SEPTEMBER 2009

Climate Change Threatens Penguins

By: Shaye Wolf Penguins are not just found in •11 of 18 penguin species are
Antarctica declining and considered an
Penguins—waddling wonders of extinction risk
the Southern Hemisphere Although penguins are commonly
associated with Antarctica, penguins •Two species are considered
Penguins (order Sphenisciformes, are found in a variety of habitats stable.
family Spheniscidae) are flightless in the Southern Hemisphere.
seabirds found almost entirely in Eighteen different penguin species •The population status of the
the Southern Hemisphere. Although inhabit areas from Antarctica to the remaining five is unknown.
their wings have become useless for Equator. They can be divided into Studies have linked climate change
flight, they have become superbly three groups: to past, ongoing, and projected
adapted to swimming and diving. population declines of many
For example, Gentoo penguins •Four penguin species breed in penguin species. Because penguins
can swim up to 35 km per hour— Antarctica and/or the Antarctic live in different ocean habitats of
compared with 9 km per hour for islands: the Emperor, Adélie, the Southern Hemisphere, climate
the fastest Olympic swimmer. Chinstrap, and Gentoo penguin. change affects penguins in these
Emperor penguins can dive to •Most penguin species breed on regions in different ways.
depths of more than 520 m to find islands in the sub-Antarctic waters
food—deeper than any other bird. of the Southern Ocean (a.k.a. How is climate change affecting
Penguins must return to land or sea Antarctic Ocean), the South Atlantic Antarctic penguins?
ice to rear their young, however, Ocean, the South Pacific Ocean,
and they are renowned for their and the Southern Indian Ocean: The Antarctic continent is warming
feats of endurance as parents. The the King, Southern Rockhopper, as a whole,1 but the Antarctic
Emperor penguin raises its chick on Northern Rockhopper, Macaroni, Peninsula—the northernmost
top of the frozen Antarctic Ocean and Royal penguin. Several penguin region that juts out towards South
amid winter temperatures as low species are found only on the America—is warming faster than
as -60°C and winds of 195 km per coastlines and islands of Australia any other place in the Southern
hour. For two months, the male fasts and/or New Zealand: the Little Hemisphere.2 Because of this rapid
while taking on the sole duty of Blue, Snares Crested, Erect Crested, warming, sea ice along the western
incubating the egg, which he must Fiordland Crested, and Yellow-eyed Antarctic Peninsula is shrinking
balance on top of his feet to protect penguin. in size, and the sea-ice season is
it from the ice below. shorter.2 The loss of sea ice is
•The most northerly penguins breed harming Emperor penguin chicks
along the more temperate coasts and adults. Emperor penguins rear
of South America and Africa: the their chicks on land-locked sea ice.
Humboldt, Magellanic, Galápagos, When sea ice breaks up before their
and African penguin. chicks have matured and grown
their waterproof feathers, chicks
Penguins are a highly threatened that are swept into the ocean are
group. According to the International likely to die. For adults, the loss
Union for Conservation of Nature, of sea ice can lead to lower food
Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolo- the world authority on the status of availability, which can result in
phus) on Hannah Point, Livingston Is- threatened species: increased mortality.
land, Antarctic Peninsula, sports colorful
crests. Photo: Jerzy Strzeleck
 exceed 1.3°C of warming before
mid-century.11) Penguin scientists
also predict that sea-ice loss due to
global climate change will push the
Emperor population chronicled in
March of the Penguins to the brink
of extinction within this century.12
How is climate change affecting
sub-Antarctic penguins?
