27

Vanilla Diseases
Juan Hernández‐Hernández

2.1 ­Introduction
Diseases are some of the main factors that damage and reduce vanilla production, as
well as the productive period of a plantation. The conditions of temperature and humid-
ity under which vanilla grows tend to favor the development of pathogens, mainly fungi.
The incidence of diseases is higher in traditional culture systems, plantations in the
stage of production, and in older plantations. This chapter describes the main diseases
of vanilla in Mexico and presents guidelines for prevention and control. It is always
better to prevent a disease than to try to control the damage. When necessary, it is
important to use chemical control in a rational way to avoid environmental contamina-
tion and also to respect the norms for production of healthy foods. Some environmental
conditions leading to damage of vanilla plants are also discussed.

2.2 ­Root and Stem Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. Vanillae)

This disease is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vanillae, also known as
Fusarium batatatis var. vanillae Tucker (Childers and Cibes 1948; Bouriquet 1954;
Childers et al. 1959; Ben Yephet et al. 2003; Ranadive 2005; He 2007).

2.2.1 Description
F. oxysporum f. sp. vanillae is the most harmful fungal pathogen of vanilla, causing root
and stem rotting and consequently the death of the plants. The fungus lives in the
ground and is difficult to eliminate. Lesions in the roots are initially brown, which is
followed by a blackening, and finally the infected tissue dries out (Figure 2.1). In general,
a plant with root rotting, will also display apical rotting, stop producing new buds or
shoots and, therefore, its growth pauses. A plant with root rotting does not die quickly,
since it develops new roots from the aerial part of plant, which grow to the ground and,
if they find sufficient moisture and organic matter, can survive for a considerable time.

Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology, Second Edition.

Edited by Daphna Havkin-Frenkel and Faith C. Belanger.
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
28 2  Vanilla Diseases

Figure 2.1  Stem rot (left), and a diseased plant exhibiting symptoms caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. vanillae (right).

However, if there is not enough moisture, the stem dehydrates showing longitudinal
cracking, the leaves wilt and become yellow, and the plant finally dries out and dies
(Curti‐Diaz 1995; Hernández‐Hernández 2005). Stem rot disease begins with a dark
lesion that extends longitudinally, eventually covering the stem, and the plant dries out
(Loredo 1990).
Heavy and prolonged precipitation, deficient soil drainage, excess shade, poor venti-
lation, drought stress, low nutrients, and high plant density are favorable conditions for
root and stem rot disease. Plants that are not well rooted, with inadequate nutrition,
over‐pollinated, under drought stress, or planted at high densities, are the most suscep-
tible to the disease. The rotting of roots is observed when there is high moisture in the
soil; however, the number of dead plants exhibiting the disease symptoms is higher
under drought conditions.

2.2.2 Damage
The fungus causes varying degrees of damage and production losses in vanilla planta-
tions throughout the world. In Mexico, it killed 67% of plants in a 4‐year‐old plantation
and also infected 15% of the total fruit production (Hernández‐Hernández 2005). This
fungus has been the main limiting factor for some vanilla producing countries, such as
Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, China, and currently Madagascar (Anonymous 2008a,b).

2.2.3 Control
When the fungus infects the plant, it is difficult to eradicate the disease. Therefore
prevention of the disease through cultural methods is recommended. Some of the cul-
tural practices that are recommended for disease prevention are:
●● Use land with good drainage.
●● Use healthy and vigorous cuttings.
●● Maintain a 10 cm cover of mulch over the roots.
●● Keep plants well‐nourished.
●● Avoid overcrowding plants by maintaining appropriate distance between plants
(1.5–2.0 m × 2.0–2.5 m).
 2.3  Black Rot (Phytophtora Sp.) 29

●● Avoid excess shade and excess sunlight.

