The Application of Seq Strat To Exploration and Reservoir Development in The Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat Basin System, 2001

THE APPLICATION OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY TO
EXPLORATION AND RESERVOIR DEVELOPMENT IN THE

COOPER-EROMANGA-BOWEN-SURAT BASIN SYSTEM
S.C. Lang1, P. Grech 1, R. Root1, A. Hill1 and axes typically lie along structural corridors during
D. Harrison2 lowstand conditions, which is useful for locating the
1
NCPGG, University of Adelaide orientation of channel fairways.
Thebarton Campus During rising base level, the initially slow but acceler-
ating accommodation provides room for fluvial reser-
Adelaide SA 5005
2 voirs to stack with increasing isolation up-section, lead-
SANTOS Ltd
ing to reduced interconnectedness between reservoirs.
60 Edward St Furthermore, the increasing accommodation leads to
Brisbane Queensland 4000 extensive and thick peat mire development (coals) and
[email protected] ultimately lacustrine drowning. In dryer climates,
[email protected] palaeosols replace peat (e.g. the Triassic Rewan Forma-
[email protected] tion). This is referred to as the alluvial transgressive
[email protected] systems tract, and significant reservoirs do occur in this
interval (examples illustrated include the Epsilon For-
ABSTRACT mation and Murta Member). If the lake system becomes
extensive then in some cases wave reworking can take
The application of sequence stratigraphy to non-ma- place on lacustrine delta-mouth bars and shorelines lead-
rine strata in intracratonic basins is still in its infancy, ing to clean reservoir development immediately above
however, the predominantly non-marine Cooper- the extensive lacustrine transgressive surface (Murta
Eromanga-Surat-Bowen basin system of Eastern Austra- Member). The peak of accommodation creation is typi-
lia provides an excellent opportunity to demonstrate cally marked by a lacustrine maximum flooding surface
how sequence stratigraphic concepts can be applied to (or interval) in the distal zones, and thin marginal peat
non-marine successions to assist with exploration and (coal) or floodplain lakes in the proximal areas. The
reservoir development. The key to applying sequence lacustrine MFS can commonly be tracked across sub-
stratigraphic concepts in non-marine basins lies in un- basins and in many cases across the whole basin. As the
derstanding the role of alluvial sediment accommoda- rate of accommodation creation declines, lakes are filled
tion relative to sediment supply. Accommodation is cre- in, and fluvial channel deposits can become more amal-
ated by a combination of tectonic subsidence, compac- gamated in what is referred to as an alluvial highstand
tion and changing water tables in floodplain lakes, marsh- systems tract. In parts of the Cooper and Eromanga
lands and peat mires. If the alluvial basin is directly Basins this is dominated by widespread floodplains and
connected to the marine system then eustacy may influ- splay complexes, with tortuous main channel pathways.
ence accommodation in the lower reaches of the alluvial Using a genetic sequence stratigraphic framework, fa-
network, but its effect will significantly diminish up- cies log motifs, isopach and sand percent maps can be
stream depending on the slope. Climate change will, made that are more meaningful than using the
however, have an impact on fluvial discharge, rising lithostratigraphic subdivisions, and can also help solve
water tables, floodplain lake levels, and sediment flux. apparent reservoir quality variation (i.e. different prov-
For sediments to accumulate, accommodation must be enances or diagenetic pathways before and after a se-
positive, whereas negative accommodation leads to ero- quence boundary). Practical guidelines for determining
sion. Fluvial accommodation is, therefore, comparable the influence of structural control on genetic interval
with the concept of base-level. During an episode of nett/gross distribution are proposed. Four case examples
basin-wide tectonic uplift or tilting, falling base-level from the Cooper, Bowen and Eromanga basins are used
(negative accommodation) leads to widespread erosion to illustrate how sequence analysis can, therefore, help
on the basin margins or over intra-basinal highs, and an strategic decisions on exploration and development, and,
unconformity equivalent to a sequence boundary devel- thereby, minimise risk.
ops. If followed by a period of low accommodation, rivers
rework much of their floodplain, resulting in a sheetlike, KEYWORDS
amalgamated succession of predominantly sandy bedload
deposits of high nett to gross, equivalent to an alluvial Sequence stratigraphy, alluvial basins, intracratonic
lowstand. Further downstream, lowstand deltas may form basins, fluvial, lacustrine, delta, crevasse splay, flood-
in the lakes. These alluvial lowstands form good reser- plain, palaeosols, reservoirs, petroleum geology, sedi-
voirs in the Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat basin sys- mentology, Bowen Basin, Eromanga Basin, Cooper Basin,
tem. The optimum locations for the channel belts or delta Surat Basin, Rewan Formation, Murta Member, Cadna-
APPEA JOURNAL 2001—223

S.C. Lang, P. Grech, R. Root, A. Hill and D. Harrison
Owie Formation, Wyandra Sandstone, Epsilon Forma-

tion, Australia.
INTRODUCTION
The use of modern sequence stratigraphic concepts to
analyse and interpret stratigraphic patterns has
revitalised stratigraphy in the last few decades, espe-
cially in marine siliciclastic and carbonate settings. Se-
quence stratigraphy should now be regarded as a set of
tools to interpret stratal geometries and facies in terms
of changes in sediment supply and sediment accommoda-
tion (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). Accommodation can
be viewed in terms of changes in relative sea-level (or
base level) produced by a combination of short-term sea
or lake level changes (eustacy or limnostacy) generally
superimposed over longer-term tectonic subsidence.
Many of the early approaches focussed on useful but
sometimes misleading model ‘templates’ that were com-
monly abused despite the caveat by Posamentier and Vail
(1988) that local conditions like tectonics, physiography,
and sediment flux must be taken into account before
applying sequence stratigraphic concepts. A common mis-
conception about sequence stratigraphy is that it involves
application of global eustatic sea-level curves as a template
to rationalise basin stratigraphy. However, this is an abuse
of sequence stratigraphy (Posamentier and Weimer, 1994
and Posamentier and James 1993) and will lead to erroneous
results in basins where tectonism or climatic fluctuation is
a greater influence than eustacy on depositional style
(especially active margins and interior basins).
Most of the attention in the last three decades has been
on passive margin and foreland basins to explain stratal
geometries and cyclic stacking patterns in terms of changes
in sediment supply versus accommodation (for example
Van Wagoner et al, 1990; Macdonald, 1991; Macqueen Figure 1. The Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat basin system and
and Leckie 1992; Posamentier et al, 1993; and Posamentier location of case studies 1–4.
and Weimer, 1994). In cratonic interior basins with no or
very distal marine connections, the influence of eustacy fundamental principles of sequence stratigraphy, and
is nil to limited, and this has led to a belief that sequence then to illustrate how these can be applied to the exten-
stratigraphy is not applicable to these settings. Conse- sive continental successions in Eastern Australia in the
quently, relatively little attention was given to predomi- Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat basin system (Fig.1). Al-
nantly alluvial basins and continental interior basins in though not studied by the authors, the ideas should be
particular (Allen et al, 1996; Shanley and McCabe, 1998; applicable to the Galilee and Carpentaria Basins as well
and Legarreta and Uliana, 1998 are exceptions). Funda- (Fig. 1), and potentially any alluvial basin.
mental sequence stratigraphic concepts have now em- Four case studies will be discussed to highlight potential
braced the controls of sediment supply, basin physiogra- value for exploration and development.
phy, and tectonism (Shanley and McCabe, 1994; Allen et Firstly, the coal-bearing Early Permian Epsilon Forma-
al, 1996; Gibling and Bird, 1997, Kennard et al, 1998, tion; secondly, the palaeosol-prone Triassic Rewan Group
Posamentier and Allen 1999). The recognition that cli- in the Bowen Basin; thirdly, the lacustrine-shoreface domi-
mate and autocyclic processes play a significant role in nated Cretaceous Murta Formation, and finally by way of
the development of stratal architecture is present in contrast, the Cretaceous Wyandra Sandstone Member of
recent literature, but the cause-and-effect nature of this the Cadna-Owie Formation, the oldest unit with defini-
relationship requires much more study (Blum, 1993; tive marine influence in the Eromanga Basin (Fig. 2).
Puigdefabregas, 1993; Shanley and McCabe, 1998; Blum
and Tornquist, 2000). These recent theoretical changes SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
in sequence stratigraphy make the approach increas-
ingly useful in non-marine interior cratonic basins. The key controls on sediment patterns in both marine
The purpose of this paper is to firstly outline the and non-marine environments are changes in the space
224—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

The application of sequence stratigraphy to exploration and reservoir development in the Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat Basin system
AGE COOPER / DENISON ROMA TAROOM

EROMANGA TROUGH SHELF TROUGH
LATE
Winton Fm
Mackunda Fm
CRETACEOUS
Oodnadatta Allaru Mudstone
Fm GRIMAN CREEK FM.
Toolebuc Fm
Coorikiana SURAT SILTSTONE

Sandstone
Wallumbilla Fm WALLUMBILLA FM.
EARLY
Bulldog Shale
EROMANGA BASIN
*4
SURAT BASIN
Wyandra Sandstone Member BUNGIL FM.
Cadna-owie Fm
*3
Murta Fm
MOOGA SST.
Namur McKinlay Member
Sandstone Westbourne Fm
ORALLO FM
LATE
Adori Sandstone
GUBBERAMUNDA SST.
Algebuckina
Sandstone
Birkhead Fm
INJUNE CREEK GRP.
JURASSIC
MIDDLE
MESOZOIC
Hutton Sandstone
HUTTON SST.
Poolowanna Fm EVERGREEN
EARLY
WESTGROVE IRONSTONE MEMBER
BOXVALE SST. MEMBER FM
PRECIPICE SST.
Cuddapan Fm EDDYSTONE
LATE
BEDS TAROOM BEDS

TRIASSIC
Tinchoo Fm
MIDDLE
MOOLAYEMBER FM WANDOAN
FM
Wimma
Sandstone SNAKE CREEK MUDSTONE
Member SHOWGROUNDS SST.
CLEMATIS
GRP. CLEMATIS GRP.
Paning ARCADIA *2
Member Arrabury
EARLY
FM ARCADIA FM
Fm CABAWIN
SAGITTARIUS SAGITTARIUS FM
Callamburra SST SST
Member BANDANNA FM
BARALABA/KIANGA
BANDANNA FM COAL MEASURES
BOWEN BASIN
BLACK ALLEY SHALE BLACK ALLEY SHALE GYRANDA FM

MANTUAN FM
LATE
Toolachee Fm
TINOWON FM FLAT TOP FM
PEAWADDY FM
COOPER BASIN
CATHERINE SST
MUGGLETON FM
INGELARA FM BARFIELD FM
Daralingie Fm
FRIETAG FM
Roseneath Shale ALDEBARAN OXTRACK FM

PERMIAN
*1
PALAEOZOIC
Epsilon Fm
Murteree Shale SST.
CATTLE BUFFEL FM
EARLY
CREEK COMBARNGO
'KUTTUNG'?
Patchawarra Fm
FM VOLC.
REIDS DOME ARBROATH CAMBOON

BEDS TROUGH
VOLC.
?
Tirrawarra Fm
CARBON-
IFEROUS
Merrimella Fm
LATE
Figure 2. Stratigraphic summary chart for the Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat basin system, showing the position of case studies 1–4.

