue earned by
performing a services of acts of which the last is so important in relation to the total service
transaction that service revenue is considered earned only after the final act occurs. For
example, a trucking firm earns service revenue only after delivery of freight, even though
packing loading, and transporting preceded delivery. The method is similar to the completed
– contract method used for long –term contracts.

Cash collection method

The cash collection method is used to account for service revenue when the uncertainty of
collection is so high or the estimates of expenses related to the revenues are so unreliable that
the requirement of reliability is not satisfied. Revenue is recognized only when cash is
collected. This method is similar to the cost recovery method used for product sales.

Check your progress -5

1. Define service enterprises and service transactions.
______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________.

5.4. EXPENSE RECOGNITION.

After the revenue of the accounting period is measured and recognized in conformity with the
revenue principle, the matching principle is applied to measure and recognize the expenses of

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that period. The costs of those assets and services used up should be recognized and reported
as expenses of the period during which the related revenue is recognized.

Expenses can be classified into three categories:

1. Direct expenses are expenses such as cost of goods sold that are associated directly
with revenues. These expenses are recognized based on recognition of revenues that
result directly and jointly from the same transactions or other events as the expenses.
This is an example of applying the matching principle.
2. Period expenses are expenses such as selling and administrative salaries, which are not
associated directly with revenues. These expenses are recognized during the period in
which cash is spent or liabilities are incurred for goods and services that are used up
either simultaneously at acquisition or soon after.
3. Allocated expense are expenses such as depreciation and insurance. These expenses
are allocated by systematic and rational procedures to the periods during which the
related assets are expected to provide benefits.
The principles that provide accountants with guidelines for the recognition of expenses are

A. Association cause and Effect:

Costs may be recognized as expenses based on a presumed direct association with specific
revenue. Costs that appear to be related to specific revenue are recognized as expenses
concurrently with the recognition of the related revenue. Examples of costs related to specific
revenue include the direct cost of goods sold or service provided, sales commission, and
direct costs incurred in relation to construction – type contracts.

B. Systematic and rational allocation.

If a direct means is not available to associate cause and effect, costs may be recognized as
expenses based on an orderly allocation to the accounting periods in which the costs appear to
expire and presumably provide benefits received, because neither can be objectively
measured.

C. Immediate recognition.
Expenses are recognized in the current accounting period when
i) Costs incurred in the accounting period are expected to provide any future benefit

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 ii) costs deferred as assets in earlier periods no longer provide benefits, and
iii) allocation of costs to revenue or to accounting periods is impractical or is
considered to serve no useful purpose.

5.5. RECOGNITION OF GAINS AND LOSSES.

Gains and losses are distinguished from revenues and expenses in that they result from
peripheral or incidental transactions, events, or circumstances.

Most gains and losses are recognized when the transaction is completed. Thus, gains and
losses from disposal of operational assets, sale of investments, and early extinguishment of
debt are recognized in the entry made to record the transaction. For example, an entry to
record the disposal of a tract of land for cash would reflect a debit to cash, a credit to land for
cash would reflect a debit to cash, a credit to land (for its recorded cost), and debit to loss (or
a credit to gain) on disposal.

Estimated losses are recognized before their ultimate realization if they are both probable and
can be reasonably estimated. Examples are losses on disposal of a segment of a business,
pending litigation, and expropriation of assets. If both conditions are met, the nature and
estimated amount of the contingent loss must be disclosed in as note to the financial
statements.

In contrast, gains are almost never recognized before the completion of a transaction that
establishes the existence and amount of the gain.
Accounting for gains and losses reflects a conservative approach. Losses may be recognized
before they actually occur, but gains are recognized before a completed transaction or event.

Check your progress – 6

1. How indirect costs recognized under the cash collection method of revenue recognition
for a service transactions?
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________.

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5.6. SUMMARY

Revenues are gross increase in assets or gross decreases in liabilities resulting from the profit
– directed activities of an enterprise. As an element of the income measurement process, the
revenue for a period is generally determined independently of expenses by applying the
revenue recognition principle. The revenue recognition principle provides that revenue is
recognized when the earning process is complete or virtually complete, and an exchange has
taken place. The earning process is complete when revenues are realized, and realization
takes place when goods and services are exchanged for cash or claims to cash (receivables).
Revenues are said to be realizable when assets received in exchange are readily convertible to
known amounts of cash or claims to cash.

