CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ALONG THE

TOPOSEQUENCE OF MEDO SUB WATERSHED WONDO DISTRICT IN

WEST ARSI ZONE, ETHIOPIA

MSc THESIS

BY

ABRAHAM YACOB HERAMO

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY, ETHIOPIA.

FEBURARY, 2021
CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ALONG THE
TOPOSEQUENCE OF MEDO SUB WATERSHED WONDO DISTRICT

IN WEST ARSI ZONE, ETHIOPIA

BY

ABRAHAM YACOB HERAMO

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES;

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE

STUDIES ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN SOIL SCIENCE.

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY ETHIOPIA

JANUARY, 2022,
 DECLARATION
I affirm that this thesis is my original work, and that all sources of materials utilized in its
production have been properly cited. This thesis was presented in partial completion of the
MSc Degree requirements at Arba Minch University. I certify that this thesis is not being
submitted to any other institution for the granting of any academic Degree, Diploma, or
Certificate anywhere in the world. In all other cases, however, authorization from the author is
required.

Name: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Signature: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Date: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

EXAMINERS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As members of board of examiners, the MSc Thesis open Defense Examinations, we certify
that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Abreham Yacob and examined the
candidate. We recommended that the thesis accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the
degree of Masters of science in Soil Science.

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Department Head Signature Date

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Chairperson Signature Date

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Internal Examiner Signature Date

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 AKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I would like to offer my thanks and glory to the Almighty for directing and helping
me in all circumstances to complete the course work and my thesis successfully.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my major advisor Dr. Dereje Tsegaye (PhD)
and co-advisor P.D. Sharma (PhD) for their patient motivation, and support from the beginning
to the completion of this study and also, thanks to their support and understanding throughout
my time at Arba Minch University.

I would like to thanks my Organization Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and

Wondo Genet Research Center for providing Financial, Material and technical support through
the course of this investigation.

Next, I would like to thanks Mr, Ashenafi Niguse (PhD candidate) Wondo Genet Agricultural
Research Center Soil Department for his greatest support in providing information about
sources of materials. My deepest gratitude goes to Jimma Agricultural Research Center
Laboratory Staff Member Mr. Adunga Getachew for providing me with all possible assistance
Laboratory works.

I acknowledge Arba Minch University college of Agricultural sciences plant science

Department for their Support during my course work time.

Finally, my colleagues; Henok Tesfaye, Muleta Gadissa, Kedir Jemal, and Entaye of Woreda
Offices members played an incomparable role by supporting and, giving mental strength and
provide solutions to implement my work efficiently until its completion.

Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my entire family for their moral and
compassionate support during the research and thesis preparation process.

i
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

AA Atomic absorption spectrometer

CRREL Cold Region Research and Engineering Laboratory

DEM Digital Elevation Model

DTPA Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetic Acid

ERDC Engineer Research and Development Center

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

IUSS International United Soil Survey

NRCS Natural Resource Conservation Service

SSSA Soil Science Society Service

TEB Total Exchangeable Base

USDA United State Department of Agriculture

USEPA United State Environmental Protection Agency

WRB World Reference Base

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OFCONTENTS………………………………………………...page No

AKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................ i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3. Objective of the Study ................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................5
2. LITREATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................5
2.1. Definitions of Soils and its Importance ....................................................................................... 5
2.2. Effects of toposequence on morphological and physicochemical properties of soil ................... 5
2.2.1. Morphological and physical properties ................................................................................ 5
2.2.2. Chemical property of soil ..................................................................................................... 8
2.3. Characterization and Classification of soils in Ethiopia. ........................................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE. ................................................................................................................16
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS .........................................................................................16
3.1. Description of the Study Area ................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1. Physiographic location ....................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2. Land use/ farming system ................................................................................................... 17
3.1.3. Agro-ecology ...................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.4. Vegetation........................................................................................................................... 18
3.2. Site selection, Soil profile Opening and sampling .................................................................... 18
3.2.1. Site selection....................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2. Soil Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 19
3.3. Morphological characterization of Soil ..................................................................................... 20
3.3.1. Soil sample preparation and Laboratory analysis ............................................................... 20
3.3.2. Soil sample preparation ...................................................................................................... 20

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 3.3.3. Soil physical properties ...................................................................................................... 20
3.3.4. Soil chemical properties ..................................................................................................... 20
3.4. Data analysis.............................................................................................................................. 21
3.5. Soil classification ...................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER FOUR. ...................................................................................................................22
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................22
4.2. Soil morphological features ....................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Soil physical properties .............................................................................................................. 26
4.3 Soil chemical properties ............................................................................................................. 29
CHAPTER FIVE. ....................................................................................................................40
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................40
APPENDICES .........................................................................................................................55

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

List of Tables Page

1. Selected physiographic characteristics of representative soil profile. 21

2. Morphological features of the soils along the toposequence. 25

3. Particle size distribution and bulk density of the soils. 28

4. Soil chemical properties in soil of the study area. 31

5. Exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, percent base saturation, and Ca: Mg ratio. 34

6. Available micro-nutrient contents in soil profiles. 35

7. Diagnostic horizons, properties, qualifiers and soil types of the study area according
to (FAO/WRB,2014) soil classification system. 38

v
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix No Page No

1. Profile description sheet 54

2. Correlation analysis on physic chemical analysis. 60

3. Ratings soil pH for 1:2.5 soil-water suspensions and electrical conductivity 62

4. Rating of soil OM, OC, TN, Av. P and Av. K values 62

5. Rating of soil Ex. Ca, Ex. Mg, Ex. K, Ex. Na, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn values 62

6. Rating for CEC, PBS of soils and Critical levels of some plant nutrient elements 63

7. Fertility status of particle size distribution and bulk density of the soils in depth 0-20 cm 63
in soil of medo sub-watershed.

8. Fertility status of soil chemical properties in depth of (0-20cm) in soil of the medo 63
watershed.

9. Fertility status of soil exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, and percent base 63
saturation, in depth of (0-20cm) in soil of the soils at the medo watershed.

10. Fertility status of soil available micronutrient contents in depth of (0-20cm) in soil profiles 64
of the medo watershed.
11. Appendix Table 4. critical levels used to classify analytical results of soil fertility 64
parameters.

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

No Name of figures Page No

Figure 1. Topographic view of the study area 14

Figure 2 Location of the map of study area 15

Figure 3 Distribution of profile pits in the study area 17

Figure 4 Climate data of the study area 64

vii
 ABSTRACT

Soil characterization and classification study under the watershed is essential to recognize the
morphological and physicochemical properties for baseline information in order to draw promising
management practices. However, the impacts of topographic position on soil properties were not
properly investigated in the study areas. In view of this, the present study was carried out to
characterize and classify soils along the toposequence of Medo sub-watershed using the World
Reference Base for Soil Resources. Topographic positions were categorized as upper, middle, and
lower slopes. Where, one representative pedon was opened at each identified topographic position and
the profiles were described in situ. Soil samples were collected from each identified generic horizon.
The upper and middle profiles were moderately deep while the lower profile deep in depth (128 cm-
200 cm). The moist colors were dark reddish, dark and black in the surface layers of the upper, middle
and lower profile, respectively. For the upper, middle, and lower pedons, the surface soil structures
were weak, fine, granular; moderate, medium, granular; and moderate, fine and granular. The major
soil textural classes in the surface and subsurface layers, respectively, were sandy clay loam and sandy
clay. In pedons, soil bulk density varied from 0.8 - 1.2 g cm-3, the lower bulk density being in the surface
layers of the soils. The soil pH. ranged from 5.43 – 5.81 in the surface layers of the pedons, which was
rated as moderately acidic. Soil organic carbon contents were rated as low to medium (1.46 -2.23),
upper, middle and lower slope positions, respectively. Total nitrogen contents of the soils were varied
from 0.14 to 0.22 and rated as medium to high, representative pedons. Available phosphorus was low
to medium (10.56- 15.92 mg kg-1), for all slope positions. Soil exchangeable calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium were categorized as very low to low, medium to high and very high for all slope
positions, respectively. The cation exchange capacity and present base saturation of soils were
categorized as very high (60-80 cmolc kg-1), and extremely high to very high (>80%) in all pedons,
respectively. The upper, middle and lower pedons had Mollic epipedon in the surface horizon but they
had different sub-surface horizons. The middle and lower pedons had Argic and Cambic sub-surface
horizons, respectively. The upper, middle and lower slope pedons had Vitric, Leptic and Cambic
principal qualifiers, respectively while Arenic, Arenic and Aric supplemental qualifiers for upper,
middle and lower pedons, respectively. Therefore, the studied soils were classified as Vitric Andosols
(Arenic), Leptic Retisols (Arenic) and Cambic Phaeozems (Aric) for upper, middle and lower slope
positions, respectively. In conclusion, topography remarkably affects soil properties, therefore, site-
specific soil management is vital to maintain and improve soil organic matter and essential plant
nutrients. However, further research is required in the areas, particularly in terms of landscape and
land management practices, to determine environmentally suitable agricultural technology.
Keywords: Pedon, soils horizons, soil properties, world Reference Base.

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Soil is a natural finite resource base which sustains life on earth. It is a three-phase dynamic
system that performs many functions including ecosystem services and agricultural systems.
It provides essential requirements for human and animal life such as food, fodder, and fuel
(Schoonover and Crim, 2015). However, soils on and temporal scales (Karaca et al., 2018).
Soil is dynamic natural resources that results from soil forming factors.

Topography is one of the major factors of soil formation that influences the way soils develop.
It is both an internal and external factor of pedogenesis that influences soil formation (Wang
et al. 2001, Chikere 2015). who that the spatial distribution of the toposequence has a
significant effect on an area's land use pattern. The landscape's position affects runoff,
drainage, soil temperature, soil erosion, soil depth, and thus soil formation. Different soil
properties encountered along landscapes will influence plant production, litter production, and
decomposition patterns, all of which will affect the soil's carbon and nitrogen content. Clay
content and depth distribution, sand content, and pH found to be highly correlated with
landscape position (Wang et al, 2001). The highland's great variability gives rise to the
formation of various physical landscapes, which in turn are the cases for variations in soil
parent materials, agro-ecological zones, flora and fauna (FAO, 2014). On the other hand, with
an increasing population and the associated intensive land use practices, the highlands are
increasingly under pressure, resulting in widespread land degradation in the form of erosion
and topsoil loss (Dessaleng, 1991). Regardless of these factors, small-holder farmers in the
country's densely populated at highlands produce everything from the soil, with very little left
over to reinvest in soil fertility replenishment for the following year (Zeleke et al, 2010). As a
result, the success of agricultural production in the Ethiopian highlands is heavily influenced
by these distinctive topographic settings and underlying biophysical features (Chamberlin and
Schmid, 2012).

Among the major factors that affects the soil variability across regional scales are geology and
climatic conditions (Karaca et al, 2018). In the same way, different soil forming processes

1
could be influenced by the interaction of climatic conditions and landscape positions, which
leads to various soil types in specific areas (Fritzsche et al., 2007). Several efforts have been
made in Ethiopia to link soil properties to landscape positions for a variety of landscape
positions, as well as to identify different soil types (Alem et al., 2015; Yitbarek et al., 2016).
Similarly, other authors reported that particle size distribution, pH, OC, TN, available P,
exchangeable cations, and CEC vary with slope position (Dinku et al., 2014; Mulugeta and
Sheleme, 2010; Nahusenay et al., 2014). All of these studies found that topographic positions
had a significant relationship with soil characteristics.

Information on soil characteristics and distribution are indispensable for proper planning and
implementation of sound management practices which enables to restore degraded lands and
fertility status Ali et al., (2010); Dinku et al., (2014). Soil information can be acquired through
systematic field observation, evaluation and identification, as they provide information related
to potentials and constraints of the land Lufega and Msanya, (2017); Teshome, (2016). Since,
soils have a wide range of morphological, physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
Their characterization and classification are very important to get information of the soils.

Soil characterization is a scientific way of gathering soil information that allows recognizing
the physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the soils Sharu et al., (2013;). It is a
major building block for understanding the soil environment Onyekanne et al., (2012).
Furthermore, soil characterization records allow for the ideal classification of the soil to serve
as a basis for a more detailed assessment of the soil Sharu et al., (2013). Soil classification is
vital to reflect real diversity of soils to make decisions about adequate or sustainable land use.
It also helps to organize our knowledge, facilitates the transferring of experience and
technology from one place to another (Chekol and Mnalku, 2012; Adhanom and Teshome,
2016).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Ethiopia, agriculture is the backbone of the national economy (Shimeles, 2012), and production
has been highly dependent on natural resources for centuries (Amsalu et al., 2007).
Degradation of soil resources is very common and low soil fertility is one of the bottlenecks to
sustain agricultural production and productivity. Hence, understanding the soil properties and
their distribution over an area is crucial to plan and implement site-specific soil management

2
practices for efficient utilization of limited soil resources (Buol et al., 2003). However, this
valuable soil resource information is not yet properly investigated and documented,
particularly at watershed levels, owing to limited research funds (Idoga et al., 2005).
Furthermore, in Ethiopia, soil characterization and classification studied so far, mostly at
regional and small-scale, which are inadequate to provide basic soil data that can help to
manage soils according to the local variability (i.e., watershed or farm scale); (Hailu et al.,
2015).