Fluvial channel stacking patterns

Negligible accommodation
Low accommodation
a)
b)
Rapid accommodation
Highest accommodation
c)
d)
Decreasing accommodation
modified from Allen et al. (1996)

e)
Figure 3. Fluvial stratigraphic stacking patterns. a) Negligible accommodation relative to sediment supply, producing fluvial sand sheet with
high interconnectivity; b-c) Increasing accommodation relative to sediment supply and decreasing connectivity of fluvial channel bodies, with
coal and/or palaeosols developed on floodplains; d) Highest rate of accommodation relative to sediment supply and development of a
lacustrine maximum flooding surface; e) Decreasing accommodation relative to sediment supply showing increasing interconnectivity of
fluvial channel bodies (modified from Allen et al, 1996).

available for sedimentation (accommodation), the rate teristics within the lateral influence of the control on
of sediment influx, and the type of depositional environ- surface formation. For this reason, maximum flooding
ment; the latter affected to a large extent by the first two. surfaces are often very useful for regional correlation. In
In fluvial systems, the basic control which determines low gradient interior basins it is possible that during
changes in accommodation are modifications of the theo- periods of increased tectonic subsidence marine incur-
retical equilibrium profile (‘fluvial graded profile’ of sions may occur, as was the case in the Eromanga Basin
geomorphologists) in relation to the rate and type of during the Early Cretaceous (see Case Study 4, Wyandra
sediment influx (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). The main Sandstone Member).
factors that determine changes in the graded profile are A practical methodology outlined by Allen et al (1996)
tectonic tilting, modifications in fluvial discharge and and Posamentier and Allen (1999) involves recognising
changes in sediment supply (including both changes in stacking patterns based on identifying fining-upward
sediment volume and changes in sediment type). Al- versus coarsening-upward trends and then locating key
though climate and its influence on discharge variability surfaces that separate these trends. Key surfaces include
and sediment type (provenance influences) are impor- regional erosion surfaces (sequence boundaries), regional
tant (Ethridge et al, 1998), tectonic subsidence and tilt- coal markers, palaeosols, and lacustrine shale intervals,
ing of the fluvial profile are thought to have the greatest the latter indicating flooding and maximum flooding
influence on sediment packaging. It needs to be surfaces if extensive standing bodies of water actually
emphasised that it is the ratio between the rate of developed.
sediment supply (SS) and the rate of creation of Recognising these stacking patterns is critical to the
subsidence-controlled accommodation (A) that will alluvial sequence stratigraphic model (Fig. 4) in which
determine changes in the style of non-marine sediment alluvial ‘transgressive’ (TST) versus ‘highstand’ system
stacking patterns. Also, where sediment supply is tracts (HST) can be identified for fining-upward versus
restricted to a limited range of grain sizes, the range of coarsening-upward successions respectively (cf. Shanley
stratal stacking patterns may be considerably constrained. and McCabe, 1991; Wright and Marriott, 1993).
Aggradational intervals between regional MFS’s may
Non-marine sediment stacking patterns and represent ‘lowstand’ system tracts (LST) if predomi-
systems tracts nantly comprising clustered channels above a regional
erosion surface resulting from low accommodation.
It is useful to consider the influence of the value of the Aggradational intervals in fine-grained sediments can
ratio between sediment supply and accommodation span the late transgressive and early highstand systems
(SS/A) on a spectrum of sediment stacking pattern styles tracts if fine-grained sediment supply is matched to
(Figs 3a–e). At one extreme, if the ratio is high (i.e. little accommodation. With respect to the discussion that can
or nil subsidence, and therefore no significant increase follow about what a ‘highstand’ actually is in an alluvial
in fluvial accommodation), a lateral amalgamation of the succession, the meaning here should be viewed in terms
fluvial channels will result, generally forming a thin, of fluvial accommodation and not sea-level or even lake
laterally extensive sand sheet (Fig. 3a). As the rate of level. We use the same terminology which was developed
accommodation increases relative to sediment supply, for first generation sequence stratigraphic models to
increasing isolation of fluvial channels occurs on the avoid the proliferation of more jargon but it is important
floodplain (Figs 3b, c). In areas distal to the location of to note that systems tracts in alluvial strata are directly
the fluvial channel system, coals or palaeosols may related to changes in the fluvial equilibrium profile, and
develop depending on the climatic setting (e.g. contrast should not be confused with systems tracts interpreted
the cool-temperate humid coal-bearing Permian coals of directly in terms of changes in relative sea-level, except
the Cooper Basin versus the redbeds of the Triassic where there is a clear linkage to marine strata (see
Nappamerie Group or Rewan Group). As the rate of discussion by Dalrymple et al, 1998). In some basins it
accommodation increases, coals and palaeosols may may be possible to discriminate systems tracts devel-
become drowned by floodplain lakes or swamps. At oped exclusively due to syn- or post-tectonic subsidence
highest accommodation rates, extensive lakes may de- regimes, especially where there are thick asymmetric
velop (Fig. 3d) when the ratio is very low (i.e. very low clastic wedges of fine-grained sediment alternating with
sediment influx and relatively rapid subsidence). This coarse-grained alluvial facies (e.g. tectonic cyclothems,
situation is stratigraphically equivalent to transgression see Blair and Bilodeau, 1988; Lang, 1993). Mapping of
in a coastal setting in so far as the available these systems tracts bounded by key surfaces is, how-
accommodation increases faster than the sediment sup- ever, vital for identification of potential reservoir con-
ply can fill it. A rapid decrease in the ratio will result in nectivity (Figs 3 and 4), because they will approxi-
the development of a distinctive lacustrine flooding mate genetically meaningful, chronostratigraphically
surface overlying fluvial deposits, and when the ratio significant intervals (i.e. more meaningful than mapping
reaches its lowest value, a lacustrine maximum flooding lithostratigraphic units).
surface will result. Maximum flooding surfaces generally
form distinctive surfaces often displaying laterally
consistent sedimentological and petrophysical charac-

LST
SB
Progradational
HST
MFS
Retrogradational
TST
TS
Aggradational LST
SB
STACKING Fluvial channels Palaeosols

PATTERNS
Flood-plain deposits Coal beds
Figure 4. Alluvial sequence stratigraphic model, illustrating alluvial lowstand (LST), transgressive (TST) and highstand (HST) systems tracts,
modified after (Allen et al, 1996; Allen and Posamentier, 1999; Grech and Lemon, 2000; Legarreta and Uliana, 1998). Note the aggradational,
retrogradational then progradational stacking patterns, and position of the key surfaces (sequence boundary [SB], transgressive surface [TS]
and maximum flooding surface, [MFS]). Note that coals and paleosols may be interchangeable depending on climate and in some cases may
occur together, but in different positions on the floodplain. Mature palaeos may be present immediately below the SB. Although this is a
2D representation, it is a simplification because the relative proportions of the systems tracts and facies will vary along the length of the
basin depending on sediment flux and changing accommodation (e.g. in pull apart basins the asymmetry of the succession may alter along
strike [Gawthorpe et al, 1994]).
Key surfaces conditions were suitable, and from a practical standpoint

the most extensive shale lying above a coal is generally
In alluvial basins, two types of key surfaces need to be selected. Although the MFS is a well developed correla-
identified for sequence analysis: 1) surfaces associated tion marker in well logs and core, it is dependant on
with changes in the rate of sediment fill of the available sediment supply and therefore, it is not strictly a true
accommodation (e.g. maximum flooding surfaces); and chronostratigraphic surface, but may approximate one
2) surfaces associated with negative accommodation (i.e. at a regional scale. It is for this reason that the MFS is
regional unconformities—sequence boundaries). generally selected as a regional datum on correlation
sections, even though it may actually not be strictly
MAXIMUM FLOODING SURFACES horizontal or of the same age everywhere. Generally, the
MFS will have much more utility as a datum than other
Changes in sediment stacking patterns result from surfaces (e.g. flooding surfaces, or sequence boundaries)
changes in the rate at which accommodation is filled, for viewing stratal patterns because they can be readily
typically marked by key surfaces. The most important, located on well logs and mapped on seismic sections.
and commonly the easiest to delineate on wireline logs, Galloway (1989), therefore, uses maximum flooding sur-
is the ‘maximum flooding surface’ (MFS). This surface faces to define sequences in basin settings with high
represents a change from non-filling to filling of avail- rates of subsidence with minimal periods of negative
able accommodation (Posamentier and Allen, 1999), oc- accommodation. In many alluvial basins the identifica-
curring where the ratio of accommodation creation to tion of maximum flooding surfaces is a valuable first step
sediment supply reaches its maximum value. Ideally, in sequence analysis, generally preceding the recogni-
this surface will be identified by the change from deep- tion of the more cryptic unconformities or their correla-
ening upward to shallowing upward lacustrine facies. tive conformable surfaces that should be used to define
Criteria for identifying the MFS in lacustrine succes- sequences (e.g. sequence boundaries as defined by Van
sions includes a shaly interval marked by the highest Wagoner et al, 1990). In contrast to maximum flooding
gamma ray peak, and/or a distinctive peak on resistivity/ surfaces, flooding surfaces are usually more local and
conductivity logs. Local conditions can mean that the can be recognised by lacustrine or shale-prone floodbasin
MFS takes the form of black shale, oil shale, chemically successions. For example, flooding surfaces occur in
precipitated limestone or oolitic ironstone. Extending incised valley deposits, represented by a coal or shale
the MFS into the coeval alluvial plain is more difficult, prone succession, pinching out up dip and onlapping the
but ideally the MFS should lie within the finest-grained walls of the incised valley. The first significant flooding
interval, typically below a transition from muddier to surface in incised valley deposits is generally equivalent
sandier floodplain facies. to the transgressive surface, associated with the first
For post-Devonian basins, the MFS may be repre- landward shift of the shoreline and the introduction of
sented within a significant coaly interval if the climatic tidal influence and brackish water conditions where

