Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Space Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/spacepol

Brazilian Space Sector: Historical Analysis of the Public Budget

Andrea Cabello a, *, Lúcia Helena Michels Freitas b, Michele Melo b
a
University of Brasilia, Brazil
b
Brazilian Space Agency, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We propose a historical analysis of the Brazilian space budget based on activities. The main contribution
Received 6 July 2021 of this article is to consider Brazilian space public budget data in the context of an international clas-
Received in revised form sification that allows a better understanding of the priorities set by Brazil in its space sector over the last
6 May 2022
two decades. Brazilian space policy and activities have suffered from varying budgets ever since the
Accepted 18 May 2022
Available online xxx
inception of the space program. This follows the pattern of the Science, Technology, and Innovation
sector, but there are also issues regarding the space sector itself. Launching centers and Earth observation
are identified as the two priority areas for the Brazilian space program. One of the findings of this
Keywords:
Brazilian space program
research is that the funding for research institutions has decreased over time, which was not that clear
Brazilian budget from previous data.
Brazilian space agency © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction spending affects not only government decisions but also the de-
cisions of all other agents involved in the sector.
Brazilian space policy and related activities have been charac- We use an adaptation of the classification proposed by Euro-
terized by volatility since the inception of its space program. This consult [6] that enables an international comparison as well. The
follows the pattern of the Science, Technology, and Innovation Brazilian government uses its own classifications for budget and
sector in Brazil [17], but there are also issues regarding the space spending, but this is too general to allow for an analysis of the
sector itself, such as inadequate funding [10]. Budget cuts in the priorities of the space sector as well as an international comparison.
Brazilian space program have not escaped the notice of non- Thus, our main contribution to the literature is to consider Brazilian
specialized media. The Economist in 2015 noticed how the Brazilian space public budget data in the context of an international classi-
space budget for 2012e2021 was equivalent to India's three-year fication that provides a better understanding of the priorities set by
typical space expenses, while The New York Times called it a Brazil in the space sector in the last two decades.2
“dangerously underfunded program” in2004.1 In addition, as Moltz [10] recognizes, although the literature that
Although funding has increased throughout the years, volatility deals with Brazilian space activities available in English is growing,
has remained. However, there has not been any systematic effort to it remains limited. Yet, Brazil is part of a group of emerging coun-
investigate how this budget is spent and how priorities have been tries that are engaged in a new type of space policy, as Petroni and
set. The main purpose of this paper is to fill this gap in the literature. Bianchi [15] argued, in which new players and new interests are
We propose a historical analysis of the Brazilian space budget that emerging. At the same time, commercial interests are still limited
is based on the activities of its space program. This is important, as for Brazilian stakeholders as Brazil is not a very globalized economy.
Dewes, Dalmarco and Padula [5] emphasize the importance of These new interests relate mainly to small satellites, launching
government procurement for the space sector in Brazil, with large, abilities, and achieving independence from the US Global Naviga-
commissioned projects that attract the private sector. This tion Satellite Systems.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 offers a historical
overview of the space sector in Brazil. Next, Section 3 offers an
* Corresponding author. analysis of the budget by focusing on the Brazilian space activities.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Cabello).
1
The New York Times, Rohter, L., January 23rd, 2004. Brazil's Soaring Space-Age
Ambitions Are Shy of Cash and Sapped by Calamity Available at: https://www.
2
nytimes.com/2004/01/23/world/brazil-s-soaring-space-age-ambitions-are-shy-of- For more on how the Brazilian Budget relates to the planning of its space sector,
cash-and-sapped-by-calamity.html. see AEB [3].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101502
0265-9646/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo, Brazilian Space Sector: Historical Analysis of the Public Budget, Space
Policy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101502
A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

