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Unit 2: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses how society functions and becomes an influence in the
development of the self. Sociology is among the disciplines contributory to the
understanding of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The
perspectives of the self by Mead and Cooley, as a product of modern society, will be
explored.

In order to understand the succeeding theories, let us look into the different
sociological perspectives.

SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM FOCUS

Structural Functionalism How each part of the society functions
together to contribute to the whole
Conflict Theory How inequalities contribute to social
differences and perpetuate differences in
power
Symbolic interactionism One-to-one interactions and communications

Now, let’s look into the different sociological perspectives of the self.

EMILE DURKHEIM: SOCIAL INTEGRATION and MORAL INDIVIDUATION

“To love society is to love something beyond us
and something in ourselves.” (Emile Durkheim)

Before we were born, there are already societal influences on us

that shape our life and personalities. While alive, the societal
influences continue to have an impact on us, and even beyond our
lifetime. Durkheim has worked on a lot of theories to emphasize this.
Some of his works include how people get to live together peaceably
and in organized manner (Division of Labor), how culture, roles and
norms bind people together in synchronized behaviors, feelings and
thoughts (Social Integration), how the rights and dignity of the individual are
based on the principles of equality and Justice (Moral Individualism). Such
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theories shall anchor the structuralist and functionalist perspective in answering

the question “Who am I” in the social context.

Durkheim proposed that the task of sociology is to analyze social facts.

Social Facts – conditions and circumstances external to the individual that,

nevertheless, determine the individual’s course of action. Durkheim argued that social
facts can be ascertained by using collective data such as marriage and divorces rates.
This means that through systematic collection of data, the patterns behind and within an
individual behavior can be uncovered.

Another example of social fact can be exemplified in this instance: When you fulfill
your obligation as a son/daughter, student, brother/sister, or citizen, you perform duties
which are defined, externally to yourself and your actions, in law and in custom. This means
that even if you “do these things” (do your tasks in school, do your duties as a son or
daughter) because it conforms to your sentiments and feel their reality subjectively, such
reality is still objective. We did not create these realities (duties and responsibilities of a child
or citizen); we merely inherited them through our education (formal and informal). That, or
rather, these realities, are social facts.

Durkheim emphasized that the society is not a result or an aftereffect of

individual conduct; rather, it (society) exists prior to, and thus, shapes individual action.
In other words, individual lines of conduct are the outgrowth of social arrangements.

Social Integration is the degree to which an individual is connected to the society.

Social Integration results from a collective consciousness or a shared way of understanding
and behaving in the world in terms of norms, beliefs, and values. Those who have weak
social connections are more prone to self-destructive behaviors, or deviancy, because
they are unable to balance their desires with what is considered appropriate by the
society. People who are able to form strong social ties have a deeper sense of belonging,
form more cohesive groups and are able to reduce conflicts. It is synonymous with Social
Solidarity. Social solidarity described the social ties that bind a group of people together
such as kinship, shared location, or religion.

Moral Individualism – the doctrine that rationality leaves room for the individualities
of personalities of subjects to express themselves in the moral realm in an autonomous
choice between idealism and fulfilment-maximization. It involves a morality of
cooperation and a profound respect for humanity. It is not the glorification of the self, “but
of the individual in general” (Durkheim, 1898).

Moral Individualism and the experience of the SACRED

Moral individualism, “is a religion in which man is at once the worshiper and the
god” (Durkheim [1898]1973:46). The “sacred” dimension of the modern individual finds its

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expression in the unique respect granted to him and in the protection of his rights. But there
is no such thing as inherent rights and liberties. Modern society has “consecrated,” him,
granted him rights, and made him “worthy of respect” ([1906]1953b:72, [1906]1953a:58).
Each individual embodies the universal values of humanity, each individual consciousness
carries “something divine” and it is “marked with a character which renders it sacred and
inviolable to others” ([1898]1973:52). Durkheim is optimistic that moral individualism will
become the “moral catechism” and the source of a new morality. He claims that the “cult
of the individual” has become one of the most distinctive characteristic of modernity, and
that it is replacing all other religions.

Moral individualism has to be distinguished from the “utilitarian egoism of Spencer

and of the economists.” It involves a morality of cooperation and a profound respect for
humanity. It is not the “glorification” of the self, “but of the individual in general” (Durkheim
[1898]1973:44, 48). At its “most abstract level,” scholars have noted, it refers to humanity in
general rather than to individuals of any particular nation-state (Giddens 1986:21). It
stresses “freedom and dignity, not happiness, as highest social ends” (Terrier 2006:294).

