Fault Detection in Transmission Lines

FAULT DETECTION IN TRANSMISSION LINES
ABSTRACT:
Transmission line protection is an important issue in power system
engineering because 85-87% of power system faults are occurring in
transmission lines. This paper presents a technique to detect and classify the
different shunt faults on a transmission lines for quick and reliable operation of
protection schemes. Discrimination among different types of faults on the
transmission lines is achieved by application of evolutionary programming
tools. PSCAD/EMTDC software is used to simulate different operating and fault
conditions on high voltage transmission line, namely single phase to ground
fault, line to line fault, double line to ground and three phase short circuit. The
discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is applied for decomposition of fault
transients, because of its ability to extract information from the transient
signal, simultaneously both in time and frequency domain. The data sets which
are obtained from the DWT are used for training and testing the SVM
architecture. After extracting useful features from the measured signals, a
decision of fault or no fault on any phase or multiple phases of a transmission
line is carried out using three SVM classifiers. The ground detection task is
carried out by a proposed ground index. Gaussian radial basis kernel function
(RBF) has been used, and performances of classifiers have been evaluated
based on fault classification accuracy. In order to determine the optimal
parametric settings of an SVM classifier (such as the type of kernel function, its
associated parameter, and the regularization parameter c), fivefold cross-
validation has been applied to the training set. It is observed that an SVM with
an RBF kernel provides better fault classification accuracy than that of an SVM
with polynomial kernel. It has been found that the proposed scheme is very
fast and accurate and it proved to be a robust classifier for digital distance
protection.
INTRODUCTION:
Fault detection and classification on transmission lines are important
task to safeguard electric power systems. A fundamental part of a protective
relay is a selector module which classifies the type of fault that has occurred
and also to classify the “normal state”. Reliable phase selection of the faulted
phase is thus vitally important in order to avoid either tripping of the incorrect
phase or unnecessary three-phase tripping. Moreover, a necessary
requirement of phase selectors is high speed operation as the selection
process must be completed in the immediate post-fault period before breaker
opens. Traditional phase selection schemes suffer from some drawbacks due
to complexity of the system model, lack of knowledge of its parameters, effect
of remote-end infeed, fault resistance, mutual-coupling from adjacent parallel
lines, etc. They do not have the ability to adapt dynamically to the system
operating conditions, and to make correct decisions if the signals are
uncertain. Fault detection and classification on transmission lines are
important task to safeguard electric power systems. A fundamental part of a
protective relay is a selector module which classifies the type of fault that has
occurred and also to classify the “normal state”. Reliable phase selection of the
faulted phase is thus vitally important in order to avoid either tripping of the
incorrect phase or unnecessary three-phase tripping.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
Crowther, W. J., K. A. Edge, C. R. Burrows, R. M. Atkinson, and D. J.

Woollons, “Fault diagnosis of a hydraulic actuator circuit using neural
networks—an output vector space classification approach”, Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part I: Journal of Systems and Control
Engineering 212. The structure of the transmission line constructed to

investigate the location of the fault and can give separation only the part
where the fault occurs. Stimulating method help in identify and isolate the
fault in short period.
Reddy, B. Ravindhranath, Dr M. Vijay Kumar, M. Surya Kalavathi, and
Y. Venkata Raju. “Detection & localization of faults in transmission lines using
wavelet transforms (coif let & Mexican hat)”, Journal of Theoretical and
Applied Information Technology, 2005. The fault identification scheme for

the series compensated by the fault and its magnitudes change in fault
voltages as a positive sequence and terms of fault current change as a positive
sequence . When in series compensated lines developed by the algorithm for
fault currents and phase voltages to get the decisions by using EMTDC/PSCAD.
We can use a capacitor or don’t have used capacitor regarding the testing
process of series lines by just changing the source capacity, fault resistance,
the fault inception angle, power flow direction those are the different system
condition.
HARDWARE USED:
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
 Microcontroller
 T/F
 Flame sensor
 RPS
 LCD
 Relay
 Buzzer
 GSM
SOFTWARE USED:
 Arduino IDE
 Embedded C
3.2 ARDUINO NANO (Micro controller)
3.3.1 Introduction to the Arduino NANO Board
The Arduino Nano, as the name suggests is a compact, complete and

bread-board friendly microcontroller board. The Nano board weighs around 7
grams with dimensions of 4.5 cms to 1.8 cms (L to B). This article discusses
about the technical specs most importantly the pinout and functions of each
and every pin in the Arduino Nano board.
Arduino Nano has similar functionalities as Arduino Duemilanove but
with a different package. The Nano is inbuilt with the ATmega328P
microcontroller, same as the Arduino UNO. The main difference between them
is that the UNO board is presented in PDIP (Plastic Dual-In-line Package) form
with 30 pins and Nano is available in TQFP (plastic quad flat pack) with 32 pins.
The extra 2 pins of Arduino Nano serve for the ADC functionalities, while UNO
has 6 ADC ports but Nano has 8 ADC ports. The Nano board doesn’t have a DC
power jack as other Arduino boards, but instead has a mini-USB port. This port
is used for both programming and serial monitoring. The fascinating feature in
Nano is that it will choose the strongest power source with its potential
difference, and the power source selecting jumper is invalid.
Figure 3.3.2 Arduino nano Board
Arduino Nano – Specification
Arduino Nano Specifications
Analog I/O Pins 8
Architecture AVR
Clock Speed 16 MHz
DC Current per I/O 40 milliAmps

Pins
Digital I/O Pins 22
EEPROM 1 KB
Flash Memory 32 KB of which 2 KB used by

Bootloader
Input Voltage (7-12) Volts
Microcontroller ATmega328P
Operating Voltage 5 Volts

Arduino Nano Specifications
PCB Size 18 x 45 mm
Power Consumption 19 milliAmps
PWM Output 6
SRAM 2KB
Weight 7 gms
3.2 Pin diagram
Figure 3.3.3 Pin Configuration of Atmega328

Pin Description
Arduino Nan0 – Pin Description
Pins 1 to 30
Arduino Nano Pin

Type Function
Pin Name
1 D1/TX I/O Digital I/O Pin

Serial TX Pin
2 D0/RX I/O Digital I/O Pin

Serial RX Pin
3 RESET Input Reset ( Active Low)
4 GND Power Supply Ground
5 D2 I/O Digital I/O Pin