2. The space sector in Brazil also stressed the division of labor in the Brazilian sector: INPE and
the Brazilian Air Force act as prime contractors, and they subcon-
Space activities in Brazil started in the 1960s. The purpose of this tract with private companies for project development. But, as
section is to discuss the goals and briefly describe the past activities Dewes, Dalmarco and Padula [5] argued, the involvement of private
of the space program. companies in the planning of the technological development for
Concerning the goals, in addition to economic development and the space sector is still incipient due to its high dependency on
resource management, Brazil sees its space policy as important in foreign inputs. The Brazilian space agency (AEB) has also tried to
terms of security due to a possible insertion as a regional and global increase private activities with public calls for private companies to
power [4]. Nakahodo [9] stresses prestige motives for the Brazilian participate in launches (AEB [3]).
space program, while Silva [17] points out that space policy de- With the intention to explore the CLA, Brazil and Ukraine
cisions may depend on other foreign relations goals. This suggests initiated a joint venture4 called Alcantara Cyclone Space in 2003.
that the motivations for Brazil in the space sector are strongly The company would use a Ukrainian launcher to launch satellites
related to its insertion into global politics. from the CLA, but due to budget restrictions and the uncertainty
In terms of projects, results were first obtained with the related to the commercial market for launchers, the company had
development of the Sonda sounding rocket family in the 1960s and its activities interrupted in 2015.
1970s. The Sonda was a simple rocket with two stages, and the Without its own launcher, Brazil decided to restart its launcher
technology developed in this project created the basis for the next program. The SLV project was remodeled into a microsatellite
project, the satellite launch vehicle (SLV), which was an orbital launch vehicle (VLM), and its development is being done in coop-
rocket. The development of the SLV started in 1984 and it was part eration with DRL, a partner on the successful VSB-30 project. The
of the biggest mission planned by Brazil. The aim was the full VLM has experienced budget restrictions, and its development has
development of a satellite to be launched by a Brazilian launcher not finished yet. The VLM continues as a strategic project of the
from a Brazilian launching center. Brazilian Space Agency.
However, budget restrictions did not take long to affect the On February 28, 2021, the Satellite Amazonia-1 was launched
Brazilian space program. There were delays in the development from the Sriharikota Launch Center in India. This satellite is
schedule of the SLV project, and the first launch occurred in 1997. commissioned to be an Earth observation satellite that focuses on
During the third attempt, an accident occurred, as the rocket the Amazon Forest. The development started in 2001, but as it
exploded on the launch pad. The effects of this event on the Bra- occurred with other Brazilian space projects, budget restrictions
zilian space program were immense, not only in terms of the loss of affected this program as well.
life and knowledge but also in terms of the stagnation of the Brazil Regarding the private sector, Nakahodo [14] mentioned that
launcher program. private interests in space activities in Brazil were due to an in-
Today, Brazil has two launching centers: the Alcantara Launch- dustrial cluster in the city of Sa~o Jose  dos Campos, where many
ing Center (CLA) and the Barreira do Inferno Center (CLBI). The CLA spin-off companies, mainly motivated by Embraer activities there,
was built at the same time as the SLV was being developed. CLA was have space and non-space business in the area. The private space
built in the city of Alcantara, located in Maranh~ ao State, in the most companies in Brazil are still few, though. These companies also
northern part of the country. It was built because the CLBI, the older have a high dependency on public procurements, which is a big
launching center, was unable to receive medium and high problem for the future of the Brazilian space program considering
launchers. The cities of Natal and Parnamirim, where the CLBI is the volatility of its public budget. It is quite common to find com-
located, have grown close to this facility, so risks associated with panies that were originally from correlated sectors, such as defense,
launching from there have increased. exploiting opportunities to take government projects in the space
Regarding satellites, the National Space Research Institute area.5 Melo and Freitas [9] estimated the rate of return of Brazilian
(INPE), the main research institute in Brazil for space activities, space projects to be between 9 and 16 times, suggesting it is a
developed their first satellite, the SCD-1, and launched it in 1993 strong driver for development of technology-intensive sectors.
with an American rocket. The SCD-2 was launched in 1998. The To conclude this section, we must also comment on the military-
CBERS Program was a product of a cooperation agreement between civilian aspect of space activities in Brazil. Space activities were
Brazil and China,3 signed in 1988, with the purpose of developing initially developed by the Brazilian Air Force, but in 1994, AEB,6 the
satellites for work in a remote sensing area. The CBERS-1 was Brazilian Space Agency, a civilian organization to coordinate these
launched in 1999, CBERS-2 was launched in 2003, CBERS-2B was activities, was created. Today, AEB is responsible for formulating,
launched in 2007, CBERS-3 was lost with the failure of the launcher coordinating, and executing the Brazilian National Policy on the
in 2013, CBERS-4 was launched in 2014, and CBERS-4A was development of space activities and the Brazilian national space
launched in 2019. program.7
While the orbital project faced various obstacles, the sounding With the creation of AEB, the organization of the sector was
rockets continued their successful development. The new version completely modified. AEB was defined as the central body of the
of the sounding rockets, called VSB-30, was developed in cooper- Brazilian space system. INPE became responsible for satellite pro-
ation with the German space agency (DLR), and there have been jects, while the Brazilian Air Force deals with its launchers projects.
several launches since 2004. The Brazilian Air Force, responsible for Together with universities and launching centers, the national
the development of the launcher program, transferred the tech- space system in Brazil is complete. However, this is still an incipient
nology of the VSB-30 to the Brazilian industry. The goal was to organizational structure. Santos and Monserrat Filho [16] stressed
enable private agents to build and explore the international market the lack of specialists and organized bodies dedicated to space
of suborbital launchers and experiments. Delgado-Lo pez [1] policy and law.
emphasized the attempt by Brazil to nationalize part of its tech-
nology and diversify partners in its projects. Melo and Freitas [9]
4
For more on BrazilianeUkrainian space agreements, see Monserrat Filho [11].
5
For more about the Brazilian space industry, see Vellasco [19].
3 6
For Sino-Brazil space cooperation, see Monserrat Filho [13], Zhao [20] and For more on the creation of AEB, see Monserrat Filho [11].
Delgado-Lopez [4]. 7
For more on the structure of AEB, see AEB [3].