For the penguin species that live in
the Southern Ocean, which encircles
Antarctica, global climate change is
also having significant impacts. In
the Atlantic sector of the Southern
Ocean, ocean warming and the
melting of sea-ice are linked to
the decline of the penguins’ major
food supply—Antarctic krill. Krill
in this region have declined by as
much as 80% since the 1970s.13
The loss of sea ice is linked to of pebbles on the sparse areas of Since krill graze on algae that grow
Emperor penguin population the Antarctic shoreline that are free on the bottom of the sea ice, the
declines at the warmer northern of ice and snow.6 On the western loss of ice leads to the loss of krill.
regions of Antarctica: Antarctic Peninsula, warmer Researchers project that a 1°C rise
temperatures allow the air to hold in sea surface temperature in this
•The Emperor colony at Terre more moisture, and this leads to region could result in a further 95%
Adélie in East Antarctica—featured more snowfall in the region.7 reduction of krill.14 This collapse in
in the Academy Award-winning Adélie penguin populations are the food supply would be disastrous
French documentary, March of the disappearing rapidly because they for the penguins like the Macaroni,
Penguins3—plummeted by more cannot find snow-free ground for which has already suffered a 50%
than 50% in the late 1970s during nesting.8 The loss of winter sea ice population decline at its main
a warm period with little sea ice in this region is also impacting the breeding site in this region—the
cover, when adults died en masse.4 Adélie’s food supply negatively.9 South Georgia Island—between the
Because the sea ice continues to As sea ice declines, the more ice- mid-1970s and mid-1990s.15
disintegrate, and the prolonged intolerant Chinstrap and Gentoo
blizzards cause ongoing chick There is also evidence that ocean
penguins are expanding southward
mortality,4 the colony has yet to warming has led to penguin
into Adélie breeding areas in the
recover. population declines in other regions
Antarctic Peninsula, replacing
of the sub-Antarctic by reducing
•On the fast-warming Antarctic Adélie penguins.10
their food supply.
Peninsula, another Emperor colony Both Emperor and Adélie penguins
has declined from 250 pairs to 10 •On Marion Island in the southern
face a bleak future from global
pairs since 1960, due to the rapid Indian Ocean, a 60% decline in
climate change. According to a
loss of the sea ice.5 Southern Rockhopper population,16
study by Antarctic researchers,
and a 50% decline in the Macaroni
Another Antarctic penguin that is a temperature increase of 1.3°C
population have been attributed to
being affected by global climate will jeopardize 40% of the world’s
ocean warming17.
change is the Adélie penguin. Emperor penguins and 70% of the
Unlike the Emperor penguin, the world’s Adélie penguins—largely •On the sub-Antarctic islands of
Adélie does not raise its chicks on because of diminishing sea ice.5 New Zealand, Southern Rockhopper
sea ice. Instead, it builds a nest out (At present rates, the world will
 For example, the Galápagos Our greenhouse gas emissions are
penguin has proven to be extremely also causing the oceans to become
vulnerable to starvation during acidic, which threatens the entire
El Niño events. Adults are forced ocean food web from plankton
to abandon their eggs and chicks to penguins. The oceans absorb a
to search for food, leaving their large portion of the carbon dioxide
chicks to starve.20 Following produced by our industrial society.
the powerful El Niño events of As ocean waters have absorbed this
1982–1983 and 1997–1998, the excess carbon dioxide, the acidity
Galápagos penguin population of the ocean has increased by 30%
Adélie Penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) feeding plummeted by 77% and 65%, and carbonate ions have become
young. Photo: Jerzy Strzeleck
respectively,21 leaving less than less available.22,23 Carbonate ions
penguin populations plummeted by 2,000 penguins today— the world’s are used by calcifying creatures
50–94% during a period of warmer smallest penguin population. such as plankton, corals, and clams
ocean temperatures.18 to build their shells. As ocean
Emerging threats acidification reduces carbonate ion
•Likewise, researchers studying availability, these creatures will
In addition to global climate change
King penguins in the southern become increasingly unable to
effects harming penguins, two
Indian Ocean found that warm- build new shells and existing shells
emerging threats resulting from the
water events negatively impact will begin to dissolve,24,25 which
world’s greenhouse gas pollution
adult survival and breeding success, leaves these animals with no way
are gaining attention:
and they warn that King penguins to survive, and therefore, affects the
are at extinction risk under future •sea level rise; and penguins’ food supply.