Currently, the idea of watershed-based holistic development has emerged and is considered as
one of the viable options in rain-fed agricultural areas which leads to better agricultural output
in a sustainable manner (Madhan, 2008). However, the soil morphological, physical, and
chemical characteristics at Medo sub-watershed were not yet thoroughly studied. Moreover,
the soil fertility in the selected sub-watershed has been declining, owing to soil erosion, which
is forced by steep slopes, poor vegetation cover and continuous cultivation. Therefore, soil
characterization and classification study along the slope positions at Medo sub-watershed
levels is important to investigate the effects of topographic position on soil properties. In view
of this, the present study was initiated with the following general and specific objectives:

1.3. Objective of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

➢ To characterize and classify soils along the toposequence of Medo sub-watershed using
World Reference Base.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

➢ To characterize the soils in the toposequence of Medo sub-watershed.

➢ To classify soils using the World Reference Base (WRB) classification system.

Hypothesis

➢ Soils of the sub-watershed varied in their physical, chemical and morphological

attributes due to topographic position

3
Significance of the study

The output of study will benefit researchers by providing soil information for further study and
will serve as references for academicians. Moreover, the study will provide clue for,
agricultural expertise, development agents and farmers.

Delimitation/ scope of the study

This study was conducted in Medo sub-watershade Wondo woreda, western Arsi zone Oromia
region Ethiopia. This study had limitation on time and budget consequently covered small area.
Due to time and budget constraints, the investigation was covered sub-watershade. The study
was carried out on soil classification and characterization on three slopes. In addition, the study
does not touch the Land use land management’s only the farming system after soil
characterization and classification along toposequence Medo sub water shade in study area.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITREATURE REVIEW

2.1. Definitions of Soils and its Importance

Soil is defined by the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) as "a natural body co
mposed of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquids, and gases that occurs on the land sur
face, occupies space, and is distinguished by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers
, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, an
d evaporation reported by (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Soil is defined in terms of genetic and environmental elements by the Soil Science Society of
the use (SSSA, 2004): Soil is an unconsolidated mineral or organic rely on the earth's surface
that has been subjected to and well-known exhibits the effects of genetic and environmental
factors such as weather (including water and temperature effects), and macro-and
microorganisms, conditioned by way of relief, performing on parent material over time. A
product soil differs from the cloth from which it is far shaped in many morphological, bodily,
and chemical traits and attributes (SSSA, 2004).

Soil is critical to life on Earth's survival. Except for what is taken from marine habitats, almost
all of the food consumed by humans is grown on Earth's soils. Soils also provide humans with
fiber for paper and textiles, fuel wood production, and road and building foundations. Soils
also serve as a substrate for the absorption of pollutants and excess water, as well as
groundwater recharge, nutrient cycling, and habitat for microbes and biota.

2.2. Effects of toposequence on morphological and physicochemical properties of soil

2.2.1. Morphological and physical properties

In order to place a soil in its correct position in the classification system, a thorough knowledge
of the morphological characteristics is necessary.

2.2.1.1. Soil color

Soil color is one of the important basic properties that helps to identify the types of soils and
recognize the successive distinction in horizonation of soil profile, it has long been used for
soil identification and qualitative measurements of soil properties it is helpful in characterizing

5
soil types in field to indicate that (Hossain et al.,2006) reported that the alternate wetting and
drying conditions in the soils resulted in the reduction and subsequent release of iron oxides,
which where accumulated in the form of brown, light olive brown, dark brown and dark
yellowish-brown mottles in the soil matrix of the profiles. Dark color (low chroma) of soils
could be related to the strong impregnation of profile by organic matter during pedogenesis or
to prolong water logging (Dengiz et al., 2012).

These variations in soil color appear to be a product of chemical and mineralogical composition
as well as textural make up of soils conditioned by topographic position and moisture regime.
Soil color is a significant morphological property of soil that can be greatly altered by elevation
changes. According to (Mohammed et al., 2005), color characteristics showed a gradiant in a
pattern of variation from dark in up slope uncultivated soils to brown in foot slope cultivated
soils to black and or dark brown in toe slope cultivated soils in the Jelo micro catchment of the
characteristics high land of eastern Ethiopia.

2.2.1.2. Soil depth

Depth of soil profile from the top to parent material or bedrock or to the layer of obstacles for
roots. It differs significantly for different soil types. It is one of basic criterions used in soil
classification. Soil can be very shallow (less than 25 cm), shallow (25cm-50cm), moderately
deep (50cm-90cm), deep (90cm-150cm) and very deep (more than 150cm) According to FAO,
(2006). soil depth is very critical for plant growth.

The soil at shoulders tends to be shallower due to erosion, whereas the soils in the foot slope
and toe-slope areas tend to be thicker as a result of deposition. Erosion causes striping of the
soil thus preventing the material to stay in place to develop in a soil. The greatest erodibility
was associated with the upper slope positions where soils tended to be shallow. coarse in
texture and low in organic matter while lower erodibility was observed at the lower slope
positions with deep, organic reach in soils (Martz. 1992). who related landform elements to
soil properties stated that an increase in slope is associated with a reduction in leaching, OM
content, mineral weathering, horizon differentiation, and solum thickness.

2.2.1.3. Soil texture

According to Gupta, (2000) Texture is an important soil physical characteristic because it, in
part, determines water intake rate (infiltration), water storage in the soil, the ease of tilling the

6
soil, the amount of aeration (vital to root growth), and also influence the soil fertility. It is one
of the inherent soil properties less affected by management and which determine nutrient
status, organic matter content, or circulation and water holding capacity of a given soil ( Hillel,
1980); Shrinkant and Bapat 1993) described that soils at higher elevations are less developed
and have low clay content than the soils in the lower elevations due to topographic and
vegetation differences. The soil textural class varied with positions of soil in the land scape. It
ranged from silt clay loam in the upper slopes to clayey in the lower slope positions; suggesting
the amount of clay increase down slope (Mohammed et al., 2005).

2.2.1.4. Soil structure and consistence

The term structure refers to the arrangement of primary and secondary soil particles in to
aggregates or Pedon’s. Soil structure is one of the soil morphological or physical properties,
which is very sensitive to soil management practices. (Ashanafi et al., 2010) reported that
higher clay content could be the reason for better development of soil structure. Aggregate
dynamics is mostly intensively influenced by soil OM and particle size distribution (Tobiaova
et al.,2013).

Both biological and physic-chemical processes are involved in the formation of soil aggregates.
Soil structural properties showed variations with toposequence and were related to organic
matter content and textural characteristics. A study conducted by (Mohammed et al., 2005)
indicated that the surface soil at foot slope had strong to moderate, fine to medium, sub angular
blocky, whereas the structure changed to moderate to strong, medium to coarse angular blocky
in the sub soil. Soil consistence refers to the manifestations of the physical forces of cohesion
and adhesion acting within the soil at a range of soil moisture contents (Lal and Shukla, 2008).
Most of the time, consistence is described for three moisture levels; wet, moist, and dry (Buol
et al., 2003). Ashenafi et al., 2010) stated that friable consistency of soils indicates that soils
are workable at appropriate moisture content and they lack of very sticky and very plastic
consistency.

2.2.1.5. Soil bulk density and Particle density

Bulk density is defined as the dry weight of soil per unit volume of soil. Bulk density considers
both the solids and the pore-space; whereas, particle density considers only the mineral solids.
Tillage can increase bulk density if it breaks down aggregates and allows soil separates to pack

7
more tightly. Adding organic material decreases bulk density because organic material has a
lower bulk density. However, additions are typically so small in proportion to the weight of
soil that they do not markedly influence bulk density except at the soil-atmosphere interface.
An increase in soil bulk density by 21-42% was observed due to deforestation and subsequent
cultivation (Mojiri et al., 2012).as the soil OM contents decreased. The soil would be less
aggregated and the bulk density would be increased. As a result, that total porosity would be
decreased following the general relationship of soil bulk density to root growth (Shapouri et
al., 2001).

Particle density is the weight of an individual soil particle per unit volume. Usually, particle
density is expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter (Mgc/m3).an average volume for
particle density in 2.66 gm3. Same mineral top soil high in OM (15-20%) may have particle
density as low as 2.40 g cm-3 or even less. Hence, particle density values indicate the rough
level of OM content of the soil (Brady and weil, 2008; Isola et al, 2020) reported that, the
lowest bulk density recorded at the lower topographic position could be attributed to the
relatively high organic matter contents. Whereas the highest bulk density at the upper slope
positions might be due to high concentration of coarser fragments and low organic matter
accumulations.

2.2.2. Chemical property of soil

The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects as
physical property and the health of its living population. Some of these soil chemical properties
are soil reaction (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic matter (organic carbon), total
nitrogen, phosphorus, Cation exchange capacity, exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na),
percent base saturation, and concentration of available forms of micro nutrients.

Pierson and Mulla (1990) studied the soil properties on different slope positions and concluded
that soils formed on middle and foot slope positions contained higher organic carbon and
aggregate stability compared to hill slope positions. (Meanwhile, Moorman et al,2004)
illustrated that middle slope and foot slope positions had higher contents of organic matter than
hill slope positions. Topography is an intrinsic factor in soil formation that also influence
potential land use, though land use land cover also has the potential to modify soil properties
such as soil organic matter and nutrient levels (Liu et al., 2007).

8
2.2.2.1. Soil reaction and electrical conductivity

Soil pH is measure of the active Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. It is an indication of the
acidity or alkalinity of a soil and also known as soil “reaction”. In soils, it is measured in a
slurry of soil mixed with water and normally falls between 3 and 14, with 7 being neutral. Acid
soils have a pH below 7 and alkaline soils have a pH above 7. Ultira acidic soils (pH<3.50 and
very strongly alkaline soils (pH>9) are rare (Skssarve et al,2016). Soil pH is considered a
master variable in soils as it affects many chemical properties. It specifically affects plant
nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients, and
influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is
between 5.5 and 7.5 (Amour and Lait, 2017).

pH governs availability of nutrients in soil. It is an indicator of plant and other living organisms,
available nutrients, cat ion exchange capacity and organic matter content (Foth and Ellis, 1997;
William ,1990) has studied effect of pH on nutrient balance and observed that high pH of soil
can affect the micro-nutrients content present in soil. At low pH values solubility of micro-
nutrient is high while at high pH solubility of micro-nutrients get declined (Brady and
weil,2008). The extremely high and low values of pH often lead to failure of crop due to ionic
strength imbalance (Kumar et al., 2011).

Soil electrical conductivity (Ec) is a measure of the amount of soil (salinity of soil), soil EC
measurements are reported in units of (dS/m). Soil electrical conductivity (EC) is a
measurement that correlates with soil properties that affect crop productivity, including soil
texture, cation exchange capacity, (CEC). Drainage conditions, organic matter level, salinity
and sub-soil characteristics. Plants are determinately affected, both physically and chemically,
by excesses salt in same soils and by high level of exchangeable sodium in others. The
electrical conductivity of soils varies depending on the amount of moisture held by soil
particles. Sands have a low conductivity, EC correlates strongly to soil particle size and texture
(Grisso et al., 2005).

Factors influencing the electrical conductivity of soil include the amount and type of soluble
salts in solution, porosity, soil texture, soil moisture, and soil temperature. The concentration
of ion determines the EC of soils. High level of precipitation can flush soluble salts are more

9
likely to accumulate in soil profiles resulting in high EC. Electrical conductivity decreases
sharply when the temperature of soil water is below the freezing point (Boryan et al., 2011).

2.2.2.2. Soil organic matter

Soil organic matter is made up of organic compounds and includes plant, animal and microbial
material, both living and dead. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70%
microorganisms, 22% macro-fauna, and 8% roots. Organic matter is not acquired by plants as
a nutrient from the soil, but it cycling is important because of its association with the nutrients
(N, P and S) and the beneficial contribution that it makes to soil chemical, physical and
biological properties (Hoyle et al., 2011).

If the soil is poor in organic matter then it enhances the process of soil erosion and if it is
present in soil then this soil is useful for the agricultural practices. It commonly increases water
content at field capacity. Increase available water content in sandy soil and increases both air
and water flow rates through fine textured soil (Ramulu, 2001).