●● Prune plants to remove infected parts.
●● Avoid over pollination.
●● Sterilize any new planting areas.
Some chemical agents (carbendazim fungicide) have some effectiveness against
Fusarium. However, the treatments are very expensive and not practical. In addition,
they contaminate the ground.
For these reasons, other strategies of control are the use of essential oils (i.e. clove and
cinnamon oil), tolerant or resistant plants, and biological control micro‐organisms
(Trichoderma harzianum Bacillus spp., and Pseudomonas fluorescens).
Although V. planifolia is susceptible to Fusarium, some other Vanilla spp. are resist-
ant. Resistant hybrid plants, the product of crosses and backcrosses between (V. plani-
folia × V. pompona) × V. planifolia were developed in Madagascar. These plants were
called “Tsy taitry”, which means “nonsusceptible” (Anonymous 1995; Grisoni et  al.
1997). The hybrid plants are very vigorous and produce very heavy fruits larger than 10
mm in thickness and 20 to 30 cm in length, but were not commercially cultivated in
Madagascar.

2.3 ­Black Rot (Phytophtora Sp.)

2.3.1 Description
This fungus is very aggressive, it can attack any part of the plant and kill it in only a few
days. The disease is distinguished by watery injuries of greenish to blackish color and
causes general rotting of the infected tissue. One week after the infection, fine (thin)
white filaments, the mycelium of the fungus, are observed (Wong et al. 2003; Anandaraj
et  al. 2005). Damage begins in the apical part of the plant and extends to the stem,
leaves, aerial roots, and the rest of the plant. However, damage can be restricted to
immature fruits or to specific plant parts. The disease can be confused with that caused
by Fusarium, but Phytophtora is less aggressive and it differs in the formation of a myce-
lium on the injury and production of pin‐head sized conidia (Anandaraj et al. 2005).
The favorable conditions for the development of the disease are prolonged rains, poor
soil drainage, excess shade, high plant density, and deficient control of weeds.

2.3.2 Damage
The disease causes high losses in production due to rotting, falling of fruits, and loss of
plants.

2.3.3 Control
The incidence of the disease can be diminished by using the appropiate distance in
between plants, from 1.5 to 2.0 meters between plants and from 2.0 to 2.5 meters
between rows. The tutors should be pruned to allow from 30 to 50% or more of sunlight.
Weeds should be controled. Infected plant parts should be removed and burned. Wong
et al. (2003) recommend the monthly application of the following mixtures: Fosetyl‐Al
30 2  Vanilla Diseases

(2.5 g/L of water) + Carbendazim (2.0 g/L of water) and the mixture of Metalaxyl
(2.5 g/L of water) + Benomyl (2.0 g/L of water).

2.4 ­Anthracnose (Colletotrichum Sp.)

2.4.1 Description
The fungal pathogen Colletotrichum sp. attacks leaves, fruits, stems, and flowers.
Characteristic of the disease are the small sunken dark coffee spots, irregular in color
(Figure 2.2). It damages the leaves and the stem during the time called “nortes”, the
season characterized by cold air and moderate rain (Curti‐Diaz 1995; Hernández‐
Hernández 2005). In general the symptoms develop on the first five young leaves of the
apical part of the plant.
Fruit damage (Figure 2.3) is pronounced during the humid and warm months.
Although the symptoms are similar to those on the leaves, the pathogens can be consid-
ered different species or forms of the fungus, because they appear in different climatic
conditions (Hernández‐Hernández 2005). An excess of shade and high density of plants
favors anthracnose development, as well as root rot and stem rot.

Figure 2.2  Anthracnose on leaves: initial, intermediate, and end stage.

 2.5  Rust (Uromyces Sp.) 31

Figure 2.3  Damaged fruits, “pintos”, caused by Colletotrichum sp.

2.4.2 Damage
Damage of leaves and stems results in a reduction of new growth. Infected fruits fall
prematurely before reaching their commercial maturity and the yields fall significantly,
up to 50%.