The foregoing, illustrates how such concepts as simple as norms, roles and culture
in the society in which one belongs determines to a great and profound extent to which
the self is embedded in the society – that the self is not just a construct accorded with an
identity all its own. To be, the self has to be defined also in its social dimension. Think for
example how such concepts profoundly affect gender norms, family dynamics, religion
and politics and our day-to-day interactions. Even the field of psychology acknowledges
that in solitude or amongst others, an individual’s thoughts, behaviors, perceptions and
emotions are affected by his imagined or real influence coming from other people.

The next sociological theories define the self along the symbolic interactionism
paradigm.

CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

Self-concept is formed through our impressions on how other
people see us.

Cooley proposed that one’s self grows out of one’s

social interactions with others. The degree of personal
insecurity displayed in social situations is determined by what
one believes other people think of him/her. Simply put, the
“Self” is how we believe others see us.

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The process:
1. We imagine how we present ourselves to others
2. We imagine how others evaluate us
3. Finally develop some sort of feeling about ourselves such as respect or shame
as a result of these impressions

Critical Evaluation:
What if we imagine wrongly? What if there are
varied and contradictory mirror reflections?

The LABELING BIAS

This occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and

expectations of us are affected by that labeling. For instance, your
professor hears your classmates call you “matalino”, you are labeled
as “yung matalino”. Your professor might then have higher
expectations from you wherein he may expect you to have the
highest scores in class.

SELF-LABELING

This occurs when we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, and we
adopt other’s labels explicitly into our self-concept

This may lead to internalized prejudice, when individuals turn prejudice directed
toward them by others onto themselves. They may tend to view themselves more
negatively, thus, also affecting their self-esteem.

On the other hand, positive reclaiming may also take place when labels are used
by society to describe people negatively. Those who are negatively labeled may claim
these labels more positively to feel better about themselves. To illustrate: After labeling,
minority group members evaluated the labels (e.g. “queer”, “torpe”, “lost”) less negatively,
and reported feeling more powerful.

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GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: STAGES OF THE SELF

According to Mead, the conception one holds about the self
in one’s mind emerges from social interaction with others. The self is
neither present at birth nor at the beginning of social interaction. It is
constructed and re-constructed in the process of social experience.

Two components of the self:

1. “Me” - objective element; represents the expectations and

attitudes of others (the “generalized other”) organized into the social self; the
internalized generalized other becomes the instrument upon which society has
control over the actions of its individual members

2. “I” - subjective element; the response to the “me”or the person’s individuality,
e.g., The “I” can decide to cross the street on a red light as he sees that there is
no approaching car or a traffic police

The stream of thought between the knower (“I”) and the known (“Me”) is the
essence of the development of identity as influenced by the social context.

STAGES BY WHICH THE SELF EMERGES:

1. PREPARATORY STAGE (1-3 years old)

• children merely imitate the people around
them
• then they understand the symbols (gestures,
language, and objects that form the basis for
their capacity to communicate with people
around them
• as a result they become aware of roles that people play in their immediate
environment

2. PLAY STAGE (4-7 years old)

 As a result of the above stage, they now do
pretend play of different characters or roles (Role
playing)
 They become more aware of social relationships;
they can mentally assume the perspective of
another and respond from that imagined
viewpoint (Role taking)

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3. GAME STAGE (8-9)

• begins to consider several actual tasks and
relationships simultaneously
• grasp not only their social position but also those
of others around them
• perspective taking becomes less egocentric as
they begin to understand and accept that many
people have different perspectives and develops
greater concern about the reactions of others

References:

Aquino, C. (2004). Mula sa Kinaroroonan: "Kapwa, Kapatiran" and "Bayan" in Philippine

Social Science, Asian Journal of Social Science, 32 (1), 105-139.
Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's Way:
Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.
Cristi, Marcela (2012). Durkheim on Moral Individualism, Social Justice, and Rights: A gendered
Construction of Rights. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 37 (4), 409 - 438
Introduction to Sociology (2013), Openstax College, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston,
Texas.
Villafuerte, S., Quillope, A., Tunac R., and Borja, E. (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd., Rm. 413 Villasi Mansion, N. Domingo St., Brgy. Kunlaran, Cubao,
Quezon City, Philippines

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