Wang et al., (2001) reported that the difference in SOC and TN content with depth of the soil
could be attributed that the effect of variation along the toposequence. The variation in
topography may simultaneously affect different soil processes including soil erosion and the
accumulation and decomposition of organic matter (Sun et al,2015). Relatively higher SOM
at the surface layers of the soil could be attributed to the rapid decomposition and
mineralization of organic matter under cultivation practices (Esayas,2005); (Dengiz and
Badan., 2010; Assefa 2015) also stated that the decline in SOM down depth of the profiles,
although there is a variation in the content as the content as well as in the rate of changes among
the profiles.

2.2.2.3. Total nitrogen

Nitrogen is a most important fertilizer element. Plants respond quickly to application of

nitrogen salts. These elements encourage above ground vegetation growth and give a deep
green color to the leaves. Plants roots take up N in the form of NO3- and NH4. It is the most
important major nutrient required by plant for proper growth and development. It is a part of
all living cells is a necessary part of all proteins, enzymes and metabolic processes involved in
the synthesis and transfer of energy (Singh and Rabore, 2013).

10
The inorganic N in the soil is only a small fraction of the total soil N. most of the N in a surface
soil is present as organic N. It consists of proteins, amino sugars, purine and pyrimidine
derivate and complex undefined compounds formed by reaction of NH4 with lignin,
polymerization of quinines with N and compound and condensation of sugars and amines.
These different N fractions are susceptible to various transformation processes (Hofman,
2004). Nitrogen cycle plays an important role in soil system and is influenced by biological
processes.

The lower value of TN in organic plots was reported could be due to crop uptake,
immobilization by microorganism and its loss through volatilization (Defore et al., 2000). Soils
with less than 0.07% TN have limited N mineralization potential, while those having greater
than 0.15% TN would be expected to mineralize a significant amount of N during the
succeeding crop cycle showing that most of the soils have good potential of N mineralization
(Hartz, 2007).

Land scape position creates differences in soil properties through directly involving in addition
and translocation of soil organic matter and nitrogen from the upper slope to foot slope
positions (Brubaker et al., 1993; Wakene and Heluf,2004; Tuma 2007; Mohammed et al,2017)
pointed out that intensive and continuous cultivation forced oxidation of OC resulting in
reduction of TN

2.2.2.4. C: N ratio

C: N ratio is defined as the ratio of the weight of organic carbon to the weight of total nitrogen
in a soil or organic matter. It is the relationship between organic matter and nitrogen content
of soils or plants. The wide C: N ratio leads to slow decomposition rate, nutrient
immobilization may occur, carbon and energy wastage in large quantities. On the country, in
narrow C: N ratio, carbon and energy starvation occur. When the residue with high C: N ration
is added to soils, there will be intense composition among the microorganisms for available N.
The C: N ratio in residues helps determine their rate of decay and the rate at which N is made
available to plants. Speed of decomposition becomes slow with more or wide C: N ratio residue
or low N percentage.

On the country low /narrow C: N ratio or high N percentages speeds the decomposition rate
(Prakash et al., 2011). When organic matter is added in soil, based on C: N ratio of the OM

11
two processes mineralization are immobilization of soil N occurs. If C: N ration of OM is < 20
then mineralization will take place and > 30 then immobilization will occur and in between
20-30 there will be equilibrium with no net mineralization or immobilization Rahul et al.,
(2012). According to Yimer (2017). the C/N ratio did not show across landscape positions and
horizons. The barrows variations in C/N ratios across landscape and horizons suggest less
variability in the degree of humification of organic matter. The incorporation of high C: N
residue will deplete the soil’s supply of soluble nitrogen, causing higher plants to suffer from
nitrogen deficiency. Therefore, with increasing C: N ratio, decreased soil organic matter
decomposition (Karim et al., 2013).

2.2.2.5. Available phosphorus

Phosphorus is a part of every living cell in plant. It is one of the most important nutrients
essential for plant growth which help for transfer of energy (Jain et al,2014). It is also an
essential part of the processes of photosynthesis, involved in the formation of all oils, sugars,
a (Singh and Rathore,2013). It is necessary for maintaining a balance between the other plant
nutrients and ensuring the normal growth of the crop. And becomes one of the key
micronutrients required for growth, respiration reproduction and metabolic activity in which
plant growth (Wagh, et al., 2013).

According to Gardiner and Miller, (2004) The soil with high organic matter content has better
supplies of organic phosphate for plant uptake then have the soil with low organic content).
Adequate phosphate availability for plant stimulates early plant growth and human maturity
(Solanki and Chavda, 2012); (Tale and Ingole, 2015) reported that high amount of phosphorus
at the foot slope position was observed as compared to upper slope position attributed for
maximum leaching from the upper slope area and its deposition at foot slope position. The
variation of available P content along the toposequence is paralleled with that of OM content.
This shows that soil organic matter could contribute for the presence of more available P in the
soil system (Hadgu et al. (2014) and (Aytenaw and Kibret 2015). On the contrary, (Nega and
Heluf 2013) concluded that available P content of tropical soils did not necessary decrease
with decrease of organic matter. The relatively higher available P in the surface horizons of
most soil profiles as compared to that of surface layers could be the difference in organic matter
contents of the layers (Havline et al., 1999).

12
2.2.2.6. Available Potassium

Potassium forms the third most important plant nutrient, limiting plant growth and
consequently reducing crop yields. Soil potassium (K) directly affects crop yield since it is
responsible for the maintenance of osmotic pressure and cell size, which in turn influences
photosynthesis and the energy production along with stomata opening and carbon dioxide
supply.

Clay minerals are the most important sources of soil K aside that from fertilizers. They hold
the bulk of mobile K and release it when the concentration of the soil solution falls due to
uptake by plants or to an increase in soil moisture. Potassium occurs on the exchange
complexes of soils especially clayey soils. It is mobile and subject to considerable leaching
particularly in sand soils. The leaching however depends on the concentration of K in the soil’s
solutions.

According to Xiafang and Weiyi, (2002), the amount of water moving through the soil and the
ability of the soil to bind K. for optimal nutrition of a crop, the replenishment of a K- depleted
soil solution was affected predominantly by the release of exchangeable K from clay minerals,
Available potassium was increased down the topography position and decreased with depth of
the soil could be due to foot slope position. Whereas, it was higher at the surface horizon as
plant residues falling on soil surface and decreased with depth of the profiles as organic matter
was decreased down the profiles (Rezaei et al., 2015).

2.2.2.7. Exchangeable bases

The term exchangeable bases refer to the sum of the bases (Calcium, magnesium, Potassium,
and Sodium) in exchangeable form expressed as milligram equivalents per 100g of soil. Soils
in dessert environment contain more exchangeable basis and less exchangeable hydrogen than
do soils in humid areas.in most agricultural soils, calcium occurs in large quantities than all
other basis combined. Levels of exchangeable cations have direct implications on the cation
exchange capacity (CEC)> Soil pH and finally plant nutrient imbalances and unavailability
(Nebitt and Young, 1989).

13
2.3. Characterization and Classification of soils in Ethiopia.

Characterization and classification of soils are fundamental to all soil studies and help to
document soil properties at research sites, which are essential for the successful transfer of
research results to other locations (Buol et al., 2003; Braimoh 2002; Shi et al.2005) also
reported that soil classification can present a basis for soil-related agro-technology transfer and
links research results and their beneficial extension to field applications. Soil types and
characteristics show great variations across the various regions of Ethiopia (Ali et al. 2010).
Natural conditions, such as geology, climate, topography, biotic and land-use/land cover
patterns are largely responsible for creating regional and local differences in soil
characteristics, and hence variation in their agricultural potentials (Shimeles et al., 2007). Soil
characterization studies carried out in different parts of the country revealed great diversity of
soils due to variation in geographical and ecological conditions in the country reported by (Ali
et al., 2010; Mulugeta and Sheleme, 2010; Rabia et al., 2013).

Accordingly, all Reference Soil Groups exist in different parts of the country, except for
Cryosols, Podzols, Technosols, Plinthosols, Planosols, Ferralsols, Durisols, Anthrosols and
Albeluvisols (Piccolo and Huluka, 1986; Fritzsche et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2010; Rabia et al.,
2013; Jones et al., 2013).

According to Jones et al. (2013) sustainable use of soil is required for successful agriculture to
meet the increasing demands of food, fiber and fuel from the decreasing per head farm land.
Detailed information on soil characteristics is required to make decision with regard to
management practices for sustainable agricultural production, rehabilitations of degraded land
(Dinku et al., 2014) and sound researches on soil fertility. Therefore, it is very useful to study
and understand the properties of soil and their distribution over an area in order to develop
management plans for efficient utilization of soil resources (Shi et al ,2005). Rabia et al. (2013)
also reported that found the occurrence of different types of soils in the Tigray region and
recommended a different management practice for each type of soil. Similarly, (Ali et al.
2010), and (Mulugeta and Sheleme 2010) indicated that different types of soils exist in Delbo
Wegene and Kindo Koye watersheds of southern region, respectively, and these differences
direct the requirement of applying different soil management practices for sustainable use of
the resource. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is universally accepted

14
comprehensive soil classification system that enables people to accommodate their national
classification system (FAO, 2006) and is widely adopted in Ethiopia.

15
 CHAPTER THREE.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1. Physiographic location

The research was carried out in Medo sub Watershed Wondo district of the West Arsi Zone of
Ethiopia's Oromia Regional State in 2020. The area is located around 12 kilometers northeast
of Shashemane town and 250 km South of Addis Ababa. Geographically, it is between
(38°35'E - 38°38'E longitude and 7°05'N - 7°06'N, between (38°35'E - 38°38'E longitude and
7°05'N - 7°06'N, latitude with altitudinal ranges ranging from 1700 to 2100 meters above sea
level. The area is primarily distinguished by bimodal rainfall patterns. The average annual
rainfall is 1121 mm, and the average annual lowest and maximum temperatures varied from
11.5 to 26.21°C. The study area is characterized by varied land features including mountains,
flat land and agricultural fields. It had steep topography in the highland mountains and gradual
and flat in the plains near to Hawassa area of the woreda. The area is dominated by 35.1%
plain lowlands, 37% hilly and 27.9% of mountainous topography. It occupies around 504.42
hectares. The district's population is projected to be male 54143 and female 55016, for a total
population of 109159.

Figure 1: Topographic View of the study area. Source (Unpublished Wondo woreda
Agricultural office)

16
3.1.2. Land use/ farming system

The district's primary land-use patterns are cultivated land (65%), grazing land (5.81%),
forest/bushland (10.78%), water bodies (3.76%), settlement (10.92%), and unproductive land
(3.73). The majority of the inhabitants in the district work in mixed crop-livestock agriculture.
Crop production is primarily rain-fed; however certain very particular and tiny sections of
agricultural land have been cultivated with small-scale irrigation. Annual crops such as maize
(Zea mays L), teff (Eragrostistef), wheat (T. astivum) potato (solanum tuberosum) and haricot
bean (phaseolus vulgaris) are the most widely grown crops in the study region. Furthermore,
perennial crops such as, sugarcane (sacchorum officinarum), Ensat (E. ventricosum), chat
(catha edulis), coffee (coffeeae), and avocado (persea americana) fruits are grown for food
and revenue. The natural vegetation in the study region comprises of a few tree species that
are Eucalyptus tree remains of a formerly thick evergreen forest that grows on hillsides.
(Unpublished, Wondo woreda Agricultural Office)

Figure 2: Locational Map of the Study area Source. Arc GIS 10.3 (Ethiopian Mapping agency)

3.1.3. Agro-ecology

The area is suitable for growing different crops because it has different agro-ecological zones
ranging from dega to woyna dega. The district has two traditional agro-climatic zones. Dega
60.24% and woyne dega 39.76%. During the two seasons, Belige and Kermit different types
of annual and perennial crops are growing. So, these agro-ecological zones create a suitable
condition for growing different crops. (Unpublished, from Wondo woreda Agricultural Office)

17
3.1.4. Vegetation

In the study area, there are natural, planted and protected governmental and community forests
which are found in west Arsi Shashenane town respectively. The vegetation in Wondo district
includes shrubs, trees, herbs and Eucalyptus trees. Data obtained from the agricultural and rural
development office of the study district and field observation showed that the area is covered
with vegetation varying from patches of tall forest trees on the slope of the escarpment to
wooded grassland of the plain areas of Medo. The most common plants are Acacia abyssinica,
Olea europea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Cordia Africana, Juniperus procera, Grevillea,
Cupressus lusitanica etc. (Unpublished, from Wondo woreda Agricultural Office).