Arduino Nano Pin
Type Function
Pin Name
17 3V3 Output +3.3V Output (from FTDI)
18 AREF Input ADC reference
19 A0 Input Analog Input Channel 0

Arduino Nano Pin
Type Function
Pin Name
27 +5V Output or +5V Output (From On-board

Input Regulator) or
+5V (Input from External
Power Supply
28 RESET Input Reset ( Active Low)
29 GND Power Supply Ground
30 VIN Power Supply voltage
ICSP Pins
Arduino Nano ICSP Pin
Type Function
Name
MISO Input or Master In Slave Out

Output
Vcc Output Supply Voltage
SCK Output Clock from Master to

Slave
MOSI Output or Master Out Slave In

Input
RST Input Reset (Active Low)
GND Power Supply Ground
Arduino Nano Digital Pins
Pins - 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16
As mentioned earlier, Arduino Nano has 14 digital I/O pins that can be used
either as digital input or output. The pins work with 5V voltage as maximum,
i.e., digital high is 5V and digital low is 0V. Each pin can provide or receive a
current of 20mA, and has a pull-up resistance of about 20-50k ohms. Each of
the 14 digital pins on the Nano pinout can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions.
Other than the digital input and output functions, the digital pins have some
additional functionality as well.
Serial Communication Pins
Pins - 1, 2
1 - RX and 2 - TX
These two pins RX- receive and TX- transmit are used for TTL serial data
communication. The pins RX and TX are connected to the corresponding pins
of the USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
PWM Pins
Pins - 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 14
Each of these digital pins provide a Pulse Width Modulation signal of 8-bit
resolution. The PWM signal can be generated using analogWrite () function.
External Interrupts
Pins - 5, 6
When we need to provide an external interrupt to other processor or

controller we can make use of these pins. These pins can be used to enable
interrupts INT0 and INT1 respectively by using the attachInterrupt () function.
These pins can be used to trigger three types of interrupts such as interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge interrupt and a change in value interrupt.
SPI Pins
Pins - 13, 14, 15, and 16
When you don’t want the data to be transmitted asynchronously you can use
these Serial Peripheral Interface pins. These pins support synchronous
communication with SCK as the synchronizing clock. Even though the hardware
has this feature, the Arduino software doesn’t have this by default. So you
have to include a library called SPI Library for using this feature.
LED
Pin - 16
If you remember your first Arduino code, blinking LED, then you’ll definitely
came across this Pin16. The pin 16 is being connected to the blinking LED on
the board.
Arduino Nano Analog Pins
Pins - 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26
As mentioned earlier UNO got 6 analog input pins but Arduino Nano has 8
analog inputs (19 to 26), marked A0 through A7. This means you can connect
*8 channel analog sensor inputs for processing. Each of these analog pins has a
inbuilt ADC of resolution of 1024 bits (so it will give 1024 values). By default,
the pins are measured from ground to 5V. If you want the reference voltage to
be 0V to 3.3V, we can give 3.3V to AREF pin (18 th Pin) by using the
analogReference () function.
Similar to digital pins in Nano, analog pins also got some other functions as
well.
I2C
Pins 23, 24 as A4 and A5
Since SPI communication also has its disadvantages such as 4 essential pins and
limited within a device. For long distance communication we use the I2C
protocol. I2C supports multi master and multi slave with only two wires. One
for clock (SCL) and another for data (SDA). For using this I2C feature we need
to import a library called Wire library.
AREF
Pin 18
As mentioned already the AREF- Analog Reference pin is used as a reference

voltage for analog input for the ADC conversion.
Reset
Pin 28
Reset pins in Arduino are active LOW pins which means if we make this pin
value as LOW i.e., 0v, it will reset the controller. Usually used to be connected
with switches to use as reset button.
ICSP
ICSP stands for In Circuit Serial Programming, which represents one of the
several methods available for programming Arduino boards. Ordinarily, an
Arduino bootloader program is used to program an Arduino board, but if the
bootloader is missing or damaged, ICSP can be used instead. ICSP can be used
to restore a missing or damaged bootloader.
Each ICSP pin usually is cross-connected to another Arduino pin with the same
name or function. For example, MISO on Nano’s ICSP header is connected to
MISO / digital pin 12 (Pin 15); MOSI on the ISCP header is connected to MOSI /
digital pin 11 (Pin 16); and so forth. Note, MISO, MOSI, and SCK pins taken
together make up most of an SPI interface.
We can use one Arduino to program another Arduino using this ICSP.
Arduino as ISP ATMega328
Vcc/5V Vcc
GND GND
MOSI/D11 D11
MISO/D12 D12
Arduino as ISP ATMega328
SCK/D13 D13
D10 Reset
RESET
Pins 3, 28 and 5 in ICSP
Power
Pins 4, 17, 27, 28, 30 and 2 & 6 in ICSP
FEATURES
 1.8-5.5V operating range
 Up to 20MHz
 Part: ATMEGA328P-AU
 32kB Flash program memory
 1kB EEPROM
 2kB Internal SRAM
 2 8-bit Timer/Counters
 16-bit Timer/Counter
 RTC with separate oscillator
 Master/Slave SPI interface
 2-wire (I2C) interface
 Watchdog timer
 23 IO lines
 Data retention: 20 years at 85C/ 100 years at 25C
 Digital I/O Pins are 14 (out of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins are 6.
 DC Current per I/O is 40 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin is 50mA
3.3.3 AVR CPU Core
The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose
working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one
single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is
more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than
conventional CISC microcontrollers.
Figure 3.3.3 AVR Block Diagram

Overview
This section discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main
function of the CPU core is to ensure correct program execution. The CPU must
therefore be able to access memories, perform calculations, control
peripherals, and handle interrupts.
Figure 3.3.4 AVR core architecture