2
A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

3. Public budget for space activities Table 1

Classification of the space budget and spending by activities.

As discussed in the previous section, Brazilian space activities Category Activities

have experienced budget restrictions throughout the years. How- Earth observation Investments in earth observation satellites and
ever, despite this volatile trend, the total expenditures on space associated infrastructure
activities have increased in Brazil in the last two decades. This Human space flight Investments in human space flights
shows a substantial commitment from the Brazilian government to INPE maintenance INPE administrative costs and maintenance
Internal operations Space Agency administrative costs and maintenance
space policy, and it has transcended different administrations. As
Launching centers Investments in the maintenance and operation of
mentioned before, in 1994, AEB, a civil and public agency, was launching centers (Alcantara Space Center and Barreira
created with a mandate to execute and coordinate the budget for do Inferno Launching Centers)
space activities, among other things. Launching vehicles Investments in launching vehicle development
Meteorology Investments in meteorology satellites and associated
The literature has addressed some of these issues in an aggre-
infrastructure
gate way. For example, Moltz [10] called attention to the failure of Science and space Investment in space exploration missions, such as
Brazil to emerge as a significant space actor and credited this to exploration missions to Mars or the moon
inadequate funding, conflicting organizations, poorly handled Space applications Investment in space applications
foreign relations, and an unclear national vision for its space policy. Source: Euroconsult [6].
This was recognized by AEB itself in 2015 [2]. But, as we said before,
the funding and lack of a clear vision regarding the activities related
to the budget were never quantified in a way that addresses priority Fig. 3 shows how the launching centers and Earth observation
choices. This is our goal now and as mentioned in our introduction, were, by far, the most important items for the space budget in
we use an adaptation of the Euroconsult [6] proposed classification. Brazil. However, the priorities of the Brazilian space policy changed
Our classification uses nine categories, as Table 1 shows. throughout the years, as the budget data demonstrates. Launching
The classifications used in this article approximate those used by centers went from around 15% of the space budget during the
Euroconsult [6] as much as possible. Certain items were not subject period from 2000 to 2010 to a peak of 56.3% of the space budget in
to adaptation to the international classification and, therefore, were 2009 with an average of 25.7% for the whole period. This relates to
kept in a classification suitable only for Brazil because of a lack of the SLV project and the fact that the CLA was being used to launch
data regarding disaggregated activities. That is the case of values it. The funding of the Earth observation activities was steadier
related to the maintenance of INPE, in which disaggregate infor- throughout the years, oscillating between around 20% of the space
mation was not possible to be conducted. INPE, or the National budget during the period from 2000 to 2010 to a peak of 50.6% in
Space Research Institute, is the main civilian research institute in 2017 (because it showed more inertia, it fell less than the budget for
Brazil for space activities, and its activities consider (but are not other activities) with an average of 32.2% of the space budget for the
limited to) space and atmospheric sciences, space engineering, and whole period.
space technology and its applications. Internal costs, which are related to salaries, building costs, hu-
The budget from the previous two decades is shown in Fig. 1, man resources, and other administrative costs, are the only item
while Fig. 2 shows how the space budget varied as a fraction of GDP that showed a steady growth throughout the years, which was
between 2000 and 2019. probably due to the lack of discretionary choice the Government
Figs. 1 and 2 show a clear budget increase between 2008 and has on this part of the budget and the dire macroeconomic envi-
2014, followed by a steep decrease afterward. These variations are ronment that Brazil faces right now. As the space budget fell overall,
related to macroeconomic conditions that allowed the government non-discretionary spending increased. Fig. 4 shows how the budget
to increase funding (in 2008e2014)8, and then, forced a restriction for this type of activity increased for almost all the years
from 2014 onward. considered.
The period between 2008 and 2014 underwent accelerated Although the Brazilian Space Agency was created in 1994, it was
growth and an increase in income for Brazil. However, ever since only in 2014 that it hired specialists for its ranks, and this had an
2015, the country has entered a fiscal crisis from which it has not impact on the administrative costs of the agency. Today, it has just
yet recovered. A fiscal regime that has put a cap on fiscal expen- over 150 employers, and a third of them hold either master's or
diture was established in 2016, which led to a reduction in most Ph.D. degrees (AEB [3]). In the last two years, AEB has tried to
discretionary expenses, as non-discretionary expenses (such as implement actions to improve its administrative costs adjusting
salaries) cannot be reduced by law. Fig. 2 shows how the relative services contracts, but the budget for this type of activity has
share of space activities in the Brazilian budget. After a peak in increased.
2009, its lowest level in the past two decades was reached in 2019. Other operations and activities closely followed the pattern in
In comparison with BRIC countries, Brazil spends considerably less Figs. 1 and 2, albeit with a few differences, which suggest either
than Russia, China, and India, as Table 2 shows. budget issues or changes in priorities, as we mentioned. Fig. 5
These figures reinforce the view that the space budget in Brazil shows the budget for the launching centers.
is volatile and subject to macroeconomic conditions, and this Between 2000 and 2009, the slow and steady increase can be
jeopardizes the Brazilian goals of political insertion in the field. Its explained by the SLV project. The CLA was being used for the
investments are considerably lower than those of countries with launching tests of this vehicle. As previously mentioned, in 2003, in
similar economies but who have made stronger commitments to the middle of the preparation for the third tentative SLV launch, an
their space policies. accident occurred that killed 21 scientists and destroyed the mobile
Regarding the funding of individual activities within the Bra- integration tower. In the following years, the level of investments
zilian space budget, Fig. 3 shows the share of individual space ac- increased even more with the goal to rebuild the infrastructure.
tivities considering the total space budget for the period from 2000 In 2009, there was a sharp increase in the budget for the
to 2019 in real terms. launching centers, which maintained higher levels up to 2014, but
then the budget decreased abruptly and never recovered. Its
funding is relative to the total space budget fell to the same levels as
8
For a description of the main projects that initiated this increase, see AEB [1]. those for the period from 2000 to 2010, which possibly had
3
A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Total budget for space activities from 2000 to 2019; in the local currency adjusted for inflation and in PPP dollars. Source: https://www12.senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil
with World Bank PPP conversion factor.