there is a link to the marine realm. It is not always clear aries, the development of flooding and maximum flood-
if flooding surfaces are entirely of autocyclic origin (i.e. ing surfaces is highly dependent on sediment supply in
via lobe switching of a lacustrine delta, or channel avul- addition to accommodation creation and destruction
sion) or of allocyclic origin (i.e. changes in local subsid- (Posamentier and Allen, 1999).
ence rate by faulting, or increased discharge rates and Maximum flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries
raised water tables induced by rapid climate change). surfaces provide a basis for genetic stratigraphy, with
Significant flooding surfaces that represent the first the surfaces acting as proxies for chronostratigraphic
landward migration of the shoreline (lacustrine or ma- correlation that presents a truer depiction of the sub-
rine) are termed ‘transgressive surfaces’. These may surface lithologic distribution, and improves our inter-
have a regional extent and will separate progrational and pretation of the processes that contributed to this
aggradational alluvial stacking patterns from retro- distribution. Therefore, key surfaces in sequence
grataional stacking patterns. A pragmatic approach is stratigraphy can be thought of as temporal boundaries
generally required when mapping these surfaces, and for geologic events rather than physical boundaries of
it is recommended that multiple surfaces be used to different rock types. A time-based geologic framework
test if they are truly regional or merely local (i.e. has an implicit emphasis on processes and the rates at
hundreds of metres to several kms vs tens to hundreds which they occur that facilitates prediction of stratal
of kms). architecture in related regions; this is particularly the
case with the recognition of a systematic cyclicity in
SEQUENCE BOUNDARIES sediment stacking patterns at varying scales.
The formation of a stratigraphic unconformity (i.e. an Lacustrine shoreline response to relative lake
alluvial sequence boundary [SB]) results from rejuvena- level rise and fall
tion of the fluvial network, including the development of
incised valleys produced by fluvial incision. The forma- In continental basins, during periods of high subsid-
tion of an unconformable sequence boundary is always ence relative to sediment input, significant lakes may
associated with negative accommodation that often develop. Depending on the climatic regime, and in some
results when tectonic tilting oversteepens a segment of cases local hydrological conditions, these lakes may be
the fluvial profile. Several stacked, coarse-grained chan- underfilled at one extreme (e.g. playa lakes in a state of
nel fills, deeply eroding into underlying lacustrine or lowstand), through to overfilled (deep and anoxic during
floodplain dominant shale-prone successions, generally lacustrine highstand). Some lakes are perennial with a
denote incised valleys. On the interfluves of incised fluvial system that enters at one or many locations and
valleys, the unconformity may be recognised by a region- may exit at periods of intermediate to highstand. Others
ally extensive mature palaeosol. The relative maturity of are part of an internal drainage system (e.g. Lake Eyre,
the palaeosols will give an indication of the length of South Australia) and are subject to extreme changes in
exposure. The unconformity is a key surface marked by lake level. It is recognised that lakes are capable of very
erosion, and will have a correlative conformity that may large fluctuations in water level and therefore, substan-
lie downstream within a lacustrine prone succession, or tial shifts in the position of the shoreline over very short
an aggrading fluvial succession downstream from the periods of time. Particularly low depositional slopes
tectonic hinge line (Allen et al, 1996). An alluvial se- indicated by the very subtle thickness changes and very
quence in this paper is, therefore, defined as a ‘relatively gradual lateral facies changes, suggest that small changes
conformable succession of genetically related alluvial in the rate of subsidence, or sediment flux will result in
and lacustrine strata bounded by regionally significant significant lateral translation of the shoreline.
unconformities’ (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). In the vast Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat basin sys-
The key surfaces in an alluvial basin can be seen as tem, large lakes were common at various stages in the
analogous to the key surfaces recognised in a shelfal Permian (e.g. Epsilon-Murteree formations, upper
setting (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). The development Toolachee Formation, Black Alley Shale), and from the
of a regional sequence boundary should be independent Triassic to the late Jurassic (e.g. Murta Member of Mooga
of sediment supply, and a function only of negative Formation, and Evergreen Formation). Some of these
accommodation (i.e. changes in the equilibrium profile). lakes were very large (e.g. Lake Murta was at least
However, it must be emphasised that this is a simplifica- 300 km x 300 km, Campbell and O’Driscoll, 1989; and
tion. For example, Blum and Price (1998) and Blum Lake Evergreen at least comparable, Fielding et al,
(1993) have demonstrated that erosion surfaces may be 1993). It was not until the sustained and large global sea-
developed in alluvial strata caused by climate changes, level rise in the Early Cretaceous (Veevers, 1984) that
independently of changes in relative sea-level. This high- restricted marine conditions returned to this vast basin
lights the complexity that can be involved in analysing from the north in the form of an inland sea (e.g.
alluvial successions, and particularly, the complexity Wallumbilla Formation/Bulldog Shale). Sedimentation
associated with delineating specific controls on alluvial in the linked alluvial plain and lake systems, as well as
stacking patterns and alluvial sequence stratigraphic the marginal marine settings, would have been sensitive
surface formation. In contrast with sequence bound- to local variations in sediment flux, variations in dis-

charge, and water tables. However, the widespread ex- the rate of relative rise. It is likely, however, that in many
tent of genetic intervals (1,000s sq kms), established over places, these will merge into one surface, overlain by a
long periods of time and punctuated by clastic events reworked sheet of relatively clean shoreface sand, usu-
correlatable over 100s kms (Allen et al, 1996), indicates ally associated with a lag of slightly coarser sand, or even
that regional scale basin subsidence and tilting of the gravel, and commonly enriched with heavy minerals (e.g.
basin margins probably had the most significant role in zircon, rutile, ilmenite etc.). Depending on the degree of
modifying sedimentation patterns. wave reworking this can lead to thin, extensive and
potentially high permeability reservoirs. Furthermore,
STRATAL GEOMETRIES OF TRANSGRESSIVE as with any shoreline system, there may be a preferential
side of the basin that receives more wave energy, leading
LACUSTRINE SHORELINES
to an asymmetric distribution of high quality reservoir
During rising relative lake level, transgressive shore- above this transgressive surface.
lines will step backwards (retrogradation), staggered or
continuously, leaving behind a trailing sheet of trans- STRATAL GEOMETRIES OF FORCED REGRESSIVE
gressive sand immediately above a transgressive sur- LACUSTRINE SHORELINES
face, sometimes termed a wave ravinement surface (WRS,
Nummedal and Swift, 1987, Posamentier and Allen, 1999; During forced regressions produced by falling lake
Figure 5a). A series of these wave ravinement surfaces levels, or by basinward tilting of the fluvial profile, a
may be produced depending on the number of series of downstepping lowstand shorelines may be de-
backstepping episodes. The vertical separation between veloped, either attached or detached to each other de-
these surfaces is a function of the depositional slope and pending on the depositional slope as well as the rate and
a) TRANSGRESSIVE EVENT -
FORMING BACKSTEPPING TRANSGRESSIVE SHORELINES STAGGERED BASE
LEVEL RISE
T3
(WRS 3)
T2
(WRS 2)
T1
WRS Transgressive sand sheet
Wave ravinement surface
(WRS 1)
b) FORCED REGRESSIVE EVENT -

FORMING DOWNSTEPPING LOWSTAND SHORELINES
STAGGERED BASE
Amalgamated unconformity LEVEL FALL
T1
T2
SB2
T3
SB3 T4
SB1
Lowstand systems tracts
Figure 5. Two models for transgressive and forced regressive shoreline lacustrine lowstand deposits (modified from Nummedal and Swift,
1987; Posamentier and Allen, 1999). a. Shows rising relative lake level, forming backstepping transgressive shorelines (retrogradation),
staggered or continuously, leaving behind a trailing sheet of transgressive sand immediately above a transgressive surface termed a wave
ravinement surface (WRS). Cores from the WRS from Maxwell Field (Case Study 3) are shown in their approximate position. b. Shows a
forced regressive event produced by falling lake levels, or by tilting of the fluvial profile into the lake, forming downstepping lowstand
shorelines (attached or detached). These shoreline deposits cut down into the previous shoreface deposits, either by a staggered or
continuous process, leaving behind a series of erosion surfaces that downstep in a basinward direction, and may amalgamate to form a master
sequence boundary located beneath the whole set of deposits (see Posamentier and Morris, 2000).

magnitude of lake level fall (e.g. Lake Bonneville in

Posamentier and Allen, 1999). In this situation, the shore- a) RANDOM ORIENTATION
line deposits will cut down into the previous shoreface
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Interval Gross
deposits, either by a staggered or continuous process,
Genetic
leaving behind a series of erosion surfaces that downstep
in a basinward direction, and may amalgamate to form a
master sequence boundary (Fig. 5b). Basinward, these
erosion surfaces will pass into their correlative conform- Nett/Gross
able surfaces in distal regions of the lake or shallow
marine basin. During a forced regression, it is possible b) AXIAL OR TRANSVERSE DRAINAGE
that incised valleys will be cut and, consequently, these
will supply sediment to the lowstand shoreline (e.g. the
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Interval Gross
Neales River and associated lowstand delta in Lang et al,
Genetic
2000). If the slope of the fluvial profile is maintained (i.e. +ve
no change in slope) then it is possible that little or no
incision may take place (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). A
key feature of forced regressions is that they represent a Nett/Gross
means by which fluvial sediments can be distributed out
into the lake or shelf, and assuming these deposits do not
get completely reworked by the next transgression, they c) TRANSVERSE DRAINAGE
may be preserved as a stratigraphic trap.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Interval Gross
Genetic
Importance of structural control on sediment -ve
stacking patterns
In passive margins, and some foreland basins, se- Nett/Gross
quence boundaries are related to high frequency eustatic
cycles which create unconformities and accommodation
that is filled by onlapping sediments (Van Wagoner et al,
1990; Macqueen and Leckie, 1992; Posamentier et al, Figure 6 a–c. Illustrating a practical methodology to determine
1993). In interior cratonic alluvial basins, accommoda- subsidence control on alluvial stacking patterns and nett to gross
tion is largely controlled by subsidence rate. Subsidence trends modified from Musakti (1997). For a given structural domain
is driven by tectonic downwarping or tilting, and in some (use the basement structure maps as a guide), select well correla-
cases, controlled directly by faults with active surface tion sections across the structural grain, and plot the gross genetic
expression. Additionally, the effect of basement tecton- interval thickness between key surfaces (e.g. SB to MFS, or MFS to
ics on subsidence patterns through differential compac- SB) versus the nett to gross for that interval. a) If the plot is a scatter
tion in basin cover units may persist even during periods then no relationship can be proven (i.e. basement structure was not
of tectonic quiescence (Le Roux, 1994). For un- an influence on nett to gross distribution); b) A positive relationship
conformities produced by falling relative sea-level, the (the thicker the genetic interval, the higher the nett to gross)
fluvial erosion and incision of the nick points propagates represents either an axial transport system oriented parallel to the
landward from the coast and the effects rapidly diminish structural grain (perpendicular to the correlation section), with the
upstream (Ethridge et al, 1998). In contrast, tectonic slightly elevated margins dominated by distal facies (e.g. floodplain
tilting causes an instantaneous effect over the entire interfluves or raised mires) or a transverse system, oriented across
profile (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). One result of this the structural grain, flowing from the footwall block, with thicker,
is to bring about very rapid local changes in sediment proximal sediment accumulating in the back tilted, hanging wall; c)
patterns throughout the basin. The careful correlation of If the plot is negative, (thicker sections are more shale-prone), and
the key surfaces often reveals the geometry of gross the flow orientation is across the structural grain, then a transverse
sequence stacking patterns that may enable the effects system is indicated (eg. similar to typical delta successions on
of tectonism to be identified. passive margins).
Correlation of key surfaces over palaeo-highs can
demonstrate that structural growth has occurred for a
given interval, leading to a thinner package over the the regional structural grain), the thicker genetic inter-
palaeo-high, sometimes bounded by intervals of constant vals may be more sand-prone when compared with the
thickness. Consideration should be given to proximal- palaeo-highs, which may be predominantly coal-prone or
distal relationships, fluvial flow directions relative to represent an interfluve with palaeosols. Alternatively,
structural grain, and provenance data to determine the where flow directions are transverse to the orientation of
influence of structure on sedimentation. For example, it structural grain, it may be shown that the sand-prone
can be shown that in some areas of a basin where axial intervals are preferentially confined to the thinner ge-
(longitudinal) sedimentation is dominant (i.e. parallel to netic intervals over the palaeo-highs. The significance of

a) Figure 7 (left). Subsidence and subtle structural controls on

alluvial stratigraphy (modified from Musakti, 1997; Posamentier
Sediment transport and Allen, 1999); a) Illustrates a transverse drainage system with
Source the sediment package thickening basinward, but becoming more
Fluvial
Delta shale prone; b) Illustrates an axial drainage system with the
Lacustrine sediment package thickening along the axis of the basin, with the
margins being more floodplain prone with palaeosols and peat
mires; c) Shows subtle structural control by influence of basement
faulting aligning the axial channel belt system; d) Shows subtle
structural control of a transverse alluvial fan system, where the
thick part of the clastic wedge is also the coarsest nearer the faulted
TRANSVERSE margin; the sediment composition may reflect the footwall block
provenance.
this concept in the Cooper Basin for example, where most

b) of the drilling has concentrated on persistent structural
Sediment transport
highs (typically characterised by splay-prone alluvial
Fluvial Flood plain facies or coals formed from raised mires), may be pro-
found for the future exploration of stratigraphic traps
Flood plain (Nakanishi and Lang, 2001, this volume) and potentially
for basin-centred, low deliverability gas (Hillis et al,
2001, this volume).
SOME PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO

DETERMINE STRUCTURAL INFLUENCE ON
ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY
AXIAL
A practical methodology for applying the sequence
stratigraphic approach to alluvial strata is to divide the
c) basin into structural domains (use the basement structure
Axial channel belt
maps as a guide), and by selecting well correlation sections
across the structural grain, plot the gross genetic interval
thickness between key surfaces versus the nett to gross for
that interval (Figs 6a–c). If the plot is a scatter (Fig. 6a), then
no relationship can be proven (i.e. basement structure was
Subtle structural control
not an influence on nett to gross distribution). If the
relationship is positive (the thicker the interval, the higher
Maximum Flooding Surface
the nett to gross, Fig. 6b, Figs 7b,c) then it may represent an
axial transport system oriented approximately parallel to
the structural grain (perpendicular to the correlation sec-
tion), with the slightly elevated margins dominated by
distal facies (e.g. floodplain interfluves or raised mires). An
AXIAL WITH FAULT CONTROL
alternative to this situation exists where thick alluvial fan
and fan-delta deposits fill a back-tilted graben; this results
d) in a proximal thick-end of the depositional wedge (Fig. 7d).
However, in this case, coarse-grained sediment will be
distributed preferentially along the length of the active
fault with a limited lateral extent perpendicular to the
structural grain. These sediments may reflect the
composition of the hanging wall provenance if the
topographic expression of the fault is sufficient to expose
Subtle structural control stratigraphically older units. If the plot is negative, (thicker
Maximum Flooding Surface sections are more shale-prone, Fig. 6c) and the flow orien-
tation is normal to structural grain, then a transverse
system is indicated (e.g. similar to typical delta successions
on passive margins, Fig. 7a). Musakti (1997) successfully
applied this approach to the Hooray and Cadna-Owie For-
TRANSVERSE WITH FAULT CONTROL mations in the Eromanga Basin.

For a fault-compartmentalised alluvial basin, the pat- G
terns of sand distribution will be complex, with trans- GAP 20

verse systems leading into axial systems and possibly 0
m Roseneath Shale
visa versa. Consideration of fault control on fluvial orien-
tation and preservation of channel fairways can be useful
FS Tc00
for predicting reservoir distribution in areas of limited
data (Figs 7c, d). Importantly, this kind of analysis is not
possible without the genetic intervals being defined
using genetically meaningful key surfaces (i.e. alluvial
systems tracts or parts thereof).
The following case studies stemming from contrasting
continental settings in the Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-
Surat basin system illustrate how these concepts can be 20
applied, and in turn, used for exploration and reservoir
Upper
development.
HST
CASE STUDY 1: COAL-PRONE
EARLY PERMIAN EPSILON FORMATION,
COOPER BASIN
Epsilon Formation
Description
40
The Early Permian Epsilon Formation of the Cooper
Basin (Fig. 2) in the Moomba-Big Lake Field area consists
of an aggradational lacustrine delta sequence over 80 m MFS
Tc50
thick in the Daralingie Shelf, deposited in response to
differential subsidence along the trend of the Big Lake-
Moomba Fault complex (Taylor et al, 1991, Fairburn,
1992; Lang et al, 2000). The Epsilon Formation has been
divided into at least eleven deltaic cycles based on log
signatures (Fig. 8, modified from Lang et al, 2000), and
these can be correlated around large areas of the Cooper
Coal Prone
60
Basin where the Epsilon has not been removed by erosion
at the base of the Toolachee or higher formations. The TST
Lower
successions comprise up to 10 m of fine-to-medium sand-
stone above the top of the Murteree Shale; in places this
is absent, and the lower third of the Epsilon grades into
an overall retrogradational succession of shales and thin
sandstones capped by coals. Generally this is overlain by
a distinctive shale prone succession encompassing most
of the middle of the Epsilon, below the upper
progadational succession of shales to sandstones, with
occasional coal, up to 45 m thick. The intracratonic 80
FS
lacustrine delta setting of the Epsilon Formation within
the Big Lake-Moomba Field is interpreted as a relatively LST
Uc00
shallow, mixed-load, fluvially-dominated system with
variable flow regime which formed a complex of highly-
constructive, lobate deltas developed at the terminus of
Murteree Shale
a fluvial channel belt (Lang et al, 2000).
Key surfaces and stacking patterns Figure 8. Typical example of a well log through the Epsilon
Formation showing systems tracts and key surfaces in the Moomba-
The base of the Epsilon Formation is represented by a Big Lake area (after Lang et al, 2000). The progradational unit at the
range of log motifs, from sharp-based to progradational base represents the LST above the sequence boundary (UC00, a
in character. Where a basal sandstone unit is developed correlative conformity at the base of the Epsilon Formation). The
above the Murteree Shale, a mappable sequence bound- TC50 is the maximum flooding surface (MFS) separating the coal-
ary can be recognised (UC00, Fig. 8). This boundary can prone TST from the HST. Higher frequency flooding surfaces can
be traced across the Cooper Basin with some confidence, also be delineated in the upper Epsilon Formation.

but in some places it is difficult to pick where it is a mouth bar complexes may produce extensive sheet sands
correlative conformity. with width/thickness ratios >1000:1. Wave reworking of
Overlying the basal sandstones, a shale interval below some of the deltas may be a key factor in improved
a retrogradational set comprising at least three individu- reservoir performance, and this would be expected to
ally progradational lacustrine deltaic cycles of shale and occur in both the TST and the HST, ideally on the
fine sandstone is recognised. Each progradational cycle opposite side of the lake from the main wind direction,
is capped by coals that indicate emergent delta plain and ideally alongshore from major loci of deltas into the
surfaces (Fig. 8). A lacustrine flooding surface can gener- lake. The location of these deltas may be structurally
ally be recognised on gamma logs at the base of this set, controlled, possibly focussed along fault relay systems.
the top marked by a major lacustrine maximum flooding The LST is likely to have potential for producing
surface (the TC50 MFS marker) that divides the Epsilon stratigraphic traps because of the transgressive shales
Formation into Lower and Upper units based on log and coal-prone interval resting above, and these reser-
signatures (Lang et al, 2000; Fig. 8). voirs may be confined more to palaeo-low areas during
Above the MFS, approximately five progradational Epsilon time, including areas off the structural closure
cycles of shale and fine sandstone can be mapped, but (Nakanishi and Lang, this volume).
coal is much less common in the Moomba-Big Lake area,
though extensive coals are developed within the Early CASE STUDY 2: PALAEOSOL-PRONE
Permian Epsilon Formation on the Daralingie Shelf (Lang TRIASSIC REWAN GROUP, BOWEN BASIN
et al, 2000). This succession is capped by another exten-
sive shale marker interval at the base of the Roseneath
Shale, representing a regionally significant transgres-
Description
sive flooding surface (TC00), though commonly this oc- The Early Triassic Rewan Group forms a succession of
curs above a significant sandstone reservoir, and a case predominantly volcanolithic sediments over 4,000 m thick
could be made for a sequence boundary below the TC00 on the eastern margin of the Bowen Basin (Queensland),
flooding surface. and wedges out onto the stable craton in the west. It is
generally identified by its ubiquitous red mottled colora-
Systems tracts tion in fine-grained fluvial sediments, unconformably
overlying the Permian coal measures. The Rewan Group
The Epsilon Formation comprises one major succes- is regarded as having low exploration significance, with
sion, bounded by a sequence boundary at the base, and a the exception of the western margin of the Taroom
major flooding surface at the top, possibly with a se- Trough and the Denison Trough where some reservoir
quence boundary within the upper part of the Epsilon quality sandstones occur. The Rewan Group is made up
Formation. A lowstand systems tract (LST) is recognised of two distinct formations, the lower Sagittarius Sand-
at the base, characterised by the blocky, sharp based, or stone and the upper Arcadia Formation, bound at the
progradational log motif typical of many forced regres- base and top by unconformities and correlative confor-
sive lowstand deposits (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). mities (Fig. 2; Grech and Lemon, 2000). An intra-Rewan
This will not be present everywhere in the basin, and its Group unconformity is interpreted at the base of the
areal extent should mark the extent of the lowstand Arcadia Formation. Cored intervals and outcrop inter-
Epsilon palaeo-lake system. secting the Sagittarius Sandstone indicate that redbed
A thick coal-prone transgressive systems tract (TST) is development is rare within this formation and deposition
recognised, characterised by backstepping deltaic was dominantly fluvio-lacustrine. However, in the domi-
progrades during lacustrine transgression. Each deltaic nantly fluvial Arcadia Formation redbeds are abundant,
lobe is topped by an emergent coal. The maximum flood- and although these may represent a range of deposi-
ing surface (TC50) marks the top of the TST. This repre- tional environments (Turner, 1980), several key horizons
sents a significant sealing interval within the Epsilon are palaeosols in a floodplain environment. The Brumby
succession. Sandstone Member forms the predominantly sandy in-
The highstand systems tract (HST) is sand-prone in terval at the base of the Arcadia Formation.
the Moomba-Big Lake area, and represents the infilling The sandstone intervals within the Sagittarius Sand-
of the expanded Epsilon lake system. In some areas of the stone are predominantly volcanolithic, but can contain a
Cooper Basin (e.g. Munkarie) this is wave-ripple lami- variable quartz grain content. These sands are generally
nated, and relatively clean, indicative of wave rework- tabular cross-bedded, fine to coarse-grained, sub-angu-
ing. lar to sub-rounded and poorly to moderately-sorted. The
Brumby Sandstone Member is predominantly made up of
Reservoirs cross-bedded, medium to coarse-grained, moderately to
well-sorted, sub-angular sandstone beds forming fining-
The main reservoirs in the Epsilon Formation are and coarsening-upward cycles interbedded with fine-
distributary channel sands and mouth bar sands associ- grained sandstone and laminated siltstone. The quartz
ated with the outbuilding of the lacustrine delta. As content varies from 10–80% and generally makes up the
indicated by Lang et al (2000), the amalgamation of coarser fraction of the sediments. In the Arcadia Forma-

GSQ BARALABA #1 5 cm Top

DEPTH CORE LOG
metres mud sand g.
680
PALAEOSOL DEVELOPMENT
0 cm
690
700
710 b. Base
10 cm Top
0 cm
770
780
PALAEOSOL DEVELOPMENT
790
800
810
a. Base
Figure 9. Palaeosol horizons in the Arcadia Formation. a) Varicoloured siltstone horizons are interpreted as palaeosols (GSQ Baralaba #1;
786.20m - 791.85m); b) Rootlet fibre structures preserved in a mottled palaeosol horizon (GSQ Baralaba #1; 692.35m).