In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a
Harvard architecture – with separate memories and buses for program and
data. Instructions in the program memory are executed with a single level
pipelining. While one instruction is being executed, the next instruction is pre-
fetched from the program memory. This concept enables instructions to be
executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is In-System
Reprogrammable Flash memory. The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-
bit general purpose working registers with a single clock cycle access time. This
allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a typical ALU
operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the operation is
executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File– in one clock cycle.
Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address
register pointers for Data Space addressing – enabling efficient address
calculations. One of these address pointers can also be used as an address
pointer for look up tables in Flash program memory. These added function
registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register, described later in this section. The
ALU supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a
constant and a register. Single register operations can also be executed in the
ALU. After an arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated to reflect
information about the result of the operation. Program flow is provided by
conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions, able to directly
address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a single 16-bit
word format. Every program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit
instruction.
3.2.4 Arduino with ATmega328
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328
(datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a
power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed
to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI
USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up
to versionR2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
 Pin out: Added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two
other new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the
shields to adapt to the voltage provided from the board. In future,
shields will be compatible with both the board that uses the AVR, which
operates with 5V and with the Arduino. Due that operates with 3.3V.
The second one is a not connected pin that is reserved for future
purposes.
 Stronger RESET circuit.
 Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.
"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release
of Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of
Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino
boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a comparison
with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
Arduino Characteristics
Power
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an
external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External
(non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or
battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive
plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the
Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate on
an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the
5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board.
The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other
regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The
board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 -
12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V).
Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can
damage your board. We don't advise it.
 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50 mA.
 GND. Ground pins.
 IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference
with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield
can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source
or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or
3.3V.
Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also
has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the
EEPROM library).
Serial Communication:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a
computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins
0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial
communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the
computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The
Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to
be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will
flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB
connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and
1).
A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the
Uno's digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI
communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of
the I2C bus. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.
Current Transformer:
In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for

measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with
potential transformers (PT), are known as instrument transformers. When
current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a
current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the
current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit.
Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in
the electrical power industry.
3.6.1 Design:
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding,

a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in
the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces current
flow in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current
transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are
efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate
relationship to the primary current.
Fig.3.5.1 Current Transformer Principle
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many

times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The
CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a
secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a
permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry
current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are
also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an
opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors
passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight
inaccuracies may occur. Current transformers used in metering equipment for
three-phase 400 ampere electricity supply
Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear
manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current
transformers are either ring type or plastic molded case. High-voltage current
transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from
ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage
transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor
inside the CT window.
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The
rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For
example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the
primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio
or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or
burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area
is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards
the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.
3.6.2 Usage:
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and

monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade
CTs drive the electrical utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every building with
three-phase service, and every residence with greater than 200 amp service.
The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to

secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For
example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs;
stacking them provides severability while consolidating the high voltage
interface. Similarly, potential transformers such as the CVT are used for
measuring voltage and monitoring the operation of the power grid.
3.6.3 Safety precautions:
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not

disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the
transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the
effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open
secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause
arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment
safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.
3.6.4 Accuracy:
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:
 Burden
 Burden class/saturation class
 Rating factor
 Load
 External electromagnetic fields
 Temperature and
 Physical configuration.
 The selected tap, for multi-ratio CT's
3.6.5 Burden:
The load, or burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive)

impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC
CTs are 1.5VA, 3VA, 5VA, 10VA, 15VA, 20VA, 30VA, 45VA & 60VA with
ANSI/IEEE B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a
burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2 Ω of impedance in the metering
circuit before its output current is no longer a fixed ratio to the primary
current. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit
are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common
source of excess burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor
between the meter and the CT. Often, substation meters are located
significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive length of small
gauge conductor creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by
using CT with 1 ampere secondaries which will produce less voltage drop
between a CT and its metering devices (used for remote measurement).
3.6.6 Rating factor:
Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT

can be multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary
current. Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately
measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however,
special CTs designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the
nominal current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient
temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55
degrees Celsius. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and
resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside pad-mounted
transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers
have been moving towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating
factors. This is made possible by the development of more efficient ferrites and
their corresponding hysteresis curves. This is a distinct advantage over
previous CTs because it increases their range of accuracy, since the CTs are
most accurate between their rated current and rating factor.
3.6.7 Special designs:
Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used

(usually with an oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or
pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One type of specially
constructed wideband transformer provides a voltage output that is
proportional to the measured current. Another type (called a Rogowski coil)
requires an external integrator in order to provide a voltage output that is
proportional to the measured current. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry,
wideband CTs are rated in output volts per ampere of primary current.
Infrared Flame Detection Sensor Module
A flame sensor module that consists of a flame sensor (IR receiver), resistor,
capacitor, potentiometer, and comparator LM393 in an integrated circuit. It
can detect infrared light with a wavelength ranging from 700nm to
1000nm.The far-infrared flame probe converts the light detected in the form of infrared light into current changes.
Sensitivity is adjusted through the onboard variable resistor with a detection angle of 60 degrees.
Working voltage is between 3.3v and 5.2v DC, with a digital output to indicate the presence of a signal. Sensing
is conditioned by an LM393 comparator.

FEATURE
 100% brand new and high quality

 Detection angle about 60 degrees, it is sensitive to the flame spectrum.Accuracy adjustable
 Operating voltage 3.3V-5V
 Output a. analog voltage outputb. digital switch outputs (0 and 1)
 With a mounting screw holePCB size: 3cm * 1.6cm
 Power indicator (red) and digital switch output indicator (green)
 Comparator chip LM393 ,it is stable.
 Flame detection distance, lighter flame test can be triggered within 0.8m, if the intensity of
flame is high , the detection distance will be increased.
Directions:
 + -- 3.3V-5V voltage
- -- GND
 DO -- board digital output interface (0 and 1)
 AO -- board analog output interface
 On board, digital output interface can be directly connected with the microcontroller IO.
 Please keep a distance with flame, high temperature maybe burn out the sensor module.
WORKING
IR FLAME sensors like all other photosensor works on the principle that a photon of sufficient
energy can knock out electrons so that the resistance of the circuit is changed.
An IR sensor consists of an emitter, detector and associated circuitry. The circuit required to make an
IR sensor consists of two parts; the emitter circuit and the receiver circuit.
The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode
which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls
on the photodiode, its resistance and correspondingly, its output voltage, change in proportion to
the magnitude of the IR light received.
Applications
This module can be applied to fire detection system, fire-fighting robot, fire alarm system, etc.
LCD MODULE
To display interactive messages we are using LCD Module. We

examine an intelligent LCD display of two lines,16 characters per line
that is interfaced to the controllers. The protocol (handshaking) for
the display is as shown. Whereas D0 to D7th bit is the Data lines, RS,
RW and EN pins are the control pins and remaining pins are +5V, -5V
and GND to provide supply. Where RS is the Register Select, RW is
the Read Write and EN is the Enable pin.
The display contains two internal byte-wide registers, one for

commands (RS=0) and the second for characters to be displayed
(RS=1). It also contains a user-programmed RAM area (the character
RAM) that can be programmed to generate any desired character
that can be formed using a dot matrix. To distinguish between these
two data areas, the hex command byte 80 will be used to signify that
the display RAM address 00h will be chosen.Port1 is used to furnish
the command or data type, and ports 3.2 to3.4 furnish register select
and read/write levels.
The display takes varying amounts of time to accomplish the

functions as listed. LCD bit 7 is monitored for logic high (busy) to
ensure the display is overwritten.
Liquid Crystal Display also called as LCD is very helpful in providing

user interface as well as for debugging purpose. The most common
type of LCD controller is HITACHI 44780 which provides a simple
interface between the controller & an LCD. These LCD's are very
simple to interface with the controller as well as are cost effective.
2x16 Line Alphanumeric LCD Display