3.1.5. Field Survey and Selection of Toposequence

An investigation survey was conducted in Wondo woreda and Medo sub-watershed, the chosen
Sub-watershed to record important information such as soils, topography, water/hydrological,
vegetation, land use and land management, and socioeconomic condition of the people. The
Ethiopian Mapping Agency (1:50,000 topographic maps) was used to conduct physical
observations of the designated sub-watershed, and general site information was collected. The
free-soil survey (traverse survey) approach was used to identify profile excavation locations
along the landform, as reported by Dent and Young (1981). Along the terrain, three mapping
units were defined based on slope position: upper-slope, middle-slope, and lower-slope.

3.2. Site selection, Soil profile Opening and sampling

3.2.1. Site selection

Before the opening of soil profiles, a general visual Reconnaissance survey was carried out
within the study area to identify the soils of the watershed. Free soil survey methods were
employed to selected profile excavation points as a major survey method along the
toposequence to detailed variability of the soils in the study area. Representative pedons were
opened based on the site information and soil profile characterization conducted with the help
of the guidelines for field description (FAO, 2006), and using the mounsel chart to identify soil
colors (Munsell color chart Munsell, 2000). During soil sample collections, litter, grass, crop
residue and any other materials on the soil surface were removed and areas near trees were
avoided.

18
The guidelines for field soil Descriptions (FAO, 2006) was used to divide the toposequence
into three slope gradients (Upper, Middle and Lower slope). Three representative Pedon’s, on
each in slope categories, was excavated representing upper slope, middle slope and Lower
slope positions along the toposequence with 2m width by 2m length and 2m depth.

3.2.2. Soil Sampling

The newly opened representative soil profiles and horizons were described and designated
according to guidelines of soil description (FAO, 2006). All-important morphological and
physical properties along with stated that information was recorded on standard soil site and
soil profile description sheets right at the field. Soil samples were collected from each generic
horizon for characterization of their physicochemical properties and classification.
Additionally, surface soil samples were collected from a depth of 0-20 cm along the
toposequence. To make composite soil sample, taken from each depth. Thus, from each depth
sixteen composite samples representing three each in toposequence were prepared to check the
influence of toposequence on soil properties.

Figure 3: Distribution of profile pits in the study area (source ARCGIS 10.3 Ethiopian
Mapping Agency)
3.2.4. Soil morphological Distribution

Soil morphological characteristics were described following the Guidelines for soil description
(FAO, 2006). The color, texture, consistency, structure, plant rooting patterns and other soil
features were examined to determine which horizons are present and at what depth their
boundaries occur. Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected from each

19
genetic horizon. Soil color was then determined using the help of the Munsell color chart
(Munsell, 2000). Soil structure was described in terms of the sequence; grade, size, and type
(shape) of aggregates whereas horizon boundaries were described in terms of depth and
distinctness. The soil consistency was identified at dry, moist and wet moisture conditions.

3.3. Morphological characterization of Soil

3.3.1. Soil sample preparation and Laboratory analysis

3.3.2. Soil sample preparation

The collected soil samples were carefully bagged sealed, labeled and transported from Wondo
genet Agricultural research center to the Jimma Agricultural Research Center Soil Laboratory
for preparation and analysis. The samples were air dried at room temperature, ground using
mortar and pestle and made to pass through 2mm sieve in the laboratory. Finally, the soil
samples were analyzed for selected physicochemical properties following the standard
analytical procedures.

3.3.3. Soil physical properties

Using the Bouyoucos hydrometric approach, the physical parameters of soil, including particle
size distribution, were investigated (Chapman 1965). Using a core sampler, undisturbed soil
samples were taken for bulk density (BD) assessment. The bulk densities of the soils were
determined from samples collected using the core sampler, the procedure described by (WRB
2014) was used to determine the soil particle size distribution by the hydrometer method, and
the soil textural classes were determined from this result, while bulk density was determined
from undisturbed soil samples collected using the core sampler method (Days,1965). Finally,
total porosity (TP) was calculated using the bulk density (Pb) and average particle density (Ps)
of mineral soil (2.65 g/cm-3) values as follows:

Ps
TP = 1- __ x 100
Pb
Where Pb is bulk density (mgm-3) and Ps is particle density (g/cm-3)

3.3.4. Soil chemical properties

Soil pH was determined electrochemically by means of pH meter as described by (Jankson
1958) in suspensions of 1:2.5 soil to water ratio. Electrical conductivity was measured by

20
conductivity meter on saturated soil paste extracts obtained by applying suction (Okalebo et
al., 2002). Organic carbon of the soils was determined following the wet digestion method as
described by (Walkely and Black 1934). Total nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl
digestion, distillation and titration method (Asadi et al., 2002) and available phosphorus was
determined using the standard Olsen extraction method (Olsen, 1954). The exchangeable base
(Ca, Mg, K, and Na) in the soil were determined from the leachate of 1 molar ammonium
acetate (NH4OAc) solution at pH 7. Exchangeable Ca and Mg were measured by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer, while K and Na were read using a flame photometer (Rowell,
1994). Cation exchange capacity was determined by 1 N neutral ammonium acetate method in
which it was, subsequently, estimated by distillation of ammonium that was displaced by
sodium (Chapman, 1965). Then, percent base saturation (PBS) was calculated from the sum of
exchangeable bases as a percent of the sum of CEC.

Available Micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were extracted from the soil samples with
Diethylene Triamine Penta acetic Acid (DTPA) as described by (Lindsay and Norvell 1978).
All the micronutrients extracted were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

3.4. Data analysis

To determine the magnitude and direction of relationships between measured soil

physicochemical properties, a simple correlation analysis was performed using the statistical
analysis software (SAS) version 9.4 model.

3.5. Soil classification

In the field, a preliminary soil classification was made based on the site characteristics, field
analysis, and profile description. The soils of the study area were finally classified into
different units based on morphological, physical, and chemical properties, according to the
(FAO 2006) classification system.

21
 CHAPTER FOUR.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Characterization and Classification of soils along the toposequence of Medo watershed.

4.1 Selected Physiographic characteristics of the Study area.

Altitude, Latitude, topography, land use type and soil management history were considered as
the physiographic characteristics of the study area.

The slope gradient of Upper and Middle slope profiles is sloping to steep sloping (15-20%) and
unfavorable for agricultural practices (FAO, 2006) and are weakly drainage conditions upper and
middle slope positions, whereas the slope gradient lower slope profile, is rated as gentile slope (5-
10), and favorable for agricultural practice. Then lower slope gradient is attributed to high runoff
erosion at upper and middle slope positions which allow water to drain fast and high-water
saturation at the lower slope position. The land use practices at the upper slope area is dominated
by trees and shrubs and the middle slope partially dominated by teff and the lower slope position
is dominated by maize and Haricot bean.

Table 1: Physiographic characteristics of representative soil profiles

Pedon Slope Latitude Longitude Altitude( Surrounding, Drainage class Physiographic Parent material
(%) masl) land form position

US 15 45049’44” 78054’53” 1902 Sloping Sloping Upper slope Igneous rocks

MS 20 45052’65” 78055’33” 1822 Steep sloping Steep sloping Middle slope Igneous rocks

LS 5 45057’85” 78057’12” 1760 G/ sloping Gentle sloping Lower slope Igneous rocks

US= Upper slope, MS= Middle slope, LS= Lower slope

22
4.2. Soil morphological features

All of the Pedon’s profile depths ranged from moderate to deep (128 to 200cm) (Table 2). The
parent materials, with the exception of the lowest pedon, limited the upper and middle slope
locations. The upper slope (US) and middle slope (MS) Pedon’s horizons were distinguished
by an A, B, BC, and R sequence, whereas the lower slope (LS) pedon had six horizons (A-BA-
B-C). The A horizon on upper and lower slope positions were formed as a result of the
assimilation of humified organic elements from grass and plant wastes, respectively. The
toposequence' B horizons the parent material's in-situ weathering results in the upper, middle,
and lower slope positions (Dinku et al.2014). The upper slope the top (0-32 cm) and the middle
slope top (0-30 cm) and A horizons of pedon were thinner than the lower tope (0-43 cm)
Pedon’s (Mulugeta and Sheleme, 2010; Dinku et al.2014). This could be attributed to runoff,
which could have deposited soil elements from the upper and middle slope positions on the
lower slope landscape. The accumulation of soil deposits eroded from the upper and middle
slope positions may have resulted in the middle slope condition at the lower slope.

The soil color (wet) for the Middle slope (MS) Ap, A2, B1, B2, and BC horizons ranged from
dark reddish-brown (7.5YR/3/1), very dark brown (10YR 3/2), yellow dark grey (7.5YR/4/3),
dark reddish-brown (10YR 3/4), and dark yellow-brown (10R/3/3). They had a variety of
colors ranging from 7.5YR to 10YR, as well as values/chromas ranging from 3/2 to 3/4. They
had a variety of colors ranging from 5YR to 10R, as well as a range of values/chromas ranging
from 3/6 to 5/4. (Table 2). Lower pedon wet colors ranged from black (7.5YR/2.5/1), dark red
(5YR/2.5/1), dark brown (7.5YR 3/2), reddish brown (5YR 4/3), dark reddish brown (5YR/3/2)
to light yellow-brown (10YR 6/4) for Ap, A2, BA, Bt1, Bt2, and BC horizons. They come in
a variety of colors ranging from 5YR to 10YR, with values/chromas ranging from 2.5/1 to 6/4.
(Table 2). According to (Sharma et al. 2006), chroma values greater than two indicate a deeper
water table in these soils, while values greater than three indicate a low organic matter content.
Soil color variation was observed across and between pedons, indicating that OM content,
parent material, and drainage conditions differed (Alem et al., 2015).

The surface soils of the three pedons were distinguished from the subsurface soils by a dark
reddish-brown and dark red wet hue, which was most likely due to the presence of more
organic matter. Similarly, (Teshome et al. 2016) demonstrated that organic matter content has

23
a significant impact on soil color, with the color darkening as the organic matter concentration
increases. As soil depth increased, the color of all pedons became redder, as did the value and
chroma (Table 2). These subsurface reddish and brownish hues indicate that the soil is well-
drained and aerated (Alemayehu et al.2016). This could be due to the accumulation of
sesquioxides in the subsurface layer, which are frequently responsible for the visible reddish
soil hue. Mottling (red, yellow, or brown splotches) was absent in all pedon strata, indicating
that the soil pores had not been filled with water for long periods of time (Sharma et al., 2006).

4.2.1. Soil structure

Within each Pedon’s defined horizons and among Pedon’s of the Medo sub-watershed, there
was significant diversity in grade, size, and form features (Table 2). As a result, the surface
layer structure of the pedon changed from weak, fine, granular in the upper slope pedon to
moderate, medium/fine, granular in the middle and lower slope Pedon. It ranged from
moderate, medium, and sub angular blocky in the upper and middle slope Pedon’s to weak,
medium, and angular blocky in the lower slope Pedon’s in the subsurface horizons (Table 2).
Except for the pedon on the upper slope, both the middle and lower slopes are surrounded by
cultivated land, exposing the surface layers of the two pedons to the effects of soil management
techniques, especially the pressure of soil tillage. Because of their higher clay content, the
subsurface layers of the two pedons (middle and lower slope pedons) demonstrated superior
structural development along the profile than their respective surface horizons (Ashenafi et al.
2010; Alemayehu and Sheleme, 2013; Tobiasova et al., 2013) also discovered that soil organic
matter and particle size distribution have the greatest influence on aggregate dynamics.

4.1.2. Soil consistency

The result revealed that under the study area, the exception of the middle slope pedon, the
surface layers of the upper and lower slope positions was very friable moist study area, whereas
the surface layer of the middle pedon was friable. The presence of comparatively higher
organic matter content in the layers could explain the friable and extremely friable consistency
observed in the surface layers. However, a slightly sticky/slightly plastic wet consistency was
observed on the surface layers of the three pedons (Table 2). Variations in moist and wet
consistencies within and across pedons are most likely explained by differences in particle size
distribution, specifically clay concentration, OM, and clay particle composition in upper,

24
middle and lower slope profiles respectively. This result is agreed, (Moradi 2013) who pointed
out that the soil consistency differed depending on soil texture. (Wakene and Heluf, 2004) also
suggested that the soil consistency is an inherent property, the presence of high OM in the
surface horizon amends it the result of approval with, different writers.

The horizon border between surface and subsurface horizons was visible in all pedons, with
smooth topography (Table 2). The topography was smooth and wave-like, despite the fact that
the horizon limits between subsurface horizons were progressive. Smooth topography was
discovered in the lower slope Pedon’s final successive subsurface horizons (Table 2). This
result is agreed, (Cools and De Vos, 2010), Differences in horizon borders between soil pedons
may indicate variations in soil formation processes, as well as partially reflecting
anthropogenic effects.