ROSWIN #1 #3 #2 TINKER #1
149o 30' 00" E

EAST GLEN #1
o
27 30' 00" S #3 GLEN FOSSLYN #1
BEECHWOOD #1 #2
INGLESTONE #1 INGLESTONE #1
TAYLOR #1 KINKABILLA CREEK #1
DEPTH
N
KINKABILLA #1 metres
WIRELINE LOG
GR DT
NORTH SIRRAH #1 COOMRITH #1 WOODVILLE #1

SIRRAH #2 2700
ROCKY GLEN #1 WAGGAMBA #1
MERIBAH #1 MAMAREE #1
WOODVILLE #1 KINKABILLA CREEK #1 KINKABILLA #1
NARDOO #1 DEPTH WIRELINE LOG DEPTH WIRELINE LOG DEPTH WIRELINE LOG
TINTARA #1 metres metres metres
TEELBA CREEK #1 BUNGARIE #1
YOOROOGA #1 GR DT GR DT GR DT
KIPPERS #1
DALKEITH #1 0 kilometres 25 2700

MIREEKA #1
2500 2800
CAPTAIN COOK #1
2700
Clematis SB
DEPTH
GLEN FOSSLYN #1
DEPTH
WAGGAMBA #1 Group
metres
WIRELINE LOG metres
WIRELINE LOG 2800
GR DT GR DT
2600 2900
2800
Arcadia
2000 2300 Formation
2900
2700
Rewan 3000 SB
2900
Group
Sagittarius HST
2100 2400
3000 Sandstone
MFS
2800 3100
3000
TST
TS
2500
3100
SB
3200
LST
2900 3100
Permian sediments
3200
3000 3300
Palaeosol
Figure 10. Correlation of wireline logs from wells on the western margin of the Taroom Trough, Bowen Basin. The palaeosol dividing the
Sagittarius Sandstone from the Arcadia Formation is interpreted as a sequence boundary. Lower gamma ray and sonic readings at the base
of the first depositional cycle (basal Sagittarius Sandstone), are clean sands deposited during low accommodation relative to sediment supply
in an alluvial LST.
tion the sandstone intervals are dominantly made up of tures. In this case all original structures are preserved
fine to medium-grained, generally poorly-sorted and the red colouring is a homogenous staining that is
volcanolithic sands, and quartz content is reduced to interpreted as post-depositional and of no palaeo-envi-
3–5%, with rare beds containing 10–20%. Sand bodies ronmental significance.
are generally fining-upward, wavy-laminated, ripple The palaeosols within the Arcadia Formation can be of
marked or structureless and contain rare cross-bedding. both regional and local significance. The exposed flood-
These sands commonly grade upward into very fine- plains in the Bowen Basin would have formed a palaeosol
grained, ripple and wavy-laminated, muddy sands that horizon throughout the basin with the exception of the
grade upward into siltstone beds that are generally red areas that were fluvially active. In some cases, the period
and mottled. of exposure was long enough to allow deep weathering
and palaeosol development, such as at the surface that
Key surfaces and stacking patterns divides the Arcadia Formation from the Sagittarius Sand-
stone, a sequence boundary (SB) (Fig. 10). This surface
The redbeds of the Arcadia Formation can be used as forms a distinctly thick palaeosol horizon that is easily
significant intervals that can be correlated regionally. identified throughout the basin. Other surfaces are less
Two main categories of redbeds have been interpreted distinct due to the shorter period of exposure, restricting
for the Arcadia Formation. One category consists of beds full maturity of the palaeosol and, therefore, its distinc-
that are varicoloured with a number of different coloured tive properties. However, these surfaces are easily cor-
bands of variable thicknesses. Generally these relatable and are extremely useful local chrono-
varicoloured sediments are associated with mottling and stratigraphic surfaces.
the boundaries of these bands are diffuse. Occasionally, The key surface used to subdivide the Arcadia Forma-
root structures are preserved (Fig. 9). These sediments tion from the Sagittarius Sandstone is a distinctly regional
are interpreted as palaeosols. The other category of surface. The thickness of the palaeosol indicates that it is
redbed is made up of sediments that are red coloured either made up of a series of stacked palaeosols or is a
with no other associated colouring, mottling, or struc- single thick (mature?) palaeosol, or may represent
CABAWIN #1 CABAWIN #2 CABAWIN EAST #1
DEPTH WIRELINE LOG DEPTH WIRELINE LOG DEPTH WIRELINE LOG
metres metres metres
GR SN DT IND DT LN
TS (Coal)
2850
2875 3050
SB4t h
2875
2900
3075
HST
2900
2925
3100
MFS
2925
2950
3125 TST
Palaeosol Well sorted channel fill

Coal Channel fill
Figure 11. Possible high order SB within the HST of the Sagittarius Sandstone. An interfluve palaeosol truncated by a channel approximately
15m deep with well-sorted sands is interpreted as evidence of subaerial exposure and channel incision associated with an alluvial LST. The
TS is marked by a coal.
grades in between. Whichever the case may be, the The base and top of the Brumby Sandstone Member
horizon indicates a period of exposure during which are easily recognisable key surfaces (Fig. 13). The high
deposition was minimal, allowing the palaeosols to quartz content of the member contrasts markedly to
develop. the underlying and overlying lithologies. Although
On the eastern margin of the Taroom Trough, a fourth this interval is spread over a large part of the basin, it
order sequence boundary is interpreted from wells that does not cover the whole basin. The major source area
are close together (Cabawin wells; Fig. 11). This se- was the western craton, and, therefore, the unit does
quence boundary is taken at the top of a palaeosol and is not extend all the way across to the eastern margin. The
laterally correlated to channel incision that was pen- lower surface of the Brumby Sandstone Member is inter-
etrated in Cabawin–2. The incised channel in Cabawin–2 is preted to be a sequence boundary, whereas the top
estimated to be ~15 m deep with the palaeosol forming in surface is interpreted as a transgressive surface.
interfluve highs. The basal intervals immediately overlying both lower
It has to be emphasised that palaeosols can only be sequence boundaries of the Sagittarius Sandstone and
identified as possible sequence boundaries when they Arcadia Formation are dominantly sandy and made up of
are correlated laterally to incised valleys, clearly identi- amalgamated channel sandstone deposits. Palaeosols
fying them as interfluvial deposits (Aitken and Flint, are rarely preserved due to erosion by reworking. How-
1996). This is even more important when they are bound ever, in the deeper part of the basin, where accommoda-
on either side by terrestrial sediments. tion is generally greater, the chance of palaeosol preser-
The key surface identified as the sequence boundary vation is greater.
between the Sagittarius Sandstone and the Arcadia For- The overall sequence in both formations is dominated
mation, was also interpreted on the seismic record (Fig. by sandstone beds embedded within fine sediments, the
12). The palaeosol interpreted from well data was corre- ratio of sandstone to siltstone increasing towards the
lated to seismic sections, and valley incisions were sequence boundaries.
identified truncating the palaeosol(s).
South North
0 1.0 2.0 1.1
kilometres 1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
TWT (sec.)
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
o
27 00' 00" S
150o 00' 00" E
CONDAMINE #1
COOLOOMALA #1
BENTLEY #1
COBBAREENA #1
ROGERS #1
MALARA #1
LAWSON #1
Systems tracts
TEY #1
HUMBUG CREEK #2 LEA GUMS #1
DAVIDSON #1
HUMBUG CREEK #1
BENNETT NORTH #1
MYRA #1
N The amalgamated sandstone bodies of the Brumby
WILLARA #1 #4
BENNETT #1 #2
#3
DEVON PARK #1
UNDULLA #1
Sandstone Member and at the base of the Sagittarius
#3 #2
LEICHHARDT #1 LORRAINE #1 Sandstone are interpreted as the LST facies of the two
sequences (Fig. 11). The low accommodation prevents the
preservation of most of the fine-grained floodplain sedi-
79-H-5
TARA #1
TARA SOUTH #1
ment, while sediment reworking enhances sandstone sort-
ing.
DEEP CROSSING #1
Within the TST and the early HST, the sandstone bodies
#2 CABAWIN EAST #1
#3 #4
CABAWIN #1
o
27 30' 00" S
become isolated as accommodation is continuously cre-
TOOMBILLA EAST #1
TOOMBILLA #1 ated. Palaeosols have a higher preservation potential be-
DILBONG #1
MURILLA #1
cause floodplain erosion is minimised. If the floodplain is
LIDDELL #1
FORKES CREEK #1
TARTHA #1
KILLAWARRA #1
BRIGALOW CREEK #1
continually flooded with fresh sediment, palaeosols do
MIDDLE CREEK #1 not have sufficient time to form. This situation is repre-
0 kilometres 25
MOONIE NORTH #1 sented stratigraphically near the MFS; a higher water
table, together with possible associated lake formation/
expansion would prevent the formation of palaeosols
Figure 12. Seismic section 79-H-5 illustrating valley incision along
(Ashley and Driese, 2000), and increase the possibility of
the basal SB of the Arcadia Formation (blue) on the eastern margin
peat mire development.
of the Taroom Trough, with truncation of interpreted palaeosols
The best developed palaeosols, with the greatest chance
(strong reflection beneath the SB). The top of the Permian coal
of preservation, are likely to be associated with the early
measures is shown in red.
TST and midway through the HST. At the time of the MFS,
palaeosols have less time to form and, therefore, are
progressively less mature. Within the LST and late HST,
erosion often destroys the palaeosols formed, unless
preserved as terraces in incised valleys (Shanley and
McCabe, 1991).

BASIN CREEK #1
DEPTH WIRELINE LOG
metres
GR
MOUNT BRUMBY
DEPTH LOG (3.1)
metres
mud sand g.
MOUNT BRUMBY
MOUNT BRUMBY DEPTH LOG (3.3 & 3.4)
DEPTH LOG (3.5 & 3.6)
metres
mud sand g.
MOUNT BRUMBY metres
mud sand g. 80 MOUNT BRUMBY
80
TAROOM #10
DEPTH LOG (3.9) n=116 DEPTH LOG (3.7)
metres
mud sand g. DEPTH CORE LOG WIRELINE LOG n=32
metres
mud sand g. n=29 metres mud sand g. GR
20
50 n=11
60
20 20 60
n=60
n=28 n=51 20
0 n=123
Brumby Sandstone Member.

0 40
0 40
Sagittarius Sandstone
n=93
40
APT2.2 -
SB
APT2.12
20
20
GSQ TAROOM #10
100 60
N
MOUNT BRUMBY
0
CASTLE HILL
0
APT1.03-
APT2.1
80
AAR BASIN CREEK #1 APT1
PYRAMID HILL
25o 30'
0 kilometres 10
149o 00'
Figure 13. Stratigraphic logs from outcrop in the western Taroom Trough, Bowen Basin (Mount Brumby and top of Taroom–10), core
(Taroom–10) and wireline logs (Taroom–10 and Basin Creek–1) of the Brumby Sandstone Member. The erosive lower surface of the Brumby
Sandstone Member can be easily picked at the base of the coarse-grained sandstones cutting down into the HST of the Sagittarius Sandstone.
The higher nett to gross in the BSM when compared to the HST of the Sagittarius Sandstone is the result of low accommodation resulting
in the SB at the base of the Brumby Sandstone Member.
Importance of palaeosols for lateral (vertical and work of the basin. The identification of sequence bound-
aries and their lateral correlation is useful in unravelling
horizontal) prediction of facies stratal stacking patterns, changes in reservoir connectiv-
The maturity of palaeosols has implications for pre- ity and to some extent, predicting the stratigraphic posi-
dicting channel facies distribution both vertically and tion of reservoir intervals. Locally significant palaeosols
horizontally (Kraus, 1987). In positions laterally proxi- are important for the chronostratigraphic correlation of
mal to active fluvial channels, regular sandy sediment smaller areas and can be very important in interpreting
influx will inhibit the development of mature palaeosols. reservoir continuity at a field scale.
In contrast, the development of mature palaeosols is Identifying the MFS is also important in the explora-
promoted with progressive distance from the channel tion of isolated good quality stratigraphic traps formed
because of a larger time-lapse between episodes of suc- at lacustrine margins, with the lacustrine fine-grained
cessive clastic sediment deposition in these distal posi- sediments providing the source for hydrocarbon genera-
tions. This pattern of palaeosol maturity relative to their tion.
position in the floodplain is reflected as channels later- The recognition of palaeosols and their integration
ally accrete. Consequently, immature palaeosols are more with the sequence stratigraphic framework is an impor-
likely to indicate vertical proximity to channelised de- tant step in the interpretation of alluvial stratigraphy.
posits whereas mature palaeosols indicate a greater This is particularly true for the Triassic redbeds of the
vertical distance to channelised deposits. Cooper and Bowen basins (Nappamerie and Rewan
Groups), and possibly the Permian coal measures where
Exploration significance palaeosols are known to occur, but are rare, and their
stratigraphic position is laterally represented by coal.
The identification of regionally significant palaeosols The identification of palaeosols is also helpful in the
in basins with continental sediments is valuable when stratigraphic analysis of the Cadna-Owie Formation (see
trying to interpret the sequence stratigraphic frame- Case 4).