The most commonly used ALPHANUMERIC displays are 1x16 (Single
Line & 16 characters), 2x16 (Double Line & 16 character per line) &
4x20 (four lines & Twenty characters per line).
The LCD requires 3 control lines (RS, R/W & EN) & 8 (or 4) data lines.
The number on data lines depends on the mode of operation. If
operated in 8-bit mode then 8 data lines + 3 control lines i.e. total 11
lines are required. And if operated in 4-bit mode then 4 data lines + 3
control lines i.e. 7 lines are required. How do we decide which mode
to use? It’s simple if you have sufficient data lines you can go for 8 bit
mode & if there is a time constrain i.e. display should be faster then
we have to use 8-bit mode because basically 4-bit mode takes twice
as more time as compared to 8-bit mode.
Pin Symbol Function
1 Vss Ground
2 Vdd Supply Voltage
Contrast
3 Vo
Setting
4 RS Register Select
5 R/W Read/Write
Select
Chip Enable
6 En
Signal
7- DB0-
Data Lines
14 DB7
Gnd for the
15 A/Vee
backlight
Vcc for
16 K
backlight
When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command. When RS
is high (1), the data being sent is considered as text data which
should be displayed on the screen.
When R/W is low (0), the information on the data bus is being
written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is
effectively reading from the LCD. Most of the times there is no need
to read from the LCD so this line can directly be connected to Gnd
thus saving one controller line.
The ENABLE pin is used to latch the data present on the data pins. A
HIGH - LOW signal is required to latch the data. The LCD interprets
and executes our command at the instant the EN line is brought low.
If you never bring EN low, your instruction will never be executed.
COMMANDS USED IN LCD
Basic 16x 2 Characters LCD - Black on Green 5V:
Description:
This is a basic 16 character by 2 line display. Black text on

Green background. Utilizes the extremely common HD44780 parallel
interface chipset. Interface code is freely available. We will need ~11
general I/O pins to interface to this LCD screen. Includes LED
backlight.
Pin Description:
The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1
Line, 2 Line or 4 Line LCDs which have only 1 controller and support
at most of 80 characters, whereas LCDs supporting more than 80
characters make use of 2 HD44780 controllers.
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2
controller has 16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED
connections). Pin description is shown in the table below.
Figure 1: Character LCD type HD44780 Pin diagram
Pin description:
Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 4 RS
1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 5 R/W 1 = Read from LCD
module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
Table 1: Character LCD pins with 1 Controller
Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
Pin no. 8 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Enable signal for row 0 and 1
Pin no. 9 EN1
(1stcontroller)
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 10 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 11 RS
1 = Data input
Pin no. 12 VEE Contrast adjust
Pin no. 13 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 14 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Enable signal for row 2 and 3
Pin no. 15 EN2
(2ndcontroller)
Pin no. 16 NC Not Connected
Table 2: Character LCD pins with 2 Controller
LCD Background:
Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside

world using input and output devices that communicate directly with
a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an
8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected
to the 8051 are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per
line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
Fortunately, a very popular standard exists which allows us

to communicate with the vast majority of LCDs regardless of their
manufacturer. The standard is referred to as HD44780U, which refers
to the controller chip which receives data from an external source (in
this case, the 8051) and communicates directly with the LCD.
44780 Background:
The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4

or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD
is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data
bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines
plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD
will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for
the data bus).
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD
that we are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, our program
should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two
control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines
are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum
amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD
to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0),

the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction (such as
clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data
being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For
example, to display the letter "T" on the screen we would set RS
high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low

(0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD.
When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading)
the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command.
All others are write commands--so RW will almost always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the

mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data
bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6,
and DB7.
Interfacing Example - 16 Characters x 2 Lines LCD:
Description:
This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We

will start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-
directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with
most, if no all Parallel Ports.
It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an
input. A 16 Character x 2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. These
LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to
work with, as all the logic required running them is on board.
Schematic:
Circuit Description:
Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable

and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port
is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports
have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore
by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is
more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may
have no internal pull up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse

direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into
write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a
result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us
if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction.
This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our
program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD

panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the
power supply out. We can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use
an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors,
especially if we have trouble with the circuit working properly.
An example hardware configuration:
As we've mentioned, the LCD requires either 8 or 11 I/O lines

to communicate with. For the sake of this tutorial, we are going to
use an 8-bit data bus--so we'll be using 11 of the 8051's I/O pins to
interface with the LCD.
Let's draw a sample pseudo-schematic of how the LCD will be

connected to the 8051.
As we can see, we've established a 1-to-1 relation between a

pin on the 8051 and a line on the 44780 LCD. Thus as we write our
assembly program to access the LCD, we are going to equate
constants to the 8051 ports so that we can refer to the lines by their
44780 name as opposed to P0.1, P0.2, etc. Let's go ahead and write
our initial equates:
DB0 EQU P1.0