The funding for space applications increased from 2000 to 2009.

There were larger budgets until 2012, and the funding decreased
after that. The funding for space applications benefitted from the
buoyant years for the space policy in Brazil. It is worth noticing
though that because of the change in the administration in Brazil in
2018, the budget for space applications recovered slightly following
its reduction during previous years. The increase in the investment
could be explained by the requirement to maintain or expand the
infrastructure for receiving and processing data. With the launch of
the CBERS satellites and the development of the Amazonia-1 sat-
ellite, it was necessary to receive and process data. These data
encompass the investments in space climate.
Fig. 8 shows the budget for technology.
The budget for technology also had a steep increase in 2003,
followed by reductions in 2006e2007. In contrast to the budgets for
Fig. 2. Total budget for space activities as a fraction of Brazilian GDP from 2000 to
2019. Source: https://www12.senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil. other activities, the highest investment did not occur during the
period from 2008 to 2014. The technology budget was also less
affected by the 2014 budget reductions and decreased only in 2017
something to do with their higher costs of investment than that for after a change in the administration in Brazil. The budget for
other initiatives and a change in the priorities for the Brazilian launcher vehicles was also affected by the negative macroeconomic
space policy. conditions in recent years, as Fig. 9 shows.
This is one of the greatest commitments of all individual space The VLM project replaced the SLV project after the 2003 acci-
activities. With the continuous delays in the development of the dent, so the pattern for a steep increase in the funding following
launching vehicle, the investments in launching centers were also 2003 is shown here. This project has undergone several delays in its
reduced. The other most important item in the Brazilian space development, which can explain the volatility of the expenditures
budget, Earth observation, is shown in Fig. 6. in the last 10 years. These activities maintained larger budgets from
Fig. 6 shows a steep increase in the budget for Earth observation 2003 to 2015, falling briefly in 2016.
activities in 2003, followed by reductions from 2006 to 2007 and a Lastly, two other items that are not that large but show a very
quick recovery. The budget for these activities began to decrease different pattern from the other items in the Brazilian space budget
from 2008 to 2014, when macroeconomic conditions were more are the INPE maintenance (Fig. 10) and science and space explo-
favorable, and continued to decline from 2011 and onward. Earth ration (Fig. 11).
observation has been a priority area for Brazilian space program, The budget reduction for the INPE maintenance occurred first in
with satellites in the CBERS and Amazonia series. 2008, when other expenses were increasing. There was a slight
As for the other activities, Fig. 7 shows the Brazilian budget for recovery in 2015 in the middle of the sector crisis period, and the
space applications. budget decreased again in 2017. This item is related to the main-
tenance of the INPE Integration and Test Laboratory (LIT) and the
activities related to the control and tracking system, which are both
Table 2
connected to the development of satellites. As this decrease
Space budget for BRIC countries in 2020.
occurred when most of the other items increased, this suggests a
Brazil Russia India China South change in the priorities of the Brazilian space policy.
Africa
The budget for science and space exploration tells a different
Space Budget (USD Millions) 61.5 3579.7 2042.0 8852.5 35 story. It is the only item in which there was a clear reduction during
Of GDP 0.01% 0.16% 0.07% 0.04% 0.01%
the period considered in this article, which suggests that it was not
Per capita 1 24.8 1.5 4.5 0.6
part of the Brazilian space policy priorities in a primary way.
Source: Euroconsult [6].