CASE STUDY 3: TRANSGRESSIVE

LACUSTRINE SHORELINE RESERVOIRS OF
MAXWELL_1
THE MURTA MEMBER, EROMANGA BASIN
KB 138.4 TD 1226.5
Description Core Log

GR KB DEPTH
DT M F VF Slt CY CL
0 GAPI 200 Metres 140 US/F 40
The Murta Member of the Mooga Formation (Fig. 2)
consists of thinly interbedded dark grey siltstone, mud-
stone, pale very fine- to fine-grained laminated and
rippled sandstone, commonly bioturbated, and with rare MURTA
MEMBER
medium- to coarse-grained sandstone in places (Ambrose et
MFS
2
1
al, 1982). The basal mudstone is very widespread across the TST
2
basin. The middle and upper interval reflects an increasing WRS 900
nett to gross, although on gamma logs this is poorly shown 4
3
due to thin radioactive sandstones beneath the upper
mudstone-dominated interval. The Murta Member records
a period of increased accommodation during the Early S S
Cretaceous and conformably overlies the dominantly HST

1
braided fluvial Namur Sandstone Member. The Cadna-

Owie Formation, in turn, overlies the Murta Member. The
Murta Member is up to 90 m in maximum thickness (Ambrose
et al, 1982 and 1986; Gorter, 1994; Hill, 1999).
Several depositional models have been advanced for the
Murta Member of the Mooga Formation (Ambrose et al,
1982, 1986; Mount, 1982; Newton, 1986; Zoellner, 1988;
Lennox, 1986; Hill, 1999). However, all authors propose
that the Murta Member is lacustrine, including lacus-
trine shoreface sandstones, although Gorter (1994) inter-
preted it as marginal marine. Unequivocal evidence of
marine conditions is lacking (e.g. no tidal structures or MFS
1
950
fully marine fauna have been documented), although
palynology suggests it may have been brackish (Lennox, TST
1
1986). Although ‘glauconite’ has been reported (Zoellner,

1998), Hill (1999) was unable to validate these occur-
NAMUR SST
rences in the Maxwell Field area. Baker (1997), however, MEMBER
recorded ‘glaucony’ (green ferric clay but not ‘glauco-
nite,’ sensu stricto) from the definitively non-marine
Rewan Group, and, therefore, the glaucony problem
remains to be clarified.
High gamma sandstone DST # 1 (891m -898m ) L
REC: 24.8BBL O,2BBL SMCO,2BBL OCM
Clean sandstone NFTS
Key surfaces and stacking patterns Siltstone DST # 3 (899m -908m ) L
REC: 22.3BBL M,15.4BBL WM
Mudstone MISRUN
Two regional maximum flooding surfaces (MFS1 and Carbonate DST # 4 (900m -904m ) L
REC: 37BBL W WITH TR OIL SCUM
MFS2) are identified in the Murta Member across the MISRUN
entire Eromanga Basin (Fig. 14). MFS1 marks the end of
the first retrogradational stacking pattern above the
Namur Sandstone Member and is easily identified as a Figure 14. Example of a typical well log through the Murta
maximum gamma peak in well logs. Above this, the Member of the Mooga Formation from Maxwell Field. Note the
succession is progradational, increasing in sand content, two maximum flooding surfaces (MFS1 and MFS2) delineating a
with the coarsest unit being a thin, very fine-grained, but typical Galloway-type ‘sequence’ (see Galloway 1989). The wave
well sorted sandstone characterised by a concentrated ravinement surface (WRS) is located in a radioactive sand at the top
radioactive heavy mineral suite, and rare coarse to very of the progradational stacking pattern (HST1). No SB is shown here,
coarse sand grains (Fig. 15). A sharp boundary can be but its stratigraphic position may be interpreted as coincident with
identified in core separating laminated mica-rich sand- the WRS, if a relative fall in lake level occurred between transgres-
stones below from clean, structureless sandstones with the sive events. Note the difference between the sequence strati-
highest concentration of heavy minerals (0.6% of rock graphic picks versus the lithostratigraphic picks.
volume of which detrital zircon is the most abundant;
Hill, 1999). This boundary is recognised as a wave

ravinement surface (WRS) representing a lacustrine

flooding surface marking the beginning of the next Transgressive mudstone Core B
retrogradational stacking pattern, culminating in MFS2. with sandstone lenses, scour
MFS2 marks the top of retrogradational stacking just surfaces and graded bedding
below the lithostratigraphic boundary between the Murta evident.
Member and the overlying Cadna-Owie Formation, and
is identified by a maximum gamma peak (Fig. 14).
Unlaminated, friable, clean,
No sequence boundary was recognised between MFS1
well-sorted fine grained
and MFS2 in the Maxwell Field and surrounding area by transgressive sandstone.
Hill (1999). Gorter (1994) however, recognises incised
valley fills at Maxwell Field and in surrounding areas, Core A
but none of these were cored, and the evidence is based
mainly on gamma log profiles which are unreliable in the Top wave
upper part of the Murta Member. Although evidence of ravinement surface
marine influence is unsubstantiated, it is possible that
incised valleys exist, located between MFS1 and MFS2.
The preferred interpretation is that the WRS is the key
surface resulting from wave reworking of the shoreline
(see Figure 5a), and if a forced regression and associated
sequence boundary is present, then it may be co-incident
with the WRS.
Systems tracts Wave ravinement surface (WRS)

In the Murta Member, two transgressive-regressive (start TST)
cycles are represented. Two transgressive systems tracts
and two highstand systems tracts are clearly recognisable
based on regional-scale retrogressive and progradational
stacking patterns, delineated by MFS1 and MFS2 respec-
tively (Fig. 15). No lowstand systems tract has been
recognised based on the data around the Maxwell Field.
TST1 begins in the top of the Namur Sandstone Member, Figure 15. Showing core examples of the wave ravinement surface
and culminates in MFS1, representing a period when (WRS) below a clean well sorted sandstone near the top of the
accommodation exceeded sediment supply. HST1 contains Murta Formation in two different well locations (cores A and B),
some high frequency cyclicity, in an overall progradational and also the transgressive mudstone that caps the transgressive
stacking pattern, representing infilling of a lacustrine basin sand sheet (core B).
prior to the final transgression peaking at MFS2.
At a higher resolution a number of individual flooding
surfaces and possible regressive and transgressive sur- Reservoirs
faces can be identified and correlated between wells in
the Maxwell Field area. Core investigation of the upper- The reservoir system at the Maxwell Field represents
most portion of the Murta Member, below to MFS2, has a progradational lacustrine shoreface sandstone succes-
been interpreted as an upward-shoaling package of sion, with the uppermost sandstones reworked by wave
shoreface sandstones and mudstones (Hill, 1999). ravinement, leaving a well sorted, clean, but neverthe-
At the Maxwell Field, the upper shoreface sandstones less, a fine-grained reservoir. The upper-shoreface sand-
of HST1 are interpreted as representing a progradational stones make up the majority of the Maxwell Field reser-
shoreline with either numerous base level fluctuations, voir, however the reservoir quality is relatively poor,
or more likely, variations in sediment supply. These with low permeability (<5mD).
surfaces can be traced easily between the wells at the However, the sandstones above the wave ravinement
Maxwell Field, however, this becomes more difficult surface (WRS), though much thinner than the shoreface
outside the field. Higher frequency changes in sedimen- sandstones, are the main reservoir facies with good
tation identified in core are most likely due to autocyclic permeability (>60mD). Location of the WRS is therefore
processes that cannot be traced between the wells in the the key to locating good potential reservoir.
field (e.g. local bar and spit development). A combination of petrographic investigation and detailed
The identification of numerous scales of cyclicity oc- core logging of the reservoir sandstones (Hill, 1999) identified
curring in the Murta Member is an indication of the clay-rich, micaceous laminations that typify the sandstones of
complexity of the sedimentary record resulting from a the upper shoreface below the WRS and play a key role in
multitude of high frequency controls on sediment supply reservoir quality (the alteration of the mica to clays reduced
and accommodation in lacustrine systems. permeability). Above the wave ravinement, winnowing of the

fine fraction substantially reduces the mica content. The

winnowing of the shoreline during transgression is likely to be
V.Crse
V.Fine
Crse
Clay
Med
Fine
very extensive (the length of the palaeo-lake and the shoreface
Silt
G
P
zone perhaps several kilometres wide), and also offers the
possibility of stratigraphic trapping outside the structural
closure. This sandstone is well sealed by the overlying lacus-
trine mudstones deposited during the transgression to MFS2.
CASE STUDY 4: CONTINENTAL TO FS
TST
MARINE TRANSITION, FS
WYANDRA SANDSTONE MEMBER,
EROMANGA BASIN
Description
TS
The Wyandra Sandstone Member of the Cadna-Owie
Formation is a thin (10–20 m thick) sandstone sheet
LST
constituting the uppermost oil reservoir of the Eromanga
Basin (Fig. 2). Despite its relative lithologic homogene-
ity, severe lateral and vertical permeability variation SB
exist in the Wyandra Sandstone Member. Complex pat-
terns of diagenetic reservoir enhancement/degradation,
dominantly influenced by grain size partitioning, exert
the main control on reservoir heterogeneity.
10m
HST
The base of the Wyandra Sandstone Member is de-
fined by a regional unconformity dominantly overlain by
amalgamated fluvial distributary channel fills. Individual
channel-fill deposits are fining- and shoaling-upward
successions 1–2 m in thickness (Fig.16). The lower sec-
tions of channel fill successions are characterised by
parallel-stratified, medium- to very coarse-grained sand-
stone often associated with multiple intraformational KEY :
conglomerate lags. These lower sections are typically PARALLEL STARVED
overlain by trough and planar tabular cross-bedded sand- STRATIFICATION RIPPLES
stone that gives way up-section to very fine- to medium- TROUGH COAL
CROSSBEDDING CHIPS
grained, ripple cross-laminated, and flaser bedded sand- PLANAR-TABULAR PEBBLE
stone. The uppermost sections of fluvial distributary CROSSBEDDING LAG
channel-fill deposits are often decimetre thick, biotubated MUD-PARTINGS ROOTING