DB1 EQU P1.1
DB2 EQU P1.2
DB3 EQU P1.3
DB4 EQU P1.4
DB5 EQU P1.5
DB6 EQU P1.6
DB7 EQU P1.7
EN EQU P3.7
RS EQU P3.6
RW EQU P3.5
DATA EQU P1
Having established the above equates, we may now refer to

our I/O lines by their 44780 name. For example, to set the RW line
high (1), we can execute the following instruction:
SETB RW
Handling the EN control line:
As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD

that we are ready for it to execute an instruction that we've
prepared on the data bus and on the other control lines. Note that
the EN line must be raised/ lowered before/after each instruction
sent to the LCD regardless of whether that instruction is read or
write text or instruction. In short, we must always manipulate EN
when communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing
that we are talking to it. If we don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't
know we're talking to it on the other lines.
Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always
bring the EN line low with the following instruction:
CLR EN
And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the

other control lines and data bus lines, we'll always bring this line
high:
SETB EN
The line must be left high for the amount of time required by
the LCD as specified in its datasheet. This is normally on the order of
about 250 nanoseconds, but checks the datasheet. In the case of a
typical 8051 running at 12 MHz, an instruction requires 1.08
microseconds to execute so the EN line can be brought low the very
next instruction. However, faster microcontrollers (such as the
DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90 nanoseconds given an
11.0592 MHz crystal) will require a number of NOPs to create a delay
while EN is held high. The number of NOPs that must be inserted
depends on the microcontroller we are using and the crystal we have
selected.
The instruction is executed by the LCD at the moment the EN

line is brought low with a final CLR EN instruction.
Checking the busy status of the LCD:
As previously mentioned, it takes a certain amount of time for

each instruction to be executed by the LCD. The delay varies
depending on the frequency of the crystal attached to the oscillator
input of the 44780 as well as the instruction which is being executed.
While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount
of time to allow the LCD to execute instructions, this method of
"waiting" is not very flexible. If the crystal frequency is changed, the
software will need to be modified. Additionally, if the LCD itself is
changed for another LCD which, although 44780 compatible,
requires more time to perform its operations, the program will not
work until it is properly modified.
A more robust method of programming is to use the "Get LCD

Status" command to determine whether the LCD is still busy
executing the last instruction received.
The "Get LCD Status" command will return to us two tidbits of

information; the information that is useful to us right now is found in
DB7. In summary, when we issue the "Get LCD Status" command the
LCD will immediately raise DB7 if it's still busy executing a command
or lower DB7 to indicate that the LCD is no longer occupied. Thus our
program can query the LCD until DB7 goes low, indicating the LCD is
no longer busy. At that point we are free to continue and send the
next command.
Since we will use this code every time we send an instruction
to the LCD, it is useful to make it a subroutine. Let's write the code:
WAIT_LCD:
CLR EN ;Start LCD command

CLR RS ;It's a command
SETB RW ;It's a read command
MOV DATA, #0FFh ;Set all pins to FF initially
SETB EN ;Clock out command to LCD
MOV A,DATA ;Read the return value
JB ACC.7,WAIT_LCD;If bit 7 high, LCD still busy
CLR EN ;Finish the command
CLR RW ;Turn off RW for future commands
RET
Thus, our standard practice will be to send an instruction to

the LCD and then call our WAIT_LCD routine to wait until the
instruction is completely executed by the LCD. This will assure that
our program gives the LCD the time it needs to execute instructions
and also makes our program compatible with any LCD, regardless of
how fast or slow it is.
The last byte we need to send is used to configure additional
operational parameters of the LCD. We must send the value 06h.
CLR RS
MOV DATA, #06h
SETB EN
CLR EN
LCALL WAIT_LCD
So, in all, our initialization code is as follows:
INIT_LCD:
CLR RS
MOV DATA, #38h
SETB EN
CLR EN
LCALL WAIT_LCD
CLR RS
MOV DATA, #0Eh
SETB EN
CLR EN
LCALL WAIT_LCD
CLR RS
MOV DATA, #06h
SETB EN
CLR EN
LCALL WAIT_LCD
RET
Having executed this code the LCD will be fully initialized and
ready for us to send display data to it.
CLEARING THE DISPLAY:
When the LCD is first initialized, the screen should

automatically be cleared by the 44780 controller. However, it's
always a good idea to do things our self so that we can be completely
sure that the display is the way we want it. Thus, it's not a bad idea
to clear the screen as the very first operation after the LCD has been
initialized.
An LCD command exists to accomplish this function. Not

surprisingly, it is the command 01h. Since clearing the screen is a
function we very likely will wish to call more than once, it's a good
idea to make it a subroutine:
CLEAR_LCD:
CLR RS
MOV DATA, #01h
SETB EN
CLR EN
LCALL WAIT_LCD
RET
How that we've written a "Clear Screen" routine, we may clear

the LCD at any time by simply executing an LCALL CLEAR_LCD.
Applications:
 Medical equipment
 Electronic test equipment
 Industrial machinery Interface
 Serial terminal
 Advertising system
 EPOS
 Restaurant ordering systems
 Gaming box
 Security systems
 R&D Test units
 Climatizing units
 PLC Interface
 Simulators
 Environmental monitoring
 Lab development
 Student projects
 Home automation
 PC external display
 HMI operator interface.
RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an

electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism, but other operating
principles are also used. Relays find applications where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it
to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor.
Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor device triggered by light to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are
used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protection relays".
Basic design and operation:
Simple electromechanical relay

Small relay as used in electronics
A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first
picture, is an adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire
surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance
path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts;
two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically
linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that
when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and
the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting
the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic
field attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable
contact or contacts either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If
the set of contacts was closed when the relay was De-energized, then the
movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the
contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature
is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also
used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to
operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high
voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components.
Some automotive relays already include a diode inside the relay case.
Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and
resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This
"shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-

state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To
achieve electrical isolation an opt coupler can be used which is a light-emitting
diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor.
Types
Latching relay
Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The
ratchet operates a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen
edge-on just below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side
of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called
"impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay
remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet
and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center
spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position
while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam
example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse
turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a
pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being
switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core
latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change
state.
Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube,
which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are
closed by a magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil
around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster switching speeds than
larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.
Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are
wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one
volt or less) because of their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting
and timing applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce.
Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically
to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these
relays are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.
Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent

magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th
Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic
distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them for
maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that
would operate the relay.
Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine

tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized
by a large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are
easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily
replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable
logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential
control applications.
Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from
10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys
containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for
motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices
attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay
where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a
spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with
the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-
energized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them
unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.
Solid-state relay
Solid state relay, which has no moving parts
25 A or 40 A solid state contactors
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff
came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This
voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As
transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200
Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic
relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.
Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the
necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors
and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles are required. There are no
moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to vibration.
They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-
filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down
the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
Forced-guided contacts relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked
together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the
linked contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes
immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to move. The
function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the
status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided
contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
Overload protection relay
Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-
loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or
internal faults in the motor windings. One type of electric motor overload
protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric
motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or
melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay
is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude
compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.
Pole and throw:
Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT
types.
The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to
relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be
thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:
 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits:
one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a
common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact
("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes”make before
break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.
The following designations are commonly encountered:
 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be
connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally
open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either
of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals
in total.
 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals.
Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The
poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over
terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.
The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches
connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double
throw relay (with 14 terminals).
Applications:
Relays are used to and for:
 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types