2.4.3 Control
Anthracnose attack can be prevented by maintaining healthy root systems and adequate
plant nutrition. Also, it can be prevented by applying any fungicide that contains copper
oxychloride or mancozeb, in concentrations of 2 g/L with water or Bordeaux mixture
(1 kg of lime + 1 kg of copper sulphate in 100 liters of water) before or immediately after
the arrival of “norte”. To avoid burns it is important not to apply copper compounds on
days with intense sunlight or during flowering and development of fruit. Young leaves
and fruits affected with antracnose must be removed and buried outside the plantation
to avoid further infection sources.

2.5 ­Rust (Uromyces Sp.)

2.5.1 Description
Rust is charactherized by the presence of yellow‐orange spots on the leaves (Figure 2.4).
As the disease advances, the pustules coalesce, eventually resulting in completely dried
leaves. This fungal disease is more frequent in traditional production systems with little
ventilation and excess shade, and in very rainy places.
32 2  Vanilla Diseases

Figure 2.4  Symptoms of Uromyces sp. on a vanilla leaf.

2.5.2 Damage
Plants affected by rust stop growth and development. Therefore the disease eliminates
the productive capacity and if it is not controlled in time, the resulting defoliation of the
plants can destroy the vanilla plantation.

2.5.3 Control
Infected leaves should be removed and burned as soon as symptoms are observed. Also,
it is important to increase the amount of light within the plantation and to make weekly
applications of Bordeaux mixture, or other products that contain copper, in concentra-
tions of 2.5 g/L of water.

2.6 ­Rotting of Recently Planted Cuttings

2.6.1 Description
According to Dequaire (1976), this rotting can be caused by Fusarium oxysporum and
Rhizoctonia solani (syn. Corticium solani), but the primary causal agent is not known.
Days after planting, cuttings exhibit rotting of the underground section, which advances
towards the upper part of the stem. In some cases, soft rotting is observed as well as the
formation of white‐cottony mycelium at the base of the stem (Figure 2.5).

2.6.2 Damage
The percentage of damaged cuttings varies from 5 to 50%, depending on the quality and
health of the cuttings, the season of planting, and the type of land. Thus, more damage
 2.7  Yellowing and Shedding of Young Fruits 33

Figure 2.5  Rotting caused by Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani.

is observed when cuttings are planted in rainy months. Poorly drained land presents the
greater percentage of rotting. Also, the percentage of damage increases when very
young cuttings are used, they are not disinfected, or the soil was already contaminated
with fungi. Rotted cuttings will not produce roots or vegetative growth.

2.6.3 Control
Only healthy cuttings should be planted and they should be desinfected with carbendazim
(2 g/L of water). Planting should be done during the less rainy months, but after an irriga-
tion or rain. If the cuttings become infected by the fungus, they should be replaced by new
healthy cuttings and the soil should be drenched with carbendazim (2 g/L in water).

2.7 ­Yellowing and Shedding of Young Fruits

2.7.1 Description
In Mexico, the yellowing and shedding of young fruits happens 2 months after pollina-
tion and with greater intensity in June, after heavy rain. Intense sunlight with high tem-
peratures (>32 °C) and low relative humidity (<80%) are characteristic of May to June
and favor infection. The fallen fruits (Figure 2.6) are of normal size, but of yellow color
and smaller weight, without the floral remainder (corola). The color on the inside is
coffee and with tender white seeds. After fruits fall, or even before, rotting appears in
the apical part and continues throughout the fruit.
In Mexico, Fusarium incarnatum‐equiseti species complex and Colletotrichum sp.
have been isolated from yellowing fruits (Hernández‐Hernández 2007). However,
34 2  Vanilla Diseases

Figure 2.6  Yellowing and falling of fruits: diseased fruits (left) and healthy fruits (right).

Fusarium is found most frequently, which is why it is considered the probable causal
agent. It develops when environmental conditions are appropriate. In India, Fusarium
sp. has been reported as causing the same problem (Vijayan and Kunhikannan 2007),
although Colletotrichum vanillae has also been found (Anandaraj et al. 2005).