and rooted mudstone beds. RIPPLE CROSS-
LAMINATION BIOTURBATION
Coarsening- and fining-upward interbedded sandstone
LENTICULAR
and mudstone units overlie the amalgamated fluvial BEDDING HARDGROUND
distributary channel fills of the lower unit of the Wyandra FLASER BEDDING HETEROLITHIC
Sandstone Member (Fig. 17). In sections directly above BIOTURBATED
STRATA
fluvial distributary channel fills, muddy sandstone units,
0.5–1.5 m in thickness show mud-drapes on cross-bed
foresets, double-mud partings, systematic vertical varia-
tions of flaser, lenticular and starved ripple bedding, Figure 16. Generalised stratigraphic log, Wyandra Sandstone
herringbone ripple cross-lamination and tidal rhythmites. Member, Cadna-Owie Formation. Note the sequence boundary
These structures indicate flow periodicity and flow re- (SB) at the base of the fluvial, cross-bedded, distributary channel
versals of a cyclicity and magnitude that is consistent sandstones, the transgressive surface (TS) marked by the onset of
with a tidal influence on deposition. The occurrence of tidal structures, and the stratigraphic positions of two flooding
sedimentary structures that suggest tidal influence in surfaces (FS) associated with heterolithic, bioturbated marine
the Wyandra Sandstone Member is coupled with in- influenced strata. The key surfaces delineate a highstand systems
creased proportions of glauconitic accretionary particles, tract (HST) in the upper Cadna-Owie Formation (alluvial plain with
Acritarch ichnofossils, and Skolithos bioturbation. In con- roots and bioturbation), a lowstand systems tract (LST) sheet
cert, the sedimentary structures and palaeontological sandstone (associated with no major incision) and a transgressive
data suggest deposition in stressed, brackish water con- systems tract (TST) associated with marine inundation of the
ditions caused by tidal currents. Individual deposits in alluvial plain (Root, 2001).

Ipundu North 8 Ipundu North 2 Ipundu North 7 Ipundu North 3 Tarbat 7

NPHI RXOZ NPHI RXOZ NPHI RXOZ NPHI RXOZ NPHI RXOZ
0.45 V/V -0.15 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 0.2 OHMM 2000
GR HLLD GR HLLD GR HLLD GR HLLD GR HLLD
0 GAPI 200 0.2 OHMM 2000 0 GAPI 200 0.2 OHMM 2000 0 GAPI 200 0.2 OHMM 2000 0 GAPI 200 0.2 OHMM 2000 0 GAPI 200 0.2 OHMM 2000
FS FS
FS FS
TS
TS
20 METERS
SB
SB
Figure 17. Typical well correlation of key surfaces in the Wyandra Sandstone Member at Tarbut-Ipundu Field. Note the minor incision
associated with the sequence boundary (SB), and sheet-like character of the lowstand sandstones and the lower part of the sandy
transgressive systems tract (TST).
this section of the Wyandra Sandstone Member are inter- reflecting the landward migration of the central estuarine
preted as tidal channel bars and intertidal and supratidal- zone where the destructive interference of fluvial and tidal
flat deposits. currents and the flocculation of suspended sediment both
The uppermost unit of the Wyandra Sandstone Mem- promote fine-grained deposition. Regardless of its charac-
ber (Fig. 17) is a thin, laterally extensive heterolithic ter, the transgressive surface separates strata of the lowstand
unit. Evidence of primary bedding is generally destroyed systems tract (below) deposited under fluvial influences
by intense Skolithos bioturbation. Where primary bed- from the transgressive systems tract (above) deposited
ding is apparent, ripple cross-lamination, lenticular bed- under fluvial and tidal influences.
ding, starved ripples, and rarely, wave ripples are iden- In the upper sections of the Wyandra Sandstone Mem-
tified in very thin sandstone beds (a few centimetres in ber, two higher-order flooding surfaces reflect sudden
thickness). Reduced siderite nodules commonly exist in palaeobathymetric increases. These flooding surfaces
these sections. The strata of the uppermost Wyandra bound the upper heterolithic unit of the Wyandra Sand-
Sandstone Member unit are interpreted as prodelta and stone Member and denote deposition in increasingly
distal tidal-flat deposits. Very finely laminated marine distal sections of the depositional system.
shale of the Walumbilla Formation exists above the
Wyandra Sandstone Member. Systems tracts
Key surfaces and stacking patterns The sequence stratigraphic framework for the Wyandra
Sandstone Member represents a fourth-order regressive-
The basal unconformity denoting the lower limit of transgressive cycle interpreted as a response to glacio-
the Wyandra Sandstone Member is interpreted as a eustatic sea-level fluctuation and changes in the rate of
sequence bounding unconformity (Fig. 17). This surface regional subsidence during the Early Cretaceous. This is
has a regional lateral extent, and represents a the first major marine transgression in the Eromanga
palaeontologically resolvable depositional hiatus. Addi- Basin, and marks the end of predominantly continental
tionally, a basinward shift in facies tracts, an increase in sedimentation. Strata bound by the sequence boundary
grain size, and a change in palaeo-current directions and transgressive surface represent the lowstand sys-
occur over the surface. All of these characteristics are tems tract. The amalgamation and preferential preserva-
accepted criteria for the identification of sequence bound- tion of channelised fluvial distributary deposits in the
aries (Van Wagoner et al, 1990, Posamentier and Allen lowstand systems tract occurs as a response to very low
1999, Aitken and Flint 1995). values in the ratio of accommodation to sediment supply
Tidal influence in the upper sections of the Wyandra immediately following the formation of the sequence
Sandstone Member necessitates the existence of a trans- boundary. Seventy-six percent of the lowstand systems
gressive surface representing the first incidence of land- tract consists of stacked fluvial distributary channels
ward migration of the shoreline. The characteristics of the (Fig. 18a).
transgressive surface are variable; it occurs as an erosive The strata of the Wyandra Sandstone Member overly-
quartz/chert pebble lag or as a decimetre thick, finely ing the transgressive surface are part of the transgres-
laminated, mudstone deposit. The former is interpreted as sive systems tract (Figs 16, 17). These strata represent a
a surface of tidal ravinement. The latter is interpreted as period when the rate of accommodation creation ex-

Figure 18 (right). a) Facies associations for the Wyandra Sand-

stone Member at Tarbat-Ipundu Field. Bar graphs show the propor- A WYANDRA SANDSTONE MEMBER
tions of different facies associations for specific genetic units of the PROXIMAL FACIES ASSOCIATIONS DISTAL
Cadna-Owie Formation. Each facies association is represented as 100%
UPPER TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
a percentage of the total genetic unit thickness (left) and as a 50%
percentage of total facies occurrences within the genetic unit FS

100%
WYANDRA SANDSTONE
(right). The latter percentages are derived by using total facies MIDDLE TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
50%
association thickness divided by the thickness of a single deposit. ? ? FS
MEMBER
The lowstand systems tract is composed predominantly of stacked 100% LOWER TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
fluvial distributary deposits forming a laterally extensive sandstone 50%
sheet; b) A speculative subsurface facies distribution for the TS

100%
lowstand systems tract is provided based on core studies, wireline LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
50% (depicted below)
log motifs, palaeo-current interpretation and comparison to mod- SB
ern analogues; even so, a number of different solutions can fit the
CADNA-OWIE MEMBER
100%
HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
UNNAMED LOWER
available data. 50%
ar n
t
ar
ta
el
e l ar y
la
e
Fl s
M pe
Ba
th l
nn
el
lB
ll
in
ou ia
lF
C istr ial
y/ se
Fi
n n ut
O
od
M uv
ceeded the rate at which sediment was supplied. This
ha
da
D luv
da
la as
ha ib
Pr
C
Ti
Ti
Sp rev
F
C
change in depositional control results in punctuated
transgression controlled primarily by an increase in the
Facies thickness
rate of glacio-eustatic sea-level rise accentuated by a as a percentage of
concurrent increase in the rate of regional subsidence. total genetic unit
thickness.
Together, these controls result in marine inundation of Facies occurrence as
a percentage of all
the Eromanga Basin during the Early Cretaceous. The facies occurrences.
landward migration of the shoreline causes the superpo-
sition of increasingly distal facies tracts, as reflected in
the generalised vertical section through the Wyandra
Sandstone Member (Fig. 17). B SPECULATIVE SUB-SURFACE FACIES
DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWSTAND SYSTEMS
TRACT, WYANDRA SANDSTONE MEMBER,
Reservoirs TARBAT-IPUNDU FIELD
The sequence stratigraphic framework for the
Wyandra Sandstone Member at Tarbat-Ipundu Field N
reflects medium-scale (10-1–10 m) reservoir compart- 45
mentalisation. Seventy-three percent of the total n=
Wyandra Sandstone Member rock volume showing n = 8 82

5
1000 meters
9
permeability greater than 10 mD exists within the 4 7
lowstand systems tract. The agreement between Mean FMI/FMS

Palaeo-current
reservoir distribution and the sequence stratigraphic Direction
‘n’ denotes the number
framework stems from the delivery of coarse and very 7
of measurements
coarse-grained sandstone to the study area during and n=

21
GAMMA
directly after formation of the sequence boundary LOG MOTIFS
5
n=2
(associated with a shift in sandstone provenance). The

CHANNEL/ MOUTH
9
2 meters
BAR
sudden delivery of coarse- and very coarse-grained

sediment generally results from stream capture
CREVASSE
processes linked to the enlargement of the drainage n =6 52

DISTRIBUTARY SPLAY
2 meters
basin and down cutting of fluvial systems in proximal

n=
source areas. Both processes represent fluvial read- 11

9 8
17
justment to changes in the fluvial equilibrium profile

FLUVIAL
2 meters
(base level) during the formation of the sequence

boundary; both also result in the partitioning of coarser
grained sediment to the lowstand systems tract.
All Wyandra Sandstone Member samples showing
good flow characteristics (porosity >15%, permeability
>10mD) have mean grain sizes greater than medium sand
and also show signs of extensive secondary dissolution. evidence, in combination with the correlation between
Among the indications of secondary dissolution are grain size and rock flow properties, suggests that coarse-
unusual grain packing geometries, ‘honeycomb’ struc- and very coarse-grained framework grains provide a
tures, dissolution edges, and empty, lath-shaped clay suitable framework for extensive diagenetic dissolution.
rims (see Schmidt and McDonald 1979). This petrographic For this reason, understanding the distribution of coarse-