of modems or audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile,
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging
 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two
are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-
powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to
control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in
partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve
energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by
connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form
C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for
NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays
were used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA
(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in
safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay
closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay
would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade
assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short
time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is
allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
Relay application considerations:
A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old
telephone switching system.
Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB
switch and 5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires

evaluation of many different factors:
 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-

throw)
 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For
example, the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break
so that the connection didn't get dropped while dialing the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors
are rated for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600
VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15
000 V
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays
for switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays
operate on a few mill amperes
 Coil current
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation
between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant,
washable for printed circuit board assembly
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed
to allow PCB post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is
complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel
mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact
materials may be needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching
the coil current
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in
aerospace applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or
more
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed
circuit board.
Advantages of relays:
 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be
mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers
and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of user input
such as a mouse click or keystroke.
FEATURES
• The PB series are high-performance buzzers with a unimorph
piezoelectric ceramic element and an integral self-excitation
oscillator circuit.
• They exhibit extremely low power consumption in comparison to
electromagnetic units.
• They are constructed without switching contacts to ensure long life
and no electrical noise.
• Compact, yet produces high acoustic output with minimal voltage.
Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.
Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical

to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be
connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the
contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling
to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the
rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.
VOLTAGE BUZZER SOUND CONTROLS
When resistance is connected in series (as shown in illustrations (a)

and (b)), abnormal oscillation may occur when adjusting the sound
volume. In this case, insert a capacitor in parallel to the voltage
oscillation board (as shown in illustration (c)). By doing so, abnormal
oscillation can be prevented by grounding one side. However, the
voltage VB added to the voltage oscillation board must be within the
maximum input voltage range, and as capacitance of 3.3μF or
greater should be connected.
Electronic
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic

circuit or other audio signal source. Sounds commonly used to
indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.
Electronic buzzers find many applications in modern days.
Uses
 Annunciator panels
 Electronic metronomes
 Game shows
 Microwave ovens and other household appliances
 Sporting events such as basketball games
GSM MODEM
Definitions
The words, “Mobile Station” (MS) or “Mobile Equipment” (ME) are used for
mobile terminals
Supporting GSM services.
A call from a GSM mobile station to the PSTN is called a “mobile originated
call” (MOC) or
“Outgoing call”, and a call from a fixed network to a GSM mobile station is
called a “mobile
Terminated call” (MTC) or “incoming call”
What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
What does GSM offer?
GSM supports voice calls and data transfer speeds of up to 9.6 kbit/s, together
with the transmission of SMS (Short Message Service).
GSM operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands in Europe and the 1.9GHz and
850MHz bands in the US. The 850MHz band is also used for GSM and 3G in
Australia, Canada and many South American countries. By having harmonised
spectrum across most of the globe, GSM’s international roaming capability
allows users to access the same services when travelling abroad as at home.
This gives consumers seamless and same number connectivity in more than
218 countries.
Terrestrial GSM networks now cover more than 80% of the world’s population.
GSM satellite roaming has also extended service access to areas where
terrestrial coverage is not available
HISTORY
In 1980’s the analog cellular telephone systems were growing rapidly all
throughout Europe, France and Germany. Each country defined its own
protocols and frequencies to work on. For example UK used the Total Access
Communication System (TACS), USA used the AMPS technology and Germany
used the C-netz technology. None of these systems were interoperable and
also they were analog in nature.
In 1982 the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed
a study group called the GROUPE SPECIAL MOBILE (GSM) The main area this
focused on was to get the cellular system working throughout the world, and
ISDN compatibility with the ability to incorporate any future enhancements. In
1989 the GSM transferred the work to the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI.) the ETS defined all the standards used in GSM.
BASICS OF WORKING AND SPECIFICATIONS OF GSM –
The GSM architecture is nothing but a network of computers. The

system has to partition available frequency and assign only that part of the
frequency spectrum to any base transreceiver station and also has to reuse the
scarce frequency as often as possible.
GSM uses TDMA and FDMA together. Graphically this can be shown below –
Fig 1. Representation of a GSM signal using TDMA & FDMA with
respect to the transmitted power.
Some of the technical specifications of GSM are listed below –
Multiple Access Method TDMA / FDMA
933-960 (basic
Uplink frequencies (MHz)
GSM)
890-915 (basic
Downlink frequencies (MHz)
GSM)
Duplexing FDD
Channel spacing, kHz 200
Modulation GMSK
Portable TX power, maximum / average (mW) 1000 / 125
Power control, handset and BSS Yes
Speech coding and rate (kbps) RPE-LTP / 13
Speech Channels per RF channel: 8

Channel rate (kbps) 270.833
Rate 1/2
Channel coding
convolutional
Frame duration (ms) 4.615
GSM was originally defined for the 900 Mhz range but after some time even
the 1800 Mhz range was used for cellular technology. The 1800 MHz range has
its architecture and specifications almost same to that of the 900 Mhz GSM
technology but building the Mobile exchanges is easier and the high frequency
Synergy effects add to the advantages of the 1800 Mhz range.
ARCITECTURE AND BUILDIGN BLOCKS –
GSM is mainly built on 3 building blocks. (Ref Fig. 2)
 GSM Radio Network – This is concerned with the signaling of the system.
Hand-overs occur in the radio network. Each BTS is allocated a set of
frequency channels.
 GSM Mobile switching Network – This network is concerned with the
storage of data required for routing and service provision.
 GSM Operation and Maintenance – The task carried out by it include
Administration and commercial operation , Security management,
Network configuration, operation, performance management and
maintenance tasks.
Fig.2 The basic blocks of the whole GSM system
Explanations of some of the abbreviations used –
Public Land Mobile The whole GSM system

Network(PLMN)
Mobile System (MS) The actual cell phone that we use
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Provides connectivity between network
and mobile station via the Air- interface
BaseStationController(BSC) Controls the whole subsystem.