Biological activities with the horizon on upper topographic positions were characterized by
very fine few channels to medium root, medium, common and clear and smooth Boundaries
in surface soil and the horizon on middle topographic positions were characterized by medium
to common channels, medium root and earthworm pathways were higher in the surface layers,
and the horizon on lower topographic positions were characterized by very fine channels and
fine to medium roots and smooth boundaries surface layers, and decreased with depth, which
could be related to decreasing root biomass, aeration, nutrients, and management impacts down
the soil profiles. The roots in the Pedon’s various horizons ranged in size from extremely fine
to coarse, as well as in quantity from few to many. (Cools and De Vos 2010) also suggested
that the variation in nature of the horizon boundaries within a pedon and among pedons may
indicate the existence of variations in processes that formed the soils and, in some cases, they
reflect anthropogenic impacts. (Appendix 1)

25
 Table 2. Morphological features of the soils along the top sequences at Medo sub watershed
Horizon Depth Color Structure Consistence Horizon
(cm) (moist) Moist Wet boundary
Upper slop position (US)
A 0-21 5YR / 3/2 WE, F, GR VFR SS/SP C, S
A2 21-32 10YR 3/2 WE, M, GR VFR SS/SP C, S
B1 32-50 7.5YR/4/3 MO, M, SAB VFR SS/SP G, S
B2 50-70 2.5YR 4/3 MO, M, SAB FR S/P G, S
BC 70-142 10YR 3/3 MO, C, SAB FR S/P -
R 142+ - - - - - -
Middle Slope position (MS)
Ap 0-12 7.5YR/3/1 MO, M, GR FR SS/SP C, S
A2 12-30 7.5YR/4/4 WE, C, SG LO SS/SP C, S
B1 30-65 10R3/3 MO, M, SAB FI S/P G, S
B2 65-107 10R/4/3 MO, M, AB FI S/P G, S
BC 107-128 10R/3/6 MO, C, SAB VFI SS/SP -
R 128+ - - - - -
Lower Slope position (LS)
Ap 0-20 7.5YR/2.3/1 MO, F, GR VFR SS/SP C, S
A2 20-43 5YR/2.5/1 WE, F, GR VFR SS/SP C, S
BA 43-71 10R/3/2 MO, M, AB FR SS/SP C, S
Bt1 71-107 10R/3/3 WE, M, SAB FR SS/SP C, S
Bt2 107-136 5YR/3/2 WE, F, SAB VFR S/P C, S
C 136-200 10YR/7/4 WE, VF, GR LO NS/NP -

*WE = Week; FM = Fine and medium; GR = Granular; AB = Angular blocky; SAB = Sub angular blocky; FR =Friable;
VFR = Very friable; FI = Firm; VFI = Very firm; SS/SP = Slightly sticky and slightly plastic; S/P= Sticky and plastic; G-S =
Gradual and smooth; C--S = Clear and smooth; MO = Moderate; M = Medium; LO = Loose , F=fine, C, clear, SG= slightly
gradual, NS/NP = No sticky No plastic

4.2 Soil physical properties

4.2.1 Soil Texture

The particle size distributions of the study area revealed a difference in the proportion of the
three separates and their distribution with soil depth under each of the three slope positions
upper, middle and lower slope positions, respectively (Table 3). The Sand, silt, and clay
particle percentages in the three Pedon’s surface soils ranged from sand (63 to 74), silt (1 to
6), and clay (23 to 39) percent, upper, middle and lower slope positions respectively, whereas
the subsurface layers ranged from sand (61 to 78), silt (8 to 12), and clay (19 to 41) %
respectively.

26
As a result, of the investigated upper, middle and lower slope profiles. soil's sand, silt, and clay
concentrations ranged from high to low and low to moderate, respectively (Table 3). In all
slope locations, the results indicated that the textural class of surface soils was sandy clay loam
and sandy loam textural classes (Table 3). This indicates that slope positions had little influence
on soil textural class and also indicates the similarity of the soil's source material. In terms of
slope positions, the upper, middle, and lower slope positions had the highest mean value of
sand, silt, and clay contents in surface soils, while the lower, middle and upper slope positions
had the lowest mean sand, silt, and clay contents in subsurface soil (Table 3). The percentage
of clay was in sub-surface horizon of the middle and lower slope pedons is high, whereas the
percentage of sand and silt lower in the subsurface horizon. (Fugo et al. 2011) revealed that
higher clay concentrations were observed in subsurface soil than in surface soil, which they
attributed to clay migration and leaching processes from the topsoil. (Mulugeta and Sheleme
2010) also suggested that the percentage of clay in the profile increases with depth, indicating
pedogenic eluviation-illuviation processes. The removal of finer particles by selective erosion
or transfer of finer particles into the subsurface soil may be responsible for the highest sand
content at the surface soil of the three slope positions. This result is consistent with the result
of (khan et al., 2001; Brihanu et al., 2016).

Clay content was higher in the subsurface soils of cultivated land (middle and lower slope
positions) than in the upper slope position (grassland). This could be attributed to extensive
and continuous cultivation, which could have resulted from clay translocation from surface
soil caused by intensive and continuous cultivation. Similarly, to Teshome et al., (2013), the
reason for low clay in surface soil of cultivated fields may be due to erosion selectively
removing clay from the surface (Achalu, et al., 2012).

Both the middle and lower slope pedons showed a vertical increase in clay content. Despite
this, clay cutans, or clay skins were observed in the B-horizons during the field description of
the profiles. As a result, the clay buildup in the lower Pedon’s subsurface horizons could have
been caused by the predominant in situ synthesis of clay from the weathering of primary
minerals in B layers (Rust, 1983; Chadwick and Grahm, 2000; Buol et al., 2003). However,
vertical migration of clay down the profile was not detected in the upper slope pedon; rather,
a declining trend was observed in the current investigation (Table 3). The silt: clay ratio of the

27
soils was less than one in all studied pedons and recognized horizons, indicating that the soils
were weathered to an advanced state (Abayneh, 2005).

4.2.2. Bulk Density

Soil bulk density values of the soil ranged from 0.8-0.8, 0.8,1, and 1.2 at upper slope and 1,
0.9, 1.1, 1.1, and 1.3 lower slope 0.95, 1, 1.1, 1.1, 1.1, and 1.2 mgm-3 in upper middle and
lower slope positions, respectively. (Table3). The bulk density value of the surface horizon
ranged from 0.8 to 1.00 mgm-3 recorded in upper and middle profiles, respectively. Whereas,
the bulk density value of upper and middle profiles showed irregular variation with depth,
whereas lower profile showed systematically consistent variation. Even though it showed
under the study area inconsistent variation with depth of the profiles.

The bulk density values in all profiles were increased with depth. This is due to the presence
of high organic matter content and abundant root systems resulting in well-structured and
porous surface soil, whereas subsurface horizons had high bulk density values as per the lower
distribution of organic matter content, rare abundance of roots and poor aggregation of soil.
The results agreed with (Esayas, 2005; Adhanom and Teshome, 2016. Fikadu et al.2018) and
also agreed that the bulk density of soils increased with the depth of the profiles, which could
be due to changes in organic matter content, porosity, compaction and the weight of the
overlying soil.

Soils with a high or low bulk density, according to Patil and Prasad (2004), have poor soil
physical characteristics and are not beneficial for agriculture. The current study's findings
revealed variable bulk density values across soil depth in the three pedons (Table 3). The three
pedons' surface horizons ranged from 0.8 to 1.0 gm cm-3, whereas the subsurface horizons
ranged from 0.8 to 1.3 gm cm-3. In general, surface soils of the detected strata had lower bulk
density than subsurface layers, which is lower than the typical range for mineral soils (1.3-1.4
gm cm-3) as reported by Bohn et al (2001). In the current study, soil bulk density rose with
profile depth, owing to a reduction in soil OM content (Table 3). Several writers, including
(Achalu et al. 2012, and Wakene 2001), found that surface soils have lower bulk density than
deeper layers.

In terms of slope locations, middle and lower slope pedons had higher mean bulk density than
upper slope pedons, which may be attributed to cultivation. Tilling soils (cultivation) usually

28
decrease pore space and hence increase bulk density, which explains why cropped soils have
greater bulk densities than uncultivated soils. Bulk density is an indirect measure of pore space
that is largely influenced by texture and structure, demonstrating that as solid space and clay
content rise, so doe’s bulk density.
Table 3. Particle size distribution and bulk density of the soils in Medo sub-watershed

Horizon Depth (cm) Sand (%) Silt Clay Textural class Silt: Clay BD (g cm-3)
(%) (%)
Upper Slope position (UP)
Ah 0-21 63 6 31 Sandy clay loam 0.19 0.8
A2 21-32 57 4 39 Sandy clay 0.10 0.8
B1 32-50 61 12 27 Sandy clay loam 0.44 0.8
B2 50-70 71 10 19 Sandy loam 0.53 1.0
BC 70-142 74 7 19 Sandy loam 0.37 1.2
R 142+ - - - - - -
Middle Slope position (MP)
Ap 0-12 70 1 29 Sandy clay loam 0.03 1.0
A2 12-30 74 3 23 Sandy clay loam 0.13 0.9
B1 30-65 53 6 41 Sandy clay 0.15 1.1
B2 65-107 63 2 35 Sandy clay 0.06 1.1
BC 107-128 61 2 37 Sandy clay 0.05 1.3
R 128+ - - - - - -
Lower Slope position (LP)
Ap 0-10 74 1 25 Sandy clay loam 0.04 0.95
A2 10-43 63 6 31 Sandy clay loam 0.19 1.0
BA 43-71 64 3 33 Sandy clay loam 0.09 1.1
Bt1 71-107 61 6 33 Sandy clay loam 0.18 1.1
Bt2 107-136 61 8 31 Sandy clay loam 0.16 1.1
C 136-200 78 9 13 Sandy loam 0.69 1.2
4.3 Soil chemical properties

4.3.1. Soil pH and electrical conductivity

According to Jones (2003), the soil pH (H2O) at the surface layers (A- horizon) of the pedons
was found to be mildly acidic, with values ranging from 5.43 to 5.81. (Table 4). The upper
slope landscape had the lowest pH value in surface soil when compared to the middle and
lower slope landscapes; this was probably owing to the removal of bases cations from the top
slope gradient to the middle and lower slope gradients (Table 4). This small increase in soil pH
down the slope position might be attributed to soil material washing (Mohammed et al. 2005;
Shimeles et al., 2012). This conclusion is consistent with (Mulugeta and Sheleme's 2010)
findings, which showed that soil pH rose as the slope gradient decreased. In all of the soil
profiles from the various landscape sites, soil pH increased in general as profile depth

29
increased, which may be attributed to the removal of basic cations from the overlying horizon
via leaching and crop absorption.

The soil EC values of the study area ranged from (2.34–2.16), (2.02-1.84) and (2.78 -2.06 dSm-
1
) in upper, middle and lower topographic profiles, respectively. (Table 4). The EC values of
soil measured at the upper profile were (2.16,2.34), (1.71, and 2.62) dSm-1 in horizon A, A2,
B1, B2 and BC respectively. The value of EC measured at the middle profile were, (2.02, 1.84),
(1.53, 1.61 and 1.92) dSm-1 in horizon Ap, A2, B1, B2, and BC respectively. The value of EC
measured at the middle profile were, (2.78, 2.06), (1.25, 1.33), (1.22 and 0.73) dSm-1 in horizon
Ap, A1, BA, Bt1, Bt2, and C, respectively. The highest (2.78 dSm-1) EC value was observed at
surface horizon Ap of Lower profile and the lowest (0.73 dSm-1) EC value was found at the
surface horizon of the lower profile.

The Ec value of soil studied in the area showed consistent variation with depth of lower profile
and inconsistent variation with depth of upper and middle profiles. Despite the inconsistent
variation with depth of the profiles, the EC values throughout the profiles at all slope positions
were increased with depth, which could be due to continuous leaching and soil erosion
aggravated by over cultivation and removal of crop residues Abate and Kibret, (2016). from
these studies it could be associated with the increase in concentrations of exchangeable base
(Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+) and pH down the topographic positions. The EC values the studied
soil ranged from (0.73 – 2.78) dSm-1. Thus, the EC values of the soil in all profiles were rated
as salt-free according to show (1999), and also this result is agreed with (Ethiosis 2016).

4.3.2. Organic carbon, total nitrogen, C: N ratio and available phosphorus concentrations

According to Tekalign (1991), organic carbon rated < 0.5, 0.5-1.5, 1.5-3 and > 3 as very low,
low, medium and high, respectively. Thus, organic carbon (OC) contents in Pedons ranged
from extremely low to medium (Tekalign, 1991). Whereas the OC concentration in the surface
soils of the three pedons were 1.97%, 2.11% and 2.23 % in the upper, middle and lower slope
position, respectively and rated as medium range. In general, the OC increases with decreasing
slope gradient, with the maximum OC found in the lower slope pedon, which may be ascribed
to the movement of organic materials from higher slope positions to lower slope positions, and
thus higher organic material accumulation. Similarly, Dinku et al. (2014) found that slope
location has a significant impact on the quantity of surface OC buildup. Furthermore,

30
Kravchenko and Bullock (2000) discovered a negative and substantial relationship between
organic matter and slope positions.