2.7.2 Damage
The damage is more severe in plantations exposed to high sunlight and with poor ven-
tilation, for example, in plantations under plastic mesh (shade‐house) with tempera-
tures of 45 °C. In these conditions, up to 90% of the fruits can fall. In plantations where
the vanilla is grown on tutors of orange trees at a spacing of 5 × 5 m between trees and
7 × 7 m between rows, which results in intermediate shade and greater ventilation,
losses have been quantified around 50% of fall of yellow fruits. On the other hand, in
intensive systems with high densities of Erythrina sp. or Gliricidia sepium tutors (1.5 ×
2.5 m) and therefore better shade, the fall of fruits has been lower than 15%. Also, the
damage is more severe in the border plants, which are not protected from the sun, and
in fruits without the remaining floral parts (corolla), since this favors dehydration and
attack by pathogens

2.7.3 Control
During the flowering stage and development of the fruit, the conditions conducive for
the development of the disease should be controled. It is important to provide the crop
with greater than 50% shade and sufficient irrigation. Also, vanilla should not be culti-
vated in spaces with poor ventilation, since the temperature is increased, which can
 2.8  Viral Diseases 35

cause major damage. In India, it is also recommended to apply any of the following
fungicides: Methylic Tiofanato (0.2%) or the mixture of carbendazim + mancozeb
(0.25%), during the time of flowering and pollination, with intervals of 15 to 20 days to
prevent the development of the mentioned fungi (Anandaraj et al. 2005).

2.8 ­Viral Diseases
Vanilla is also affected by viral diseases, mainly in the plantations of French Polynesia
and India, where they represent a serious problem. In Mexico, there are no scientific
reports of damage by viruses (Hernández‐Hernández 2008). However, Soto‐Arenas
(2006) reported the presence of some symptoms of virus in Veracruz, which may be
limiting the vanilla production. The damage caused by viruses can be difficult to distin-
guish, since some plants do not exhibit clear symptoms or are asymptomatic. The
viruses most common in vanilla, according to Pearson et al. (1991), are described in
Sections 2.8.1 to 2.8.4.

2.8.1  Cymbidium Mosaic Virus (CYMV)

The plants infected with the virus are generally asymptomatic, but occasionally they
exhibit mild chlorosis in the leaves of V. planifolia and V. tahitensis. The virus is
transmitted through the sap and dispersed through propagation material. It is not
known if it is transmitted by a vector. The virus was first reported in the vanilla
producing region of the South Pacific (French Polynesia). It has since been found in
vanilla plots in many countries, such as Madagascar, Reunion Island, and India
(Grisoni et al. 2010).

2.8.2  Vanilla Mosaic Virus (VMV)

The virus causes distortion of the leaf and mosaic lesions in V. planifolia, V. pompona,
and V. tahitensis (Figure 2.7). It is transmitted by the sap and is spread by using infected
cuttings in the establishment of the crop. Tests of transmission have shown that this
virus can be transmitted by aphids (Myzus persicae). This virus occurs mainly in the
islands of French Polynesia, where V. tahitensis is the cultivated species.

2.8.3  Vanilla Necrosis Potyvirus (VNPV)

Plants infected with VNPV exhibit distorted young leaves with chlorotic spots and
necrotic lesions in leaves and mature stems, eventually resulting in defoliation and
death of the plant. It is transmitted by the sap and dispersed by propagation material. It
has been reported in V. planifolia cultivated in Tonga, Fiji and Vanuatu.

2.8.4  Odontoglossum Ringspot Virus (ORSV)

Plants infected by ORSV are generally asymptomatic, although sometimes small spots
on the leaves of V. planifolia and V. tahitensis are observed. The virus is reported in the
36 2  Vanilla Diseases

Figure 2.7  Typical symptoms of distortion and mosaic lesions on leaves of V. tahitensis infected by
vanilla mosaic virus.

producing region of the South Pacific. The virus is transmitted through the sap and
dispersed through propagation material. The transmitting vector is not known.