Transcoding Rate & Adaption This is instrumental in compressing the
Data that is passed on to the network, is
Unit (TRAU) a part of the BSS.
Mobile Services Switching The BSC is connected to the MSC. The
MSC routes the incoming and outgoing
Center (MSC)
calls and assigns user cannels on the A-
interface.
Home Location Register (HLR) This register stores data of large no of
users. It is like a database that manages
data of all the users. Every PLMN will
have atleast one HLR.
Visitor Location Resigter (VLR) This contains part of data so that the HLR
is not overloaded with inquiries. If a
subscriber moves out of VLR area the HLR
requests removal of data related to that
user from the VLR.
Equipment Identity Register The IMEI no. is allocated by the
manufacturer and is stored on the
network in the EIR. A stolen phone can
(EIR)
be made completely useless by the
network/s if the IMEI no is known.
SIGNALLING SCHEMES AND CIPHERING CODES USED –

GSM is digital but voice is inherently analog. So the analog signal has to
be converted and then transmitted. The coding scheme used by GSM is RPE-
LTP (Rectangular pulse Excitation – Long Term Prediction)
Fig.3 Transmitter for the voice signal
Fig.4 Receiver for the Voice signal

The voice signal is sampled at 8000 bits/sec and is quantized to get a 13
bit resolution corresponding to a bit rate of 104 kbits/sec. This signal is given to
a speech coder (codec) that compresses this speech into a source-coded
speech signal of 260 bit blocks at a bit rate of 13 kbit/sec. The codec achieves a
compression ratio of 1:8. The coder also has a Voice activity detector (VAD)
and comfort noise synthesizer. The VAD decides whether the current speech
frame contains speech or pause, this is turn is used to decide whether to turn
on or off the transmitter under the control of the Discontinuous Transmission
(DTX). This transmission takes advantage of the fact that during a phone
conversation both the parties rarely speak at the same time. Thus the DTX
helps in reducing the power consumption and prolonging battery life. The
missing speech frames are replaced by synthetic background noise generated
by the comfort noise synthesize in a Silence Descriptor (SID) frame. Suppose a
loss off speech frame occurs due to noisy transmission and it cannot be
corrected by the channel coding protection mechanism then the decoder flags
such frames with a bad frame indicator (BFI) In such a case the speech frame is
discarded and using a technique called error concealment which calculates the
next frame based on the previous frame.
CIPHERING CODES
MS Authentication algorithm’s –
These algorithms are stored in the SIM and the operator can
decide which one it prefers using.
A3/8
The A3 generates the SRES response to the MSC’s random
challenge, RAND which the MSC has received from the HLR. The
A3 algorithm gets the RAND from the MSC and the secret key Ki
from the SIM as input and generated a 32- bit output, the SRES
response. The A8 has a 64 bit Kc output.
A5/1 (Over the Air Voice Privacy Algorithm)
The A5 algorithm is the stream cipher used to encrypt over the air
transmissions. The stream cipher is initialized for every frame sent with the
session key Kc and the no. of frames being decrypted / encrypted. The same Kc
key is used throughout the call but different 22-bit frame is used.
TWO MAIN INTERFACES
The two main interfaces are the AIR and the ABIS interface. The figure
shows the signaling between them.
AIR INTERFACE – signaling between MS and BTS
ABIS INTERFACE – signaling between BTS and BSC
Fig.5 Signaling between Air and Abis Interface

AIR INTERFACE
The air interface is like the physical layer in the model. The signaling
schemes used in the AIR interface are as follows –
 BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNE (BCCH)
o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
This channel broadcasts a series of information elements to the
MS, such as radio channel configuration, synchronization information
etc.
o FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL (FCCH)
This channel contains information about the correction in
transmission frequency broadcasted to MS.
o 0SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL (SCH)
It broadcasts data for the frame synchronization of a MS and
information to identify a BSC.
 COMMON CONTROL CHANNEL (BCH)
This is a point to multi-point signaling channel to deal with access
management functions. Consists of 3 channels –
o RANDOM ACCESS CHANNEL (RACH)
It is the Uplink portion, accessed from the mobile stations in a cell
to ask for a dedicated signaling channel for 1 transaction.
o ACCESS GRANT CHANNEL (AGCH)
It is the downlink portion used to assign a dedicated signaling

channel.
o NOTIFICATION CHANNEL (NCH)
It is used to inform mobile stations about incoming calls and
broadcast calls.
 DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNEL (DCCH)
It is a Bi-directional point to point signaling channel. Consists of 3
channels –
o STAND ALONE DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SDDCH) –
Used for signaling between the BSS and MS when there is no
active connection between them.
o SLOW ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SACCH) –
This channel had to continuously transfer data because it is
considered as proof of existence of a physical radio connection.
o FAST ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (FACCH) –
This channel is used to make additional band-width available for
signaling
Multi-Tech line settings
A serial link handler is set with the following default values (factory settings):
autobaud, 8 bits
data, 1 stop bit, no parity, RTS/CTS flow control. Please use the +IPR, +IFC and
+ICF
Commands to change these settings.
Commands always start with AT (which means ATtention) and finish with a
<CR> character.
Information responses and result codes
Responses start and end with <CR><LF>, except for the ATV0 DCE response
format) and the ATQ1 (result code suppression) commands.
If command syntax is incorrect, an ERROR string is returned.
If command syntax is correct but with some incorrect parameters, the +CME
ERROR:
<Err> or +CMS ERROR: <SmsErr> strings are returned with different error
codes.
If the command line has been performed successfully, an OK string is returned.
In some cases, such as “AT+CPIN?” or (unsolicited) incoming events, the
product does not
Return the OK string as a response.
Product Serial Number +CGSN
Description:
This command allows the user application to get the IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment
Identity) of the product.
Syntax:
Command syntax: AT+CGSN
Repeat last command A/

Description:
This command repeats the previous command. Only the A/ command itself
cannot be repeated.
Syntax:
Command syntax: A/
Signal Quality +CSQ
Description:
This command determines the received signal strength indication (<rssi>) and
the channel bit error
Rate (<ber>) with or without a SIM card inserted.
Syntax:
Command syntax: AT+CSQ
Defined values:
0: -113 dBm or less
1: -111 dBm
30: -109 to –53 dBm
31: -51dBm or greater
99: not known or not detectable
<ber>: 0…7: as RXQUAL values in the table GSM 05.08
99: not known or not detectable
New message indication +CNMI
Description:
This command selects the procedure for message reception from the network.
Syntax:
Command syntax: AT+CNMI=<mode>,<mt>,<bm>,<ds>,<bfr>
Read message +CMGR