4
A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Space activities and percentage in the space budget for Brazil from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://www12.senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP con-
version factor.

Fig. 4. Budget for internal operations. Source: https://www12.senado.leg.br/ Fig. 6. Budget for Earth observation activities from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://
orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor. www12.senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor.

In general, Brazilian policy was strongly affected by macroeco- The main items in the Brazilian space budget were Earth
nomic conditions, and there was a prime period between 2008 and observation activities, probably due to the development and
2014. The 2003 accident also had a strong impact on the budget of launching of the CBERS series and Amazonia satellites and
some activities.

Fig. 5. Budget for launching centers from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://www12. Fig. 7. Budget for space applications from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://www12.
senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor. senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor.

5
A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

50000000
45000000
40000000
35000000
30000000
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0

2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Science & Space Exploration - PPP

Fig. 8. Expenditure on technology from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://www12.senado. Fig. 11. Budget for science and space exploration from 2000 to 2019. Source: Brazilian
leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor. Space Agency e adjusted by inflation.

4. Final comments

The first contribution of this article is to show the Brazilian

space public budget data in an international classification that al-
lows a better understanding of the priorities chosen by Brazil in the
space sector over the last two decades. Previous analyses always
used the internal classification of the Brazilian public budget that
does not allow a clear vision of the areas that Brazil was investing
in, the priorities of the government, and easy international com-
parisons. For this, we used an adaptation of the Euroconsult pro-
posed classification [6].
Launching centers and Earth observation were the two priority
areas for the Brazilian space program. This is an important finding
because the National Space Activities Program contains 12 priority
actions or projects but does not specify priority areas. For example,
Fig. 9. Budget for launcher vehicles from 2000 to 2019. Source: https://www12.
the cooperation with China to develop the CBERS series of satellites
senado.leg.br/orcamento/sigabrasil with World Bank PPP conversion factor.
boosted the investment in this type of endeavor. The cooperation
with Germany increased the investments in launchers for a few
investments in the launching centers, especially the CLA. This last years. However, a lack of clarity occurred.
factor had a strong dependency on fiscal conditions and had a clear The public sector has been under an erratic fiscal policy, in
discretionary nature, which possibly explains its movements over which even clear priorities are not left untouched. This means that
the period we considered. Another pattern we established was a it is very difficult for new projects to get traction, and this leads to
steady increase in administrative costs, something not unique to extraordinarily strong restrictions on the abilities of private com-
the space sector but generalized in the Brazilian government. The panies to grow and expand. The characteristics of the space projects
only two items that showed a steady decrease (and importance) make this impact stronger in this sector. The projects are longer,
were science and space exploration and INPE maintenance, sug- more complex, and have a higher cost, and therefore, private
gesting that they were not a priority for Brazil. companies depend heavily on public procurements.

Declaration of competing interest

INPE Maintenance - PPP
We, the authors, claim no conflict of interest for this article.
7000000
Andrea Cabello is a Professor of Economics at the University of
6000000 Brasilia and Lucia Freitas and Michele Melo both work at the Bra-
5000000 zilian Space Agency.

4000000
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3000000

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A. Cabello, L.H. Michels Freitas and M. Melo Space Policy xxx (xxxx) xxx

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