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    Sensor Types and Classification

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    ilkay KOZAK
    Sensors can be classified based on their stimulus, working principle, properties, and application. Motion sensors measure variables like displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and stress. Common motion sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, variable inductance sensors, tachometers, and piezoresistive sensors. Strain gauges measure strain by converting mechanical deformation into an electrical signal based on the principle that a conductor's electrical resistance changes under mechanical strain. Strain gauges are widely used to measure forces, loads, pressures, torques, and weights.

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    Sensor Types and Classification

    Uploaded by

    ilkay KOZAK
    103 views40 pages
    Sensors can be classified based on their stimulus, working principle, properties, and application. Motion sensors measure variables like displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and stress. Common motion sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, variable inductance sensors, tachometers, and piezoresistive sensors. Strain gauges measure strain by converting mechanical deformation into an electrical signal based on the principle that a conductor's electrical resistance changes under mechanical strain. Strain gauges are widely used to measure forces, loads, pressures, torques, and weights.

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    Sensors can be classified based on their stimulus, working principle, properties, and application. Motion sensors measure variables like displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and stress. Common motion sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, variable inductance sensors, tachometers, and piezoresistive sensors. Strain gauges measure strain by converting mechanical deformation into an electrical signal based on the principle that a conductor's electrical resistance changes under mechanical strain. Strain gauges are widely used to measure forces, loads, pressures, torques, and weights.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    103 views40 pages

    Sensor Types and Classification

    Uploaded by

    ilkay KOZAK
    Sensors can be classified based on their stimulus, working principle, properties, and application. Motion sensors measure variables like displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and stress. Common motion sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, variable inductance sensors, tachometers, and piezoresistive sensors. Strain gauges measure strain by converting mechanical deformation into an electrical signal based on the principle that a conductor's electrical resistance changes under mechanical strain. Strain gauges are widely used to measure forces, loads, pressures, torques, and weights.

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    of 40

    SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

    Characteristics and types


    Definition of a sensor
     Def. 1. (Oxford dictionary)
    ◦ A device giving a signal for the detection or
    measurement of a physical property to which it
    responds.
     Def. 2.
    ◦ A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus
    and response with an electrical signal.
    Classification of sensors

    Attributes which can be used to classify


    sensors:

     stimulus
     working principle
     properties (attributes of the characteristic)
     application
    Measurements
    Heisenberg (1927): ”The momentum and position of a particle can not
    both be precisely determined at the same time.”
    Measuring activity disturbs the physical process (loading effect).
    Measurement error:
    That is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
    error = measured value - true value
    Deterministic errors:
    They are repeated at every measurement, e.g. reading offset or bias.
    Such
    errors can be corrected by calibration.
    Random errors:
    They are caused by several parameters and change in time in an
    unpredictable fashion. They can be quantified by mean errors, standard
    deviation.
    Precision:
    Measurements with small deviation
    Accuracy:
    Measurements with small errors, i.e. small bias and high precision.
    Sensor properties
    output

    factual

    ideal

    input

    A sensor should represent a physical variable as fast and


    as accurately as possible.
    A sensor is represented by its characteristic.
    Ideally, the sensor characteristic is a straight line
    SENSOR CHARACTERISTIC
     Full scale input (input span)
    ◦ A range of stimuli that can be converted by
    one sensor.
     Full scale output (output span)
    ◦ Full scale output is the algebraic difference
    between the output signals measured with
    maximum input stimulus and with minimum
    input stimulus applied.
    SENSOR CHARACTERISTIC
    Accuracy : Error measurement
    Sensitivity: change in output for unit change in
    input
    Resolution: the smallest change in the signal that
    can be detected and accurately indicated by a
    sensor.
    Linearity: the closeness of the calibration curve
    to a straight line.
    Drift: the deviation from the null reading of the
    sensor when the value is kept constant for a
    long time.
    SENSOR CHARACTERISTIC
    Hysteresis: the indicated value depends on
    direction of the test (increasing and decreasing)
    Repeatability (precision): the maximum deviation
    from the average of repeated measurements of
    the same static variable.
    Dynamic Characteristics: A sensor may have
    some transient characteristic. The sensor can be
    tested by a step response where the sensor
    output is recorded for a sudden change of the
    physical variable.
    The rise time, delay time, peak time, settling time,
    percentage overshoot should