and very coarse-grained sediment within the Wyandra stone exist only within channelised facies (fluvial-dis-
Sandstone Member is central to unravelling reservoir tributary channel fills and subtidal channel fills) and
heterogeneity. does not occur in inter-distributary, lower deltaic plain,
At a finer scale of analysis (≈ 10-2–10-1 m) reservoir prodelta or shelf environments. Although sequence strati-
heterogeneity within the lowstand systems tract is again graphic analysis cannot resolve individual depositional
controlled by the partitioning of coarse- and very coarse- systems in the Cadna-Owie Formation, it does delineate
grained sediment. Facies mapping suggests that east- groups of similar depositional systems representing spe-
west oriented, elongate pockets of diagenetically en- cific ranges of values in the ratio of accommodation to
hanced reservoir quality are composed of stacked, high- sediment supply. Systems tracts are most fundamentally
energy fluvial distributary channel fills of a transverse ‘linkages of contemporaneous depositional systems’
system oriented across the main structural grain of the (Brown and Fisher 1977). The utility of this concept for
basin. These areas are not incised valleys; the reservoir the Cadna-Owie Formation is two fold: first, sequence
facies are time-equivalent with, and stratigraphically stratigraphic surfaces represent changes in the primary
adjacent to non-reservoir facies. Instead, pockets of res- processes that control sandstone texture and flow prop-
ervoir are interpreted to represent the axes of fluvial erties. Consequently, sequence stratigraphic surfaces
channel fairways. Relative to the surrounding areas, delineate reservoir intervals in the Cadna-Owie Forma-
marginally higher rates of subsidence occur, resulting in tion at some scales of analysis. Second, the prediction of
the amalgamation of channelised deposits (Fig. 18b). At sand body geometry and distribution using the sequence
the time of deposition, these areas are likely to have stratigraphic units (rather than lithologic units or units
provided a more efficient depositional slope for fluvial defined by rock flow properties alone) is promoted be-
channels relative to surrounding areas characterised by cause genetically related stratigraphic units are far more
lower subsidence rates. Like axial drainage systems, low likely to be comparable to pre-existing depositional mod-
nett to gross, lower energy facies of the lowstand systems els constructed from modern and outcrop analogues.
tract are more likely to occur over palaeo-highs (Fig. 7b).
Within the context of a low overall subsidence rate CONCLUSIONS
(characteristic of the lowstand systems tract), areas of
marginally higher subsidence may promote thicker 1. The application of sequence stratigraphy to non-
accumulations of channelised, coarse-grained facies marine strata in continental successions, and intra-
provided the ratio of sediment supply to accommodation cratonic basins in particular, is still in its infancy.
creation does not fall below a threshold value, below Although much remains to be done to discriminate
which standing bodies of water result and lower energy, the effects of tectonics, physiography, climate,
overbank facies are preserved. This threshold value sediment supply, and the influence of sea and lake
exists where the rate of bedload sediment supplied is level, the predominantly non-marine Cooper-
equal to the rate at which accommodation is created Eromanga-Surat-Bowen basin system of Eastern Aus-
(SS/A = 1); where SS/A <1 (i.e. the transgressive and tralia provides an excellent opportunity to demon-
highstand systems tracts) nett to gross and reservoir strate the fundamental principles of the sequence
connectivity will decrease. stratigraphic approach.
Palaeotopographic influences which control the posi- 2. Understanding the role of alluvial sediment accom-
tion and occurrence of major fluvial fairways in the modation relative to sediment supply is the key to
Cadna-Owie Formation are not well understood. How- applying sequence stratigraphic concepts in non-
ever, facies distributions, palaeo-current interpretation marine basins. Accommodation is created by a com-
and thickness variations with respect to the basins struc- bination of tectonic subsidence, compaction and
tural regimes suggest that differential subsidence changing water tables in floodplain lakes, marsh-
(Lonergan et al 1996) and the style of basement faulting lands and peat mires. If the alluvial basin is directly
exerted a sufficient influence on the relief of the deposi- connected to the marine system, then eustacy may
tional surface (approximated by the SB during the depo- influence base level in the lower reaches of the
sition of the lowstand systems tract) to control the posi- alluvial network, but its effect will significantly di-
tion and occurrence of major fluvial fairways. An minish upstream, depending on the slope gradient.
autocorrelation between differential subsidence and the 3. Climate change will have an impact on fluvial dis-
style of basement faulting is likely to exist (Le Roux charge, rising water tables, floodplain lake levels,
1994). Both represent subtle controls on the palaeo- and sediment flux, and it will also play a role in
topography of depositional surfaces, and unless associ- determining whether the succession will be coal
ated with tectonic tilting of the fluvial profile, may not prone or dominated by palaeosols (i.e. Permian coal
result in the formation of resolvable sequence strati- measures vs Triassic redbeds).
graphic surfaces. 4. For sediments to accumulate, accommodation must
The most detailed scale of reservoir heterogeneity be positive, whereas negative accommodation leads
(≈ 10-2–10-1m) within the Wyandra Sandstone Member to erosion. Fluvial accommodation is, therefore, com-
results from grainsize partitioning in individual deposi- parable with the concept of base level. During an
tional systems. Coarse- and very coarse-grained sand- episode of basin-wide tectonic uplift or tilting, fall-

ing base level (negative accommodation) leads to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

widespread erosion on the basin margins or over
intra-basinal highs, and an unconformity equivalent We thank Santos and its Joint Venture partners for
to a sequence boundary develops. financial support and the provision of data for all of the
5. During periods of low accommodation creation rela- studies contributing to this paper. OCA, Magellan, and
tive to sediment supply, rivers rework much of their Petroz are also acknowledged for financial assistance for
floodplain, resulting in a sheet-like, amalgamated the Rewan Formation study and Chimelle for the Murta
succession of predominantly sandy bedload deposits Member study. Technical assistance and input from the
of high nett to gross, with good connectivity, equiva- staff of both NCPGG and QUT is greatly appreciated. We
lent to an alluvial lowstand. In some cases, strata of are also grateful for the critical reviews by Peter Cook
the lowstand systems tract may be confined to in- and John McPherson which significantly improved this
cised valleys that form during periods of negative paper. Thanks to Mrs Carolyn Lang for editing versions
accommodation. Further downstream, lowstand del- of the manuscript. This work is dedicated to the late
tas may form in the lakes. Alluvial lowstands form George Allen whose original contributions to the appli-
good reservoirs in the Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat cation of sequence stratigraphy in interior cratonic set-
basin system as illustrated in four case studies. tings forms a foundation for many of the concepts and
6. Structural control on orientation and location of techniques presented in this paper.
channel belts or delta axes is very important, and
rivers may tend to lie along structural corridors REFERENCES
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Authors' biographies over page.

THE AUTHORS
Simon Lang graduated from the Robert Root graduated from

University of Queensland in 1985 Queensland University of Tech-
with a BSc (Hons) in Geology and nology in 1998 with a BAppSc in
Mineralogy, and later obtained Geology followed by a Master of
his PhD (part-time) also from Uni- Applied Science in reservoir
versity of Queensland in 1994. characterisation and sequence
From 1979 to 1992 he worked as stratigraphy of alluvial and mar-
a geological technician and geolo- ginal marine strata in the
gist for the GSQ in the Pal- Eromanga Basin. Robert is
aeontology, and Regional Map- working on a PhD as part of the
ping Sections mainly in central APCRC program on the Geo-
and northern Queensland. Simon joined Queensland Univer- logical Disposal of CO2 (GEODISC).
sity of Technology in 1992 as a lecturer in sedimentology and
stratigraphy during which time he supervised petroleum and Adam Hill graduated with a
mineral related postgraduate projects in a range of basins in B AppSc (Hons) in Geology from
Australia, Indonesia, PNG, and Venezuela. In addition, he Queensland University of Tech-
developed a research program on modern sedimentology and nology in 1999. He is currently
seismic/sequence stratigraphy of Moreton Bay and the SE working for the National Centre
Queensland continental shelf as well as other modern deposi- of Petroleum Geology and Geo-
tional environments in Lake Eyre and Hervey Bay. Simon joined physics as research assistant for
the National Centre for Petroleum Geology and Geophysics the reservoir characterisation
(NCPGG) as Associate Professor in sedimentology and se- group involved with the geologi-
quence stratigraphy in 1999. He is the project leader on cal sequestration of carbon diox-
reservoir characterisation for the APCRC program on Geo- ide (GEODISC).
logical disposal of CO2 (GEODISC), in addition to leading the
Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy research program
Dennis Harrison is a geologist
and co-leading the APCRC Reservoir Characterisation pro-
with over 33 years technical,
gram at the NCPGG. Member: PESA, GSA, AAPG, SEPM, IAS
managerial and administrative
and IPA.
experience in the resources in-
dustry thoughout Australia. Den-
Paul V. Grech graduated with a nis has a background in research,
BSc (Hons, Applied Geology, Uni- discovery, quantitative analysis,
versity of Technology, Sydney) in new venture feasibility and pros-
1993. He then joined the Na- pect and data analysis. He has
tional Centre for Petroleum Ge- worked in New Guinea, New
ology and Geophysics, University Zealand and most states of Aus-
of Adelaide, to obtain his PhD tralia. His employers have included Australian Aquitaine Petro-
studying the sedimentology and leum Pty Ltd, Beach Petroleum NL, Alliance Oil Development
sequence stratigraphy of the NL, Australian Hydrocarbons NL, Crusader Limited (as a
Rewan Group in the Taroom Consultant to) and Santos Limited. He is currently employed by
Trough, Queensland. He has Santos Queensland Northern Territory Business Unit as a
worked as a stratigraphic researcher with Wiltshire Geological Development Geologist in the South West Queensland oil
Services interpreting wireline logs from the Carnarvon Basin, team. He has a broad background backed by specialist skills in
Canning Basin and the greater Timor Sea area. Paul then joined petrophysics, development geology, reservoir characterisation
the NCPGG as a research associate and is currently working as and reserve calculations.
a sedimentologist for Baker Atlas in Perth.

The Application of Seq Strat To Exploration and Reservoir Development in The Cooper-Eromanga-Bowen-Surat Basin System, 2001

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How does accommodation influence sediment accumulation in non-marine basins?

How does accommodation influence sediment accumulation in non-marine basins?

What are the different systems tracts described in non-marine sequences and what reservoirs are associated with each?

What are the different systems tracts described in non-marine sequences and what reservoirs are associated with each?

THE APPLICATION OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY TO

EXPLORATION AND RESERVOIR DEVELOPMENT IN THE

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—223

Owie Formation, Wyandra Sandstone, Epsilon Forma-

224—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

AGE COOPER / DENISON ROMA TAROOM

Coorikiana SURAT SILTSTONE

WESTGROVE IRONSTONE MEMBER

BOXVALE SST. MEMBER FM

BEDS TAROOM BEDS

BLACK ALLEY SHALE BLACK ALLEY SHALE GYRANDA FM

Roseneath Shale ALDEBARAN OXTRACK FM

REIDS DOME ARBROATH CAMBOON

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—225

Fluvial channel stacking patterns

modified from Allen et al. (1996)

226—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—227

STACKING Fluvial channels Palaeosols

Key surfaces conditions were suitable, and from a practical standpoint

228—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—229

b) FORCED REGRESSIVE EVENT -

Lowstand systems tracts

230—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

magnitude of lake level fall (e.g. Lake Bonneville in

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—231

a) Figure 7 (left). Subsidence and subtle structural controls on

this concept in the Cooper Basin for example, where most

SOME PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO

232—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

For a fault-compartmentalised alluvial basin, the pat- G

terns of sand distribution will be complex, with trans- GAP 20

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—233

234—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

GSQ BARALABA #1 5 cm Top

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—235

149o 30' 00" E

NORTH SIRRAH #1 COOMRITH #1 WOODVILLE #1

DALKEITH #1 0 kilometres 25 2700

Palaeosol Well sorted channel fill

238—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

Brumby Sandstone Member.

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—239

CASE STUDY 3: TRANSGRESSIVE

Description Core Log

Cretaceous and conformably overlies the dominantly HST

braided fluvial Namur Sandstone Member. The Cadna-

1986). Although ‘glauconite’ has been reported (Zoellner,

240—APPEA JOURNAL 2001

ravinement surface (WRS) representing a lacustrine

Systems tracts Wave ravinement surface (WRS)

APPEA JOURNAL 2001—241

fine fraction substantially reduces the mica content. The

CASE STUDY 4: CONTINENTAL TO FS