The matching principle provides guidance for expense recognition. The matching principle
states that for any reporting period, the expenses recognized in that period ate those incurred
in generating the revenues recognized in that period.

Most gains and losses are recognized when the related transaction is completed. Estimated
losses but not estimated gains are when they are probable and can be reasonably estimated.

5.7. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. (i) The three revenue realization conditions are:

a) Sufficient reliable evidence exists to measure the market value of the output;
such evidence generally is provided by an exchange transaction between
independent parties. The economic substance of the transaction indicates that
an exchange has occurred; more legal form of an exchange doesn’t support
revenue recognition.
b) The earning process (the creation of goods and services) is complete or
virtually complete, and all necessary costs have been incurred or may be
estimated with reasonable accuracy.
c) Collection of the claims from customers and clients who have purchased the
goods and services is reasonably assured.

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 (ii). Recognition of revenue and expenses in the accounting records requires
“competent evidential matter,” either external or internal (or perhaps both), which
frequently must be based on reasonable estimates. In the evaluation of the form and
economic substance of revenue and expense transactions, accountants use professional
judgment and their accumulated practical experience to determine if revenue has been
earned or if expenses have been incurred.
Professional judgment and experience always are useful in the implementation of
accounting principles, but these factors are especially important in the revenue and
expense recognition situations. Accountant must understand fully not only the earning
Process and flow of costs of a business enterprise but also its external environment
before they are able to make judgments as to the integrity of transactions, completion
of the earning process, future costs (if any) to be incurred in relation tot specific
revenue, and the collectiblity of the revenue.
2. Consignment is the placing of goods by their owner (the consignor) on the premises of
another company (the consignee). In a consignment sales arrangement, revenue is
recognized and inventory is appropriately reduced when the consignor receives word
that a sale has been mode.
3. The two approaches to9 determining progress two ward completion of a long – term
construction project are:
a) Input measures like cost incurred, labor hours worked etc.
b) Out put measures like number of stories of a building, miles of highway etc.
4. Revenue might be recognized after the delivery of goods to customers when the sale
and delivery don’t provide sufficient evidence of revenue realization.
5. Service enterprises operate in service industries and generate revenue by selling
services rather than goods. The revenue generating activities of service enterprises are
called service transactions.
6. When revenue from service transactions is recognized under the cash collection
method, indirect costs are expensed immediately because of the substantial uncertainty
surrounding the collectiblity of the revenue.

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5.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

PART 1. True/False
1. Inherent in any sales transaction is an element of gain or loss.
2. FASB concepts statement No 5 provides that revenue in recognized
when
(a) it is collected and
(b) the earning process in complete.
3. Accountants normally prepare a journal entry for a “contract of
sales”, while a “contract to sell” is not recorded in the accounts.
4. The different between realized gross profit and deferred gross
profit on installment sales in based on the cash collections
related to the installment sales.
5. Expenses paid by the consignor in a consignment arrangement are
normally deducted from any commission earned by the
consignee

PART 2. Multiple Choice

1. One of the more popular input measures used to determine the progress toward
completion in the percentage – of – completion method in
A) Revenue – percentage method
B) Cost – percentage method
C) Progress completion method
D) Cost – t0 – cost method
2. Hartman corporation recently received a long – term contract to
construct a luxury liner. The contract will take 3 years to complete at a
cost of $3,500.00. the price of the liner is set at $5,000,000. If the cost
estimates at the end of the first year are in line with original estimates,
and $1,050,000 of costs were incurred during the first year, the amount
of income recognized during the first year using the percentage – of –
completion method is:

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 A. $ 1,500,000
B. $ 1,050,000
C. $ 735,000
D. $ 450,000
3.Under the completed – contract method of accounting for long –term
contraction contracts, in terms charges and / or credits to the income
statement are made for

Revenues Costs Gross Profit

A. Yes No No
B. No No No
C. No Yes No
D. Yes Yes Yes
4. For which of the following products is it appropriate to recognize
revenue at the completion of production even through no sale has
been made?
A. Automobiles
B. Large appliances
C. Single family residential units
D. Precious metal.
The following information relates to questions 546.
During 1990, Winters Corporation sold merchandise costing $500,000 on an
installment basis for $800,000. The cash receipts related to these sales were collected
as follows: 1990, $1991, $1991,$450,000; 1992, $100,000.
5. What is the rate of gross profit on the installment sales made by
Writers Corporation during 1990?
A 37.5 %
B. 50%
C. 60%
D. 62.5%