In all studied Pedon’s, OC demonstrated a declining trend alongside the profile depth when
the depth of the particular pedon was considered (Table 4). The surface layers had higher OC
concentrations than the deeper layers. This was attributed to the presence of plant material, as
well as root and biological activity, on the surface soils as opposed to the subsurface soils.
Similarly, prior research found that the topsoil had a greater OC than the subsurface (Abay et
al., 2015; Alemayehu et al., 2016).

Total nitrogen (TN) in the surface soils of the three Pedon’s, like OC, was significantly
impacted by slope position, and with the highest and lowest amounts of TN detected in lower
and upper slope pedons, respectively (Table 4). This indicates that soil organic matter accounts
for the majority of total nitrogen in the soil (OM). According to Ethiosis (2016), TN rated <
0.1, 0.1-0.15, 0.15-0.3,0.3-0.5 and > 5 as very low, low, optimum, high and very high,
respectively. Thus, Total nitrogen (TN) in Pedons ranged from very low to medium (Ethiosis,
2016). Whereas the TN in the surface soils of the three pedons were 0.17, 0.16 and 0.22 % in
the upper, middle and lower slope position, respectively and rated as medium range.
Furthermore, the soil TN distribution inside the particular Pedon’s horizon showed a declining
tendency in comparison to soil depth, and this accompanied a similar pattern to that of OC,
indicating that the OM was the primary source of TN. This is consistent with the findings of
(Alemayehu 2007, Alemayehu et al.,2016, and Mulugeta and Sheleme 2010), who found that
TN concentration dropped as profile depth increased.

The C: N ratio of the soils ranged from (8.6 to 19.75) and declined with soil depth in general,
except the lower slope pedon (Table 5). The C: N ratio in the surface soils varied from (10.14
to 13.18) in the lower and middle slopes, respectively, suggesting optimal microbial activity
for mineralization of organic residues (Landon, 1991). Surface soils on the lower slope
exhibited the lowest C: N ratio when compared to the middle and upper slope pedons, owing
to the presence of comparatively greater organic matter.
According to Havlin et al. (1999), the available P content in the investigated pedons ranged
from 1.19 mg kg-1 in the bottom horizon of the upper pedon to 15.92 mg kg-1 in the A horizon
of lower slope (Table 4). The available phosphorus in the pedons' surface soils ranged from

31
6.07 mg kg-1 in the middle slope to 15.19 mg kg-1 in the lower slope's A horizon. In general,
the distribution of accessible P increases from upper to lower slope toposequence. This is
because the slope position is related to soil characteristics, which are regulated by erosion
processes. (Kravchenko and Bullock 2000) discovered that slope was adversely associated
with organic matter and accessible P in more than half of their research locations. The relative
maximum accessible P contents in the surface layers of lower and upper slope pedons declined
with depth in tandem with the OC contents. The decrease in available P down the profile in
these pedons might possibly be attributable to lower layers that fix phosphorus having less OM
and more clay. Because of in presence of clay illuviation in the high to low slope gradient in
upper, middle and lower slope respectively in accordance with this conclusion, (Alemayehu et
al.2016) found that available P dropped as profile depth increased.
Table 4. Soil chemical properties in soil of the Medo Watershed

Horizon Depth(cm) pH (H2O) TN EC OC (%) C/N Avai P (mg kg-1)

(%)
Upper Slope (US)
A 0-21 5.43 0.17 2.34 1.97 11.59 10.56
A2 21-32 5.52 0.14 2.16 1.46 10.43 6.25
B1 32-50 5.82 0.12 2.62 1.22 10.17 4.21
B2 50-70 5.75 0.09 2.31 0.92 10.22 3.35
BC 70-142 5.68 0.1 1.71 0.91 9.10 1.19
R 142+ -
- - - - -
Middle Slope (MS)
Ap 0-12 5.76 0.16 2.02 2.11 13.18 6.08
A2 12-30 5.69 0.13 1.84 1.58 12.15 7.42
B1 30-65 5.25 0.13 1.53 1.41 10.85 5.54
B2 65-107 5.31 0.12 1.61 1.08 9.00 4.36
BC 107-128 5.39 0.1 1.92 0.86 8.60 3.76
R 128+ - - - - - -
Lower slope (LS)
Ap 0-10 5.81 0.22 2.78 2.23 10.14 15.92
A1 10-43 5.90 0.13 2.06 1.63 12.54 11.46
BA 43-71 5.92 0.09 1.25 1.6 17.78 6.40
Bt1 71-107 5.81 0.08 1.33 1.58 19.75 3.89
Bt2 107-136 5.54 0.06 1.22 1.04 17.33 3.85
C 136-200 5.48 0.05 0.73 0.87 17.40 2.46

32
4.3.3. Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Bases

According to Hazelton and Murphy's (2007) rating of (6, 6-12, 12-25, 25-40), and >40
cmolckg-1 soil, CEC of the soils classified as very low, low, medium, high, and very high. As
a result, the soils' cation exchange capacity (CEC) ranged from (8.56 to 17.62) cmolckg-1
across the surface and subsurface layers, indicating a low to medium CEC. The lower slope
pedon had the highest CEC value, followed by the middle slope, and the top slope pedon had
the lowest (Table 5). From upper to lower slope toposequence, the distribution of CEC
increases. This was due to the relationship between slope location and soil properties.
(Kravchenko and Bullock,2000) discovered that when the slope position changed from upper
to lower, CEC increased. The CEC values of the pedons were incongruent with profile depth
(Table 5). However, CEC of the soils increased with profile depth in general, owing to an
increase in clay content and basic cations caused by leaching.

Slope positions, like CEC, had a significant impact on total exchangeable bases and base
cations, with the lowest obtained at the lower slope (LS) pedon and the highest obtained at the
US and MS positions (US and MS) (Table 5). This could be explained by the movement of
soil components from higher elevations and accumulations at lower elevations. The
topographic position difference could be attributed to soil particle removal from upper slope
positions by soil erosion and subsequent buildup in lower topographic positions. This study's
findings were consistent with those of (Shimeles et al. 2012), who suggested that topographic
location could influence exchangeable cations.

According to Bohn et al. (2001), In infertile agricultural soils, the exchangeable cation order
was Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ > Na+, and any deviation from this order may cause an ion-imbalance
problem for plants. The results of this study's analytical results revealed that all of the pedons
studied had the same order of basic cation concentration. The concentration of exchangeable
calcium in the exchange complex was higher than the concentrations of the other cations in all
pedons. This was most likely due to its higher adsorption to soil colloids than other cations,
particularly Na, due to its higher charge and lower hydrated radius (Foth, 1990).

The exchangeable Ca2+ content of surface soil ranged from 6.0 cmol (+) kg-1 in upper pedon
to 10 cmol (+) kg-1 in lower pedon, while the exchangeable Mg2+ content ranged from 1.2 cmol
(+)
kg-1 in higher pedon to 1.86 cmol (+) kg-1 in middle pedon. According to the FAO (2006)

33
assessment, both exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ were discovered in medium ranges. In all
pedons, the subsurface horizons had more exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ than the surface
horizon, which could be attributed to leaching from the overlaying horizons. With increasing
soil depth, the exchangeable cation content of all pedons increased marginally (Table 5). The
minor increase in basic cations along the profile depths could be due to soil material leaching
from the surface to the subsurface horizons (Ashenafi et al., 2010).

Topographic location had significant effects on exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations;
the maximum was found at the lower slope position. The increments down the slope could be
the result of soil particle removal from upper slope locations via soil erosion and subsequent
accumulation in lower slope positions. This finding is similar to that of (Ashenafi et al. 2010),
who discovered an increase in cations with soil depth as a result of leaching in the Delbo
Wegene watershed in southern Ethiopia.

Soil potassium levels were classified as (>1.2), (0.6-1.2), (0.30.6), (0.2-0.3), and (0.2) as very
high, high, medium, low, and very low, respectively, by (FAO 2006). The exchangeable K
content of the surface soil ranged from 0.72 cmol (+) kg-1 in the middle pedon to 1.19 cmol (+)
kg-1 in the bottom pedon (Table 5). The surface soils of the three pedons were found to have
higher exchangeable K levels, implying that the nutrient is less limiting for plants. Except for
the top pedon, the exchangeable K content of the soils increased with soil depth (Table 5),
which could be attributed to increased clay content in the subsurface layer that holds the cation.
The slope location also has a significant impact on the exchangeable K. The highest
exchangeable K was discovered in the lower Pedon’s surface horizon, and the higher and lower
slope positions had higher K content in the surface horizons than the middle slope position
(Table 5).

Surface soil exchangeable Na content ranged from 0.36 cmol (+) kg-1 in the upper and lower
pedons to 0.39 cmol (+) kg-1 in the middle pedon. In general, the concentrations of
exchangeable sodium (Na) and potassium (K) in the soil exchangeable complexes were lower
than those of Ca and Mg (Table 5), which may be attributed to the higher intensity of reactivity
of divalent cations on the exchange complexes.
According to FAO (2006), agricultural soils with a percent base saturation (PBS) greater than
50% are considered more fertile and conducive to crop development, whereas soils with less

34
than 50% are considered less fertile. The percent base saturation (PBS) values in the three
pedons' surface and sub-surface horizons ranged from high (60-80%) to extremely high (>
80%), Similarly, Hazelton and Murphy (2007) defined PBS in terms of the amount of
exchangeable base leaching or depletion. As a result, the PBS of the soils in the research area
can be classified as poorly leached (50-70%) or very weakly leached (less than 50%). (70-
100%). PBS, unlike CEC, was unaffected by toposequence; however, there may be a tendency
for increment as we move from upper to lower slope locations.
Knowing the calcium to magnesium ratio is critical for assessing the potential influence of
calcium on magnesium (Mg) absorption by plant roots. The surface horizon of the investigated
soils revealed a Ca: Mg ratio less than 10:1 ranging from 4.30 in the middle pedon to 5.52 in
the bottom pedon. According to Havlin et al. (1999), the Ca: Mg ratio should be between 10:1
and 15:1 in order to avoid Mg deficiency.
Table 5 Exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, percent base saturation, and Ca: Mg
ratio of the soils at the Medo Watershed

Horizon Depth (cm) Exchangeable bases and CEC (cmolc kg-1) PBS Ca: Mg
Ca Mg K Na TBS CEC
Upper Slope (US)
Ah 0-21 6.00 1.20 1.14 0.36 8.90 10.68 83.3 5.0
A2 21-32 4.59 1.27 1.15 0.44 7.45 12.72 58.6 3.61
B1 32-50 4.74 1.20 0.54 0.26 6.74 7.14 94.4 3.95
B2 50-70 5.73 0.60 0.31 0.21 6.85 7.06 97.0 9.55
BC 70-142 8.76
7.01 1.01 0.49 0.10 8.61 98.2 6.94
R 142+ -
- - - - - - -
Middle Slope (MS)
Ap 0-12 8.00 1.86 0.72 0.39 10.97 12.88 85.2 4.30
A2 12-30 4.24 2.21 1.00 0.44 7.89 8.56 92.2 1.92
B1 30-65 8.13 2.26 1.08 0.41 11.88 12.78 92.9 3.59
B2 65-107 8.76 2.46 0.87 0.22 12.31 12.92 95.3 3.56
BC 107-128 7.29 2.44 1.05 0.13 10.91 11.69 93.3 2.99
R 128+ -
- - - - - - -
Lower Slope (LS)
Ap 0-10 10.00 1.81 1.19 0.36 13.36 13.5 98.9 5.52
A2 10-43 10.25 2.32 2.02 0.40 14.99 17.62 85.1 4.42
BA 43-71 10.40 2.31 1.78 0.67 15.16 16.86 89.9 4.50
Bt1 71-107 9.15 1.46 1.42 0.85 12.88 13.36 96.4 6.27
Bt2 107-136 10.99 1.55 1.45 0.92 14.91 15.96 93.4 7.09
C 136-200 11.04 1.42 1.78 0.59 14.82 17 87.2 7.77

TEB = Total exchangeable bases; CEC = Cation exchange capacity; PBS = Percent base saturation;

35
4.3.4. Available micronutrient contents

The contents of available micronutrients varied with topographic location along the
toposequence and soil depth (Table 6). The contents dropped uniformly down the slope and
with soil depth along the toposequence. The concentrations of available micronutrients in
surface soil samples from the pedons were comparable to those in the corresponding pedons'
surface horizons.