Description:
This command allows the application to read stored messages. The messages
are read from the
memory selected by +CPMS command.
Command syntax: AT+CMGR=<index>
List message +CMGL
Description:
This command allows the application to read stored messages, by indicating
the type of the
Message to read. The messages are read from the memory selected by the
+CPMS command.
Syntax: Command syntax: AT+CMGL=<stat>
Defined values:
<stat> possible values (status of messages in memory):

Send message +CMGS
Description:
The <address> field is the address of the terminal to which the message is sent.
To send the
Message, simply type, <ctrl-Z> character (ASCII 26). The text can contain all
existing
Characters except <ctrl-Z> and <ESC> (ASCII 27). This command can be aborted
using the
<ESC> character when entering text. In PDU mode, only hexadecimal
characters are used
(‘0’…’9’,’A’…’F’).
Syntax:
Command syntax in text mode:
AT+CMGS= <da> [ ,<toda> ] <CR>
text is entered <ctrl-Z / ESC >
The message reference, <mr>, which is returned to the application, is allocated
by the product.
This number begins with 0 and is incremented by one for each outgoing
message (successful
and failure cases); it is cyclic on one byte (0 follows 255).
Note: This number is not a storage number. Outgoing messages are not stored.
Delete message +CMGD
Description:
This command deletes one or several messages from preferred message

storage (“BM” SMS
CB ‘RAM storage’, “SM” SMSPP storage ‘SIM storage’ or “SR” SMS Status-
Report storage).
Syntax:
Command syntax: AT+CMGD=<Index> [,<DelFalg>]
Defines values
(1-20) when the preferred message storage is “BM”
Integer type values in the range of location numbers of SIM Message memory
When the preferred message storage is “SM” or “SR”.
<DelFlag>
0 Delete message at location <index>.
1 Delete All READ messages
2 Delete All READ and SENT messages
3 Delete All READ, SENT and UNSENT messages
4 Delete all messages.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a
constant regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types
1) Linear Voltage Regulator

Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the
excessive voltage resistively as heat.
2) Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very
rapidly. Since their output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus
achieving higher efficiency as compared to linear voltage regulators. But they
are more complex & generate high noise due to their switching action. For low
level of output power switching regulators tend to be costly but for higher
output wattage they are much cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX
series where the XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for
Negative Voltage Regulators.
After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The
maximum input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there
is a 2-3 Volts drop across the regulator so the input voltage should be at least
2-3 Volts higher than the output voltage. If the input voltage gets below the
Vmin of the regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the
voltage regulator will not be able to produce the correct regulated voltage.
Circuit diagram:
Fig 2.3. Circuit Diagram of power supply
IC 7805:
7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It

supports an input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts.
It has a current rating of 1 amp although lower current models are available. Its
output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also has a built-in current limiter as a
safety feature. 7805 is manufactured by many companies, including National
Semiconductors and Fairchild Semiconductors.
The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot.The last
two digits represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator.
The 78xx series of regulators is designed to work in complement with the 79xx
series of negative voltage regulators in systems that provide both positive and
negative regulated voltages, since the 78xx series can't regulate negative
voltages in such a system.
The 7805 & 78 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series
regulators, as it's small component count and medium-power regulated 5V
make it useful for powering TTL devices.
Table 2.1. Specifications of IC7805
SPECIFICATIONS IC 7805
Vout 5V
Vein - Vout Difference 5V - 20V
Operation Ambient
0 - 125°C
Temp
Output Imax 1A

Fault Detection in Transmission Lines

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Fault Detection in Transmission Lines

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FAULT DETECTION IN TRANSMISSION LINES

Crowther, W. J., K. A. Edge, C. R. Burrows, R. M. Atkinson, and D. J.

Engineering 212. The structure of the transmission line constructed to

Applied Information Technology, 2005. The fault identification scheme for

3.2 ARDUINO NANO (Micro controller)

3.3.1 Introduction to the Arduino NANO Board

The Arduino Nano, as the name suggests is a compact, complete and

Arduino Nano – Specification

Arduino Nano Specifications

Analog I/O Pins 8

Clock Speed 16 MHz

DC Current per I/O 40 milliAmps

Digital I/O Pins 22

Flash Memory 32 KB of which 2 KB used by

Input Voltage (7-12) Volts

Operating Voltage 5 Volts

Power Consumption 19 milliAmps

3.2 Pin diagram

Figure 3.3.3 Pin Configuration of Atmega328

Arduino Nan0 – Pin Description

Arduino Nano Pin

1 D1/TX I/O Digital I/O Pin

2 D0/RX I/O Digital I/O Pin

3 RESET Input Reset ( Active Low)

4 GND Power Supply Ground

5 D2 I/O Digital I/O Pin

6 D3 I/O Digital I/O Pin

7 D4 I/O Digital I/O Pin

8 D5 I/O Digital I/O Pin

9 D6 I/O Digital I/O Pin

10 D7 I/O Digital I/O Pin

11 D8 I/O Digital I/O Pin

12 D9 I/O Digital I/O Pin

13 D10 I/O Digital I/O Pin

14 D11 I/O Digital I/O Pin

15 D12 I/O Digital I/O Pin

16 D13 I/O Digital I/O Pin

17 3V3 Output +3.3V Output (from FTDI)

18 AREF Input ADC reference

19 A0 Input Analog Input Channel 0

20 A1 Input Analog Input Channel 1

21 A2 Input Analog Input Channel 2

22 A3 Input Analog Input Channel 3

23 A4 Input Analog Input Channel 4

24 A5 Input Analog Input Channel 5

25 A6 Input Analog Input Channel 6

26 A7 Input Analog Input Channel 7

27 +5V Output or +5V Output (From On-board

28 RESET Input Reset ( Active Low)

29 GND Power Supply Ground

30 VIN Power Supply voltage

MISO Input or Master In Slave Out

Vcc Output Supply Voltage

SCK Output Clock from Master to

MOSI Output or Master Out Slave In

RST Input Reset (Active Low)

GND Power Supply Ground

Arduino Nano Digital Pins

Pins - 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16

Pins - 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 14