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 6. If expenses, other than the cost of the merchandise sold, related to
the 1990 installment sales amounted to $60,000 by what amount would
winters’ net income for 1990 increase as a result of installment sales?
A. $ 240,000
B. $190,000
C. $71,250
D. $33,750

PART 3. Exercises

1. Ailec corporat6ion uses the percentage – of – completion method to account for work
performed under long –term construction contracts. Ailed began work under contract
#7031-21, which provided for a contract price of $3,645,000. Additional data is as
follows:

1993 1994
Cost incurred during the year……………………… $563,000 $1,764,000
Estimated costs to complete as of December 31, 1,500,000 -0–

Required:
a. What portion of the total contract price would be recognized as revenue in 1993 & in 1994?

b. Following information was taken from the records of Brenner corporation for the year
indicated. The company’s year end is December 31,
1993 1994 1995
Sales (on installment)…………………….. $450,000 $500,000 $620,000
Cost of sales……………………………… 342,000 360,000 434,000
Gross profit ……………………… $108,000 140,000 186,000

Cash receipts:
1993 Sales $125,000 $280,000 $ 45,000
1994 Sales $210,000 230,000
1995 Sales 250,000

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Calculate the amount of Realized Gross profit on installment sales and Deferred Gross
Profit to be reported in the year – end – financial statement of Brenner Corporation for the
year noted.

2. Houston Company uses the installment sales method to account for its installment
sales. On January 1, 1993, Houston Company had an installment account receivable
from D. Fredenick son Company in the amount of $2,300. Frederickson paid a total
of $500 on the account during 1993. However, late in 1993 Frederick son
discontinued payments and the merchandise was repossessed. When the merchandise
was repossessed it had a fair market value of $720. Houston Company spent on
additional $75 to recondition the merchandise. When the repossessed merchandise
was originally soled, it was to yield a 45% gross profit sale.

Required:
Prepare the journal entries on the books of Houston Company to record all
transactions with Frederickson Company during 1993.
3. On November 10, year 2, painting contractors, Ine. Commended a Br. 25,000 contract
to sandblast and paint several buildings for a real estates investor. The direct costs of
the contract (including subcontracting for the sandblasting, paint, and salaries of
workers) were estimated at Br. 20,000 On December 31,year 2. The contract
consisted of a large number of dissimilar acts. Through December 31, year 2, the
contract costs incurred amount to Br. 14,000 and the acts performed to date amount to
at least 801. Of the total acts to be performed by painting contractors.
Compute three possible amounts gross profit that painting contractors, Inc., might
recognize for the year ended December 31, years 2 on the foregoing contract.
4. Three independent eases are given below for 1995. The accounting period ends
December 31.
Case A.
A. on December 31, 1998, Zulu Sales Company sold a special machine (serial
No 1713) for Br. 200,000 and collected Br. 80,000 cash. The remainder plus 10
percent interest is payable December 31, 1999. Zulu will deliver the machine on
January 5,1999. The buyer has an excellent credit rating.

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 Case B.
B. On November 15, 1998, Victor Company sold a ton of its product for Br.
1,000. the buyer will pay for the product with two units of its own merchandise. The
buyer promised to deliver the merchandise around January 31,1999.
Case C.
C. On January 2,1998, Remer publishing Company collected Br. 1,800 cash for
a three – year subscriptions to a monthly , Investors stock and B and Advisory. The
march 1998, issue will be the first one mailed.
Required : For each case, briefly answer the following:
1. The revenue recognition method that should be used.
2. Any entry that should be made on the transaction date.
3. An explanation of the reasoning for your responses to (1) &(2)

4.9 GLOSSARY
1. Completed contract method – a method of accounting for revenue on Long – term
contracts where by revenues, expenses, and gross profit are recognized only when the
contract is completed.
2. Cost recovery method – is conservative method in which no profit is recognized until
all costs associated with the sale item have been recovered in cash.
3. Installment sales method – A method of revenue recognition that delays recognition
of gross profit until cash is collected, at which time gross profit is recognized at the
gross profit rate for the original installment sale.
4. Percentage – of – Completion method – a method of accounting for revenue on long –
term contracts whereby revenues and expenses are recognized each accounting period
based on an estimate of the percentage of completion.
5. Realization – means that a measurable transaction or an event has been completed or
is sufficiently finalized to warrant the recording of earned revenue in the accounting
records.
6. Recognition the process of recording items (revenue) in the accounting records.

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