2.8.5  Prevention of Viral Diseases

It is important to use healthy certified cuttings, control the insect vectors (aphids), and
eliminate weeds and other crops around the plantation that can be reservoirs for the
virus, for example, Commelina difusa, Cucurbita maxima, Physalis angulata,
Momordica charantia, watermelon, and pumpkin (Wong et al. 2003; Anandaraj et al.
2005). Plants with virus symptoms must be removed from the plantation and burned.
The movement of infected cuttings from one region to another must be avoided.

2.9 ­Damage by Adverse Climatic Factors

In addition to the direct damage caused by diseases, vanilla culture is affected by environ-
mental conditions, which can significantly affect the efficiency of vanilla production.

2.9.1  Natural Pruning of the Apical Buds

2.9.1.1 Description
During the winter, when temperatures of around 7 °C extend for more than 1 hour, the ter-
minal shoots are burned. They initially exhibit a light brown color, and later with the humid-
ity of rains or dew they began to rot and finally dry out, becoming a dark color (Figure 2.8).
 2.10  Damage from Sunburn 37

Figure 2.8  Apical bud showing damage from cold (natural pruning).

2.9.1.2 Damage
A plant without apical buds no longer grows and therefore it must develop a new bud.
For small young plants less than 2 years old, “natural pruning” is not recommended
because it delays plant growth. However, in mature plants, the “pruning” serves as an
indicator that the plant underwent stress by the cold and that it is going to bloom.

2.9.1.3 Control
In small plants, the damage can be minimized by maintaining high moisture levels in
the ground and in the mulch, as well as with natural or artificial shade of around 50%
during winter time.

2.10 ­Damage from Sunburn
2.10.1 Description
Initially, a yellowing in the leaves is observed and later some leaves dry completely
(Figure 2.9).

2.10.2 Damage
Sunburn of plants occurs frequently in the intensive production systems where
Erythrina sp. and Gliricidia sepium tutors are used. Serious sun damage can be observed
when these species are not pruned at the suitable time (they will shed their leaves in
winter), or if they are over‐prunned, or if their foliage is damaged by disease. Sun dam-
age is pronounced only in the leaves or stems that received direct sunlight, and the plant
38 2  Vanilla Diseases

Figure 2.9  Yellowing and sunburn of leaves in a vanilla plantation with deficient shade.

can be total or partially burned. Burned leaves will not recover because their photosyn-
thetic capacity is diminished and therefore the growth of the plant is affected. This
condition predisposes the plant to pathogen attacks.

2.10.3 Control
Prune plants at the recommended time to avoid total defoliation and water them during
dry periods to accelerate development of new foliage. In addition, in some cases it is
necessary to apply chemical control for certain pests. Plants can be covered with some
material (banana leaves, grass, etc.) to provide shade and to avoid burns. Also, when
little shade is available and there are intense sunny days, plants can be covered with
plastic mesh. Although this measure adds an additional cost, it could be justifiable since
it protects the plants from sun damage.

2.11 ­Hurricanes
Hurricanes can cause total losses to vanilla plantations, mainly in the producing regions
of the Indian Ocean (Madagascar, Reunion Island, and the Comoros) and Indonesia. In
Mexico, these natural phenomena appear in the period of August to October, but do not
always affect vanilla plantations. However, a major disaster occurred in 2007 when
Hurricane Dean severely affected the plantations located in the coastal zone where it
made landfall (Figure 2.10). The damage was mainly to the mesh coverings used for
shade (Hernández‐Hernández 2007). In order to mitigate the damage, it is necessary to
establish supports and tutors that are able to resist the effects of hurricanes. Also, cur-
tains of trees can be established, using for example Australian pine, that serve as wind
 ­  References 39

Figure 2.10  Plastic mesh used to provide shade were destroyed by hurricane “Dean”, in the region of
Tecolutla, Veracruz, Mexico, August 22, 2007.

barriers. After a hurricane, the main activity is to repair the mesh used for shade to
protect the plants from sunburn, to raise the plants and to apply fungicides, as described
previously, as preventive measures against fungal diseases.

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