The amount of Fe and Mn available varied depending on topographic location along the
toposequence and depth within each pedon. In general, the amount of available Fe and Mn
decreased with soil depth in all pedons (Table 6). (Havlin et al. 2014). state that the
concentrations of Fe and Mn in all soils have been determined to be adequate.

The A horizon of the lower topographic position had the highest available Zn concentration
(4.45 mg kg-1) followed by the A horizon of the middle topographic position (2.0 mg /kg -1)
and the third upper topographic position (0.71 mg kg-1) (Table 6). Furthermore, as reported by
(Havlin et al, 1999) available Zn content decreased with soil depth, and its concentration in
the surface layers around the pits was sufficient (Havlin et al., 2014).

The A horizon of the lower topographic position had the highest concentration of available Cu
(16.50 mg kg-1) followed by the A horizon of the middle topographic position (9.33 mg kg-1)
and the A horizon of the third topographic position (7.61 mg kg-1) (Table 6). Both available
Zu and Cu increased as one moved down the slope in the current study, indicating that surface
erosion is a major cause and that erosion control should be implemented. Furthermore, the
availability of copper and zinc decreased as one moved deeper into the strata. This could be
due to the link between available Cu and organic carbon concentration. These findings were
consistent with those of (Wakene 2001 and Mulugeta and Sheleme, 2010). According to Havlin
et al., (1999) the concentration of available Cu in all layers of Medo sub-watershed soils was
adequate (FAO, 2014).

36
Table 6: Available micronutrient contents in soil profiles of the Medo Watershed.

Horizon Depth (cm) Available micronutrient (mg kg-1)

Fe Mn Zn Cu
Upper slop position (UP)
Ah 0-21 64.56 24.50 0.71 7.61
A2 21-32 40.39 23.39 0.44 2.06
B1 32-50 14.00 22.29 0.67 11.33
B2 50-70 10.61 18.28 0.61 3.39
BC 70-142 6.39 13.44 0.06 0.83
R 142+ - - - -
Middle slop position (MP)
Ap 0-12 12.78 74.72 2.00 9.33
A2 12-30 11.82 39.72 1.28 2.26
B1 30-65 4.78 28.28 1.61 1.00
B2 65-107 4.67 16.22 1.78 0.06
BC 107-128 5.39 11.28 2.00 0.50
R 128+ - - - -
Lower slop position (LP)
Ap 0-10 16.11 89.94 4.45 16.50
A2 10-43 11.72 79.11 3.94 8.17
BA 43-71 11.61 67.67 3.50 3.83
Bt1 71-107 9.83 5.89 2.67 2.78
Bt2 107-136 8.11 5.21 3.17 4.22
C 136-200 5.22 5.72 3.38 1.89

37
4.4. Classification of the Soils according to WRB

The studied soils were classified; according to World Reference Base Legend IUSS Working
Group, (2015). The morphological, physical and chemical characteristics of the soils were used
for classification purposes. The upper topographic position had texture of sandy clay loam and
sandy loam at the surface horizon; a clay increment did not Observed. Granular and sub-
angular blocky dominant the structure at the surface and sub-surface horizons, respectively.
Furthermore, the surface horizon had thick profile depth, dark reddish-brown color with a
Munsell color value of ≤ 3 moist, and chroma of ≤ 3 moist, medium organic carbons and a high
percent base saturation. The surface horizon characteristics thus exhibit a Mollic epipedon.
Moreover, a Mollic/vitric property was observed in the Andic properties of the surface
horizons. Therefore, the soils are classified as Andosols according WRB soil classification
system IUSS Working Group, (2015). The profile had Mollic vitric property to be classified
as Mollic vitric principal qualifier. However, the sub-surface horizon had greater clay
increment over that of the upper layer horizon. Furthermore, loam sand or finer and greater
than 8% clay, indication of clay illuviation but doesn’t form part of natric horizon. These
properties signify the Argic horizon. Moreover, sandy loam textural class was the dominant
throughout the profile, and thus qualify Clayic supplemental qualifier. Therefore, the soil is
classified as Vitric Andosols (Clayic).

The surface soil at the middle topographic position had dark red moist color, moderate,
medium and granular structure, friable consistency, sandy clay loam in textural class, slightly
acidic in soil reaction, and medium in OC, and CEC and high in PBS (> 50%). The surface
horizon characteristics thus exhibit a Mollic epipedon. However, the sub-surface horizon had
greater clay increment over that of the upper layer horizon. Furthermore, loam sand or finer
and greater than 8% clay, indication of clay illuviation but doesn’t form part of natric horizon.
These properties signify the Argic horizon. Therefore, the soils are classified as Retisols
according WRB soil classification system IUSS Working Group, (2015). The profile had
continuous rock or hard materials starting < 100 cm from the soil surface this qualify Leptic
principal qualifier property. Moreover, sandy loam textural class was the dominant throughout
the profile, and thus qualify Clayic supplemental qualifier. Therefore, the soil is classified as
Leptic Retisols (Clayic).

38
 The surface soil at lower topographic position had texture of sandy clay loam at the surface
horizon; a slight clay increment was observed but not greater than 8%. The surface horizon
had thick profile depth, black color with a Munsell color value of ≤ 3 moist, and chroma of ≤
3 moist. The granular and sub-angular blocky structures were the dominant at the surface and
sub-surface horizons, respectively. Moreover, medium and high in organic carbons and percent
base saturation, respectively. Hence, the surface horizon characteristics showed a Mollic
epipedon. However, most of the subsurface layers showed structural development without
indications of carbonate buildup, existences of rock structure in more than 50 percent of the
volume of the fine earth fraction, and a thickness greater than 15 cm. Hence, the sub-surface
horizons qualify properties Cambic horizon. Therefore, the soils are classified as Phaeozems
according WRB soil classification system IUSS Working Group, (2015). The profile had a
cambic horizon not consisting of albic material and starting < 50 cm from the soil surface this
qualify Cambic principal qualifier. Moreover, sandy loam textural class was the dominant
throughout the profile, and thus qualify Aric supplemental qualifier. Therefore, the soil is
classified as Cambic Phaeozems (Aric).
Table 7. Diagnostic horizons, Properties, qualifiers and soil types of the study area according
to (FAO/WRB,2014) soil classification system.

Profile Diagnostic horizon Soil unit (WRB,2014) FAO (2014) Soil Groups Local Name

Surface Sub-surface

Upper (US) Mollic - Mollic Vitric Andosol (Clayic) Andosols Dima

Middle (MS) Mollic Argic Leptic Retisols (Clayic) Retisols Guracha

Lower (LS) Mollic Cambic Cambic. Phaeozems (Aric) Phaeozems Guracha

39
 CHAPTER FIVE.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. CONCLUSIONS

The morphological and physic-chemical properties of the soils along the toposequence of
Medo sub-watershed in west Arsi zone, Ethiopia were studied to evaluate the effects of
topographic position on soil physicochemical properties. The topographic positions were
classified into Upper slope, Middle slope, and Lower slope and a total of three pedons, one
from each slope position was excavated. Soil samples were collected from each designated
horizon of the pedons and evaluated in the laboratory for chosen physicochemical
characteristics.

Soil color and particle size distributions were influenced by topographic positions with the
upper topographic position being dark reddish brown and sandy clay loam and sandy loam
textured, whereas the lower topographic position soils being black and sandy clay loam
textured. Similarly, topographic positions were impacted soil parameters such as pH, organic
carbon, total nitrogen, available P, exchangeable bases, CEC and available micronutrients. The
upper topographic position profile had the lowest pH value in surface soil when compared to
the middle and lower slope positions. Similarly, OC, TN and available P were increased while
slope gradient decreases, with the maximum OC, TN and available P found at the lower slope
pedon. Slope positions had significant impacts on CEC, exchangeable bases and present base
saturation, with the LS obtained at the lower slope (LS) pedon and the highest obtained at the
US and MS slope positions (US and MS). The percent base saturation (PBS) values in the three
pedons' surface and sub-surface horizons ranged from high (60-80 percent) to extremely high
(> 80 percent). The concentrations of available micronutrients varied with topographic
locations and soil depth. The contents dropped uniformly down the slope and with soil depth
along the toposequence.

The pedon at upper position had a Mollic horizon and a vitric property. Therefore, the soil is
classified as Andosols according to WRB soil classification system. The profile had vitric
property to be classified as vitric principal qualifier. Moreover, sandy loam textural class was
the dominant throughout the profile, and thus qualify Arenic supplemental qualifier. Therefore,

40
the soil is classified as Vitric Andosols (Arenic). Similarly, the surface soil at the middle
topographic position had a Mollic horizon. However, the sub-surface horizon had an Argic
horizon. Therefore, the soils are classified as Retisols according WRB soil classification
system. The profile had continuous rock or hard materials starting < 100 cm from the soil
surface this qualify Leptic principal qualifier property. Moreover, sandy loam textural class
was the dominant throughout the profile, and thus qualify Arenic supplemental qualifier.
Therefore, the soil is classified as Leptic Retisols (Arenic).

The surface soil at lower topographic position had a Mollic epipedon. However, most of the
subsurface layers showed structural development without indications of carbonate buildup,
existences of rock structure in more than 50 percent of the volume of the fine earth fraction,
and a thickness greater than 15 cm. Hence, the sub-surface horizons qualify properties of
Cambic horizon. Therefore, the soil is classified as Phaeozems according WRB soil
classification system. The profile had a cambic horizon not consisting of albic material and
starting < 50 cm from the soil surface this qualify Cambic principal qualifier. Moreover, sandy
loam textural class was the dominant throughout the profile, and thus qualify Arenic
supplemental qualifier. Therefore, the soil is classified as Cambic Phaeozems (Aric).

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

The significant variations in the physicochemical properties of the studied soils, indicating slop
positions soil management needs of each soil type to maintain soil organic matter and essential
plant nutrients. Moreover, integrated soil water management practices should be implemented
to maintain and enhance soil ecosystem services. However, further research is required into
the areas, particularly in terms of soil land scape and land management practices, as well as
selecting appropriate agricultural technology depending on soil type to provide a solid
conclusion for sustainable agricultural output. In general, the observed associations between
landscape features and soil properties will aid in the advancement of understanding of soil
landscape interactions in the research region and other similar watersheds in Ethiopia.

41
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 APPENDICES
APPENDICES 1

Appendices Table 1 Profile description Sheet

Profile No. 1

➢ Location: MEDO Sub-watershed Kebele,

➢ Altitude N 45°49′45′′ and E 78°54′59′′
➢ Author: - Abreham Yacob Heramo.
➢ Date November 09 / 06/ 2013
➢ Soil type: Andosols
➢ Slope (%): 15%
➢ Elevation: 1902 m.a.s.l.
➢ Surrounding landform: Mountainous
➢ Physiographic position: Upper slope
➢ Land use/cover: Rain fed Grass land
➢ Parent material: Igneous Rocks
➢ Moisture condition: Moist
➢ Drainage: Well drained
➢ Permeability: Rapid
➢ Erosion a) at site: Slight sheet
➢ Surrounding: Rill and Gully

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Dark reddish brown (7.55YR
3/2) moist; sandy clay loam;
week, fine and granular; very
firm, slightly sticky and
A 0-21
plastic; very fine,
very few channels; many
very fine to medium roots;
and clear; smooth boundary.