warming scenarios.19
•ocean acidification. Although all oceans are affected by
How is climate change affecting acidification, the Southern Ocean,
temperate penguins? Rising sea levels threaten to drown
and the upwelling systems where
important coastal nesting sites for
It may seem odd to think of penguins penguins live, will be among the first
penguins—especially in places
living along the Equator at the regions to be impacted. For example,
where natural barriers like cliffs,
Galápagos Islands or on the desert at current rates of greenhouse
or human barriers like roads and
coasts of Africa and South America, gas emissions, the pteropod—a
developments, prevent penguins
but penguins are able to inhabit planktonic snail which forms a key
from retreating inland.
places where upwelling brings cold, part of the food web in the Southern
nutrient-rich ocean water to the Ocean—may be unable to survive
surface, which creates a bountiful as early as 2030.26 The loss of the
food supply. The penguins living pteropod will have profound impacts
in these upwelling ecosystems on the Southern Ocean food web,
periodically face extreme food and the penguins that depend on it.
shortages when El Niño events How can we protect penguins from
usher in warm water and prevent further decline?
cold water from reaching the
surface. Leading climate scientists Rapidly reducing global greenhouse
believe that global climate change gas emissions is the single most
will lead to stronger El Niño events important action needed to protect
in the future.20 Two particularly penguins from global climate
strong El Niño events that occurred change. If we continue on our
in recent decades provide a window current course, global temperatures
into how penguins in temperate will rise by an average of 2.8–4°C
Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus men- in this century (4 to 6 times more
regions are likely to be harmed by diculus) at Elizabeth Bay on the island of
global climate change. Isabela, Galápagos. Photo: putneymark, than during the previous century)11,
Flickr ocean waters will become corrosive
from the depths to the surface in •oil spills •making additional funds and
many regions,27 and Antarctic sea resources available for their study
ice will disappear at accelerating •marine pollution and management
rates.28 We risk not only losing •introduced non-native predators at Once penguins are listed, the Act
penguins but also destroying penguin breeding sites
the web of life. Leading climate provides important regulatory
scientists have concluded that the •diseases protections to penguins from both
atmospheric carbon dioxide level climate and non-climate threats. For
•habitat destruction example, under the law, U.S. federal
must be reduced from its current
level of 385 parts per million (ppm) agencies approving projects that
•human disturbance
to less than 350 ppm to prevent emit significant levels of greenhouse
dangerous climate change, which •direct harvest of eggs and birds gas emissions would be required to
includes massive species extinction analyze the impacts of those emissions
One important tool for protecting on listed penguins, as well as adopt
and catastrophic sea level rise.29 penguins globally is the U.S. solutions to reduce emissions so that
Even with rapid reductions in Endangered Species Act.31 This Act they do not jeopardize penguins.
greenhouse gas pollution, is the world’s strongest biodiversity Additionally, U.S. federal agencies
greenhouse gases that have been protection law that provides approving high seas fishing permits
emitted already ensure we are still important safeguards for animals and would need to analyze and reduce
committed to decades of continued plants threatened with extinction. the impacts of those fishing activities
warming and centuries of continued Currently, one penguin species is to protect listed penguins. The
sea-level rise.29,30 It is critical, listed under the Act, and seven have Endangered Species Act, therefore,
therefore, to reduce other threats been proposed for protection in provides an important tool for
to penguins to increase their ability response to a scientific petition from both addressing the root causes of
to survive the added pressures from the Center for Biological Diversity. climate change, as well as protecting
this warming. The biggest of these The Endangered Species Act listing penguin populations to increase their
threats is industrial fishing. Large- process helps species like penguins resilience to climate change.
scale commercial fisheries deplete by:
© 2009, American Institute of Biological
the penguin’s food sources, as well •drawing attention to their plight
Sciences. Educators have permission
as entangle and drown penguins in to reprint articles for classroom
longlines and other fishing gear. •educating the public about the use; other users, please contact
Other current threats to penguins threats they face, and [email protected] for reprint
include: permission. See reprint policy.