55
 Very Dark brown (10YR
3/2) moist; sandy loam;
weak, fine and medium
subangular blocky; very
A2 21-32
firm, slightly sticky slightly
plastic; very fine, very few
channels; few, fine roots;
clear and smooth boundary.
Yellow dark gray (7.5YR
4/3) moist; sandy clay loam;
weak, very fine to medium
sub-angular blocky; friable,
B1 32-50
slightly sticky and slightly
plastic; very fine, very few
channels; clear and smooth
boundary.
Dark reddish brown (10YR
3/4) moist; sandy clay loam;
weak, very fine and medium
sub-angular blocky; firm,
B2 50-70
slightly sticky and slightly
plastic; medium, common
channels; clear and smooth
boundary.
Dark yellow brown (5YR
3/3) moist; loam; weak, very
BC 70-142 fine and medium subangular
blocky; friable, sticky and
plastic; medium, common

56
Profile No. 2
Location: MEDO Sub-watershed Kebele,

➢ N 45°52′68′′ and E 78°55′30′′

➢ Author: - Abreham Yacob Heramo.
➢ Date November 05 / 06/ 2013
➢ Soil type: Retisols
➢ Slope (%): 20%
➢ Elevation: 1822 m.a.s.l.
➢ Surrounding landform: Slope
➢ Physiographic position: Middle slope
➢ Land use/cover: Rain fed Arable Cultivation
➢ Parent material: Igneous Rocks
➢ Moisture condition: Moist
➢ Drainage: Well drained
➢ Permeability: Rapid
➢ Erosion a) at site: Slight sheet

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Dark red (7.5YR 4/1) moist;
sandy clay loam; moderate,
medium to granular; friable,
slightly sticky and slightly
Ap 0-12
plastic; medium to common
channels; medium roots; and
earth worm channels and
clear and smooth boundary.
Strong brown (7.5YR 5/4)
moist; sandy clay loam;
A2 12-30 weak, coarse/thick, and
single grain; loose, slightly
sticky slightly plastic; few,

57
 fine roots; clear and smooth
boundary.
Dark reddish gray (5YR 4/2)
moist; sandy clay loam;
moderate, to medium and
B1 32-50 sub angular blocky; friable,
sticky and plastic; very few
channels; gradual and
smooth boundary.
Reddish brown (5YR 4/3)
moist; sandy clay loam;
moderate, medium and sub
B2 30-105
angular blocky; firm, sticky
and plastic; Gradual and
smooth boundary.
Dark red (10R 3/6) moist;
sandy clay; moderate;
Coarse and sub angular
BC 105-128 blocky; very friable, slightly
sticky and slightly plastic;
Gradual and smooth
boundary.
Profile No. 3
➢ Location: MEDO Sub-watershed Kebele,
➢ N 7. 37°45′57′′53 and E 78°55′77′′
➢ Author: - Abreham Yacob Heramo.
➢ Date November 05 / 06/ 2013
➢ Soil type: Phaeozems
➢ Slope (%): 5
➢ Elevation: 1760 m.a.s.l.
➢ Surrounding landform: flat
➢ Physiographic position: Lower slope
➢ Land use/cover: Rain fed Arable Cultivation

58
 ➢ Parent material: Igneous Rocks
➢ Moisture condition: Moist
➢ Drainage: Well drained
➢ Permeability: Rapid
➢ Erosion a) at site: Slight sheet
Horizon Depth (cm) Description
Black (7.5YR 2.5/1) moist;
sandy clay loam; moderate,
fine and granular; very
friable, slightly sticky and
Ap 0-20
slightly plastic; very fine,
very few channels; very fine
to medium roots; clear and
smooth boundary.
Dark reddish (2.5YR 2.5/1)
moist; sandy loam; weak,
fine and Granular; very
friable; slightly sticky
A2 20-43
slightly plastic; very fine,
very few channels; few, fine
roots; clear and smooth
boundary.
Dark Brown (7.5YR 3/2)
moist; sandy clay loam;
moderate, medium; sub
BA 43-71 angular blocky; friable,
slightly sticky and slightly
plastic; very few channels;
clear and smooth boundary.
Reddish brown (5YR 4/3)
Bt1 71-107 moist; sandy clay loam;
weak, medium sub angular

59
 blocky; friable, slightly
sticky and slightly plastic;
few common channels; clear
and smooth boundary.
Dark reddish brown (5YR
3/2) moist; sandy clay loam;
Bt2 107-136 weak, fine and sub angular
blocky; very friable, sticky
and plastic; Clear, smooth
Light yellow brown (10YR
(6/4) moist; sandy loam;
week; very friable, Granular
C 136-200
and Loose; and none sticky;
none plasticity and clear;
none roots.
Appendix Table .2. Correlation analysis

A. Correlation analysis of soil properties in Medo sub-watershed.

BD PH OC TN AVP CEC EXA Fe Zn Sa Si Cl

BD 1 -0.87 -0.75 -0.75 -0.82 -0.39 -0.59 0.99** 0.98** 0.88 0.09 -0.77
PH 1 0.68 0.77 0.68 0.64 0.53 -0.91** -0.91** -0.98** -0.34 0.95**
OC 1 0.98** 0.97** 0.60 0.96** -0.77 -0.83 -0.59 -0.46 0.67
TN 1 0.93** 0.69 0.93** -0.79 -0.84 -0.68 -0.52 0.77
AVP 1 0.56 0.94** -0.82 -0.87 -0.62 -0.41 0.67
CEC 1 0.66 -0.44 -0.51 -0.57 -0.93** 0.83
EXA 1 -0.61 -0.69 -0.43 -0.60 0.59
Fe 1 0.99** 0.91** 0.14 -0.81
Zn 1 0.90** 0.22 -0.83
Sa 1 0.25 -0.93**
Si 1 -0.59
1

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 B. Table 2 Correlation analysis of soil properties in Medo sub-watershed

BD pH OC TN AVP Ca TBS PBS Mn Zn

BD 1 -0.10 -0.61 -0.47 -0.93* 0.72 0.80 0.29 -0.44 -0.22
PH 1 -0.56 -0.61 -0.071 -0.18 -0.00 0.82 -0.76 -0.90**
OC 1 0.96** 0.79 -0.19 -0.37 -0.91** 0.96** 0.85
TN 1 0.64 0.04 -0.15 -0.94** 0.94** 0.87
AVP 1 -0.68 -0.78 -0.49 0.64 0.44
**
Ca 1 0.97 -0.07 -0.10 0.02
TBS 1 0.12 -0.30 -0.17
PBS 1 -0.98** -0.98**
Mn 1 0.96**
C. Table 2 Correlation analyses of soil properties in Medo sub-watershed

BD PH OC TN AVP K Na TBS PBS Mn Cu Zn

BD 1 -0.62 -0.76 -0.94** -0.92** 0.33 0.82* 0.41 -0.24 -0.73 0.73 -0.95**
PH 1 0.31 0.54 0.67 0.24 -0.83* -0.01 -0.36 0.52 -0.59 0.59
OC 1 0.91** 0.86* -0.38 -0.45 -0.52 0.48 0.80 -0.53 0.82*
TN 1 0.97** -0.39 -0.68 -0.44 0.38 0.82* -0.75 0.97**
AVP 1 -0.21 -0.75 -0.26 0.19 0.90** -0.82* 0.95**
K 1 -0.23 0.70 -0.96** 0.09 0.13 -0.44
Na 1 0.06 0.33 -0.68 0.60 -0.67
TBS 1 -0.72 0.04 -0.17 -0.37
PBS 1 -0.04 -0.04 0.37
Fe 0.72 -0.35 0.30
Mn 1 -0.77 0.77
Cu 1 -0.83
Zn 1

Appendix Table 3 Soil Fertilizer Rate Determination

Table 3: Ratings soil pH for 1:2.5 soil-water suspensions and Electrical conductivity
a b
(Foth and Ellis, 1997) Jones, J. Benton (2003) EthioSIS, (2014)
Rating pH pH EC (dsm-1) Rating
Extremely acidic < 4.5 < 4.5 <2 Salt free
Very strongly acidic 4.5-5.0 4.5-5.0 2-4 Very slightly saline
Strongly acidic 5.1-5.5 5.1-5.5 4-8 Slightly saline
Moderately acidic 5.6-6.0 5.6-6.0 8-16 Moderately saline
Slightly acidic 6.1-6.6 6.1-6.5 >16 Strongly saline
Neutral 6.6-7.3 6.6-7.3

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 Slightly alkaline 7.4-7.8 7.4-7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4 7.9-8.4
Strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0 8.5-9.0
Very strongly alkaline >9.0 >9.1
Source: a(Foth and Ellis, 1997);bJones, J. Benton (2003);cEthiosis, (2014)

Table :4 Rating of soil OM, OC, TN, Av. P and Av. K values

Rating OM (%)a OC (%)b OM (%)b Total N Total N Available P Available

(%)b (%)a (mg kg-1)c K (ppm)d
Very low < 0.80 < 0.50 < 0.86 < 0.05 < 0.01 - 1–50
Low 0.8 - 2.6 0.5 - 1.5 0.86 - 2.59 0.05 - 0.12 0.01 - 0.12 <5 51–90
Moderate 2.6 - 5.2 1.5 - 3.0 2.59 - 5.17 0.12 - 0.25 0.12 - 0.25 5-10 91–140
High > 5.20 > 3.00 > 5.17 > 0.25 > 0.25 >10 141–300
Very high - - - - - > 300
Sources: Tekalign (1991); bBerhanu Debele (1980); c Olsen et al. (1954); dJones, J. Benton
(2003)

Table 5: Rating of soil Ex. Ca, Ex. Mg, Ex. K, Ex. Na, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn values
a a a a b
Rating or FAO FAO FAO FAO Jones, J. Benton (2003)
class Ex. Ca Ex. Mg Ex. K Ex. Na Cu (ppm) Fe (ppm) Mn (ppm) Zn (ppm)
Very low <2 < 0.3 < 0.2 < 0.10 < 0.2 0.1–0.6 < 0.2 < 0.2
Low 2-5 0.3-1.0 0.2-0.3 0.10-0.3 0.3–2.5 0.7–2.0 0.3–0.9 0.3–4.0
Medium 5-10 1.0-3.0 0.3-0.6 0.3-0.7 2.6–5.0 2.1–5.0 1.0–20 0.5–1.0
High 10-20 3.0-8.0 0.6-1.2 0.7 - 2.0 5.1–10 5.1–250 21–50 1.1–10.0
Very high >20 >8.0 >1.2 >2.0 > 10 > 250 > 50 > 10
Source: a FAO (2006); bJones, J. Benton (2003).
Table 6: Rating for CEC, PBS of soils and Critical levels of some plant nutrient elements

a
Rating Hazelton, P. and Nutrient element
B. Murphy (2007) Critical levels
CEC PBS Unit Quantity Source
-1
Very low <6 0-20 Exch. Ca cmol (+) kg 0.20 Landon, 1991
Low 6-12 20-40 Exch. Mg cmol (+) kg-1 0.50 Landon, 1991
Medium 12-25 40-60 Exch. K cmol (+) kg-1 0.38 Barber, 1984
High 25-40 60-80 Available P (Olsen) mg kg-1 8.00 Tekalign 1991
Very high >40 >80 Available K (NH4OAc, pH 8.5) mg kg-1 121.0 Havlin et al. 1999

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Source: a Hazelton, P. and B. Murphy (2007)

Table (7) Fertility Statas of Particle size distribution and bulk density of the soils in depth 0-20 cm in
soil of Medo sub-watershed.

Horizon Depth (cm) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) B.D (g/cm3) Textural class
Upper slope 0-20 cm 74 7 19 0.9 Sandy loam
Meddle slope 0-20 cm 64 5 31 1.0 Sandy clay loam
Lower slope 0-20 cm 71 10 19 1.0 Sandy loam

Table (8) Fertility Statas of Soil chemical properties in depth of (0-20cm) in soil of the Medo
Watershed.

Horizon Depth (cm) pH (H2O) TN (%) OC (%) EC (dS/m) Avai P (mg/kg-1)

Upper slope 0-20 (cm) 5.42 0.16 1.95 22.1 10.38

Meddle slope 0-20 (cm) 5.68 0.16 2.10 18.2 6.05

Lower slope 0-20 (cm) 5.80 0.20 2.13 27.3 14.98

Table (9) Fertility Statas of Soil Exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, and percent base
saturation, in depth of (0-20cm) in soil of the soils at the Medo Watershed.

Horizon Depth (cm) Exchangeable bases and CEC (cmolc kg-1) PBS
Ca Mg K Na CEC
Upper slope 0-20 (cm) 5.9 1.19 1.13 0.36 10.65 83.7

Meddle slope 0-20 (cm) 8.1 1.78 0.78 0.37 12.88 85.0

Lower slope 0-20 (cm) 10.3 1.80 1.18 0.38 13.47 97.2

Table (10) Fertility Statas of Soil Available micronutrient contents in depth of (0-20cm) in soil profiles
of the Medo Watershed.

Horizon Depth (cm) Available micronutrient (mg kg-1)

Fe Mn Zn Cu
Upper slope 0-20 (cm) 64.36 24.47 0.70 7.55
Middle slope 0-20 (cm) 12.74 72.91 2.15 9.30
Lower slope 0-20 (cm) 16.9 88.94 4.33 16.45

Appendix Table 4. Critical levels used to classify analytical results of soil fertility parameters

63
Figure.4. Climate data 20 Years data on average mean at Medo sub watershed.

64
 CHART TITLE
T min T max (0C) Rf (mm)

250

200

150

100

50

Source: - Wondo genet metrological station. (Ethiopian Mapping Agency)

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 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The Author was born on 03 Jun 1979 in Shone town of Southren Region, Ethiopia. He attained
his primary and Secondary school Education at Siqe Primary School and Durame Secondary
School respectively. He joined Samara University in 2011 and graduated with BSc degree in
Plant Science in 2016. Then after, he was engaged as natural resource researcher by Ethiopian
Institute of Agricultural Research Center at Wondo Genet. in 2019 directly joining the school
of graduate studies at the Arba Minch University to pursue MSc study in Soil Science under
department of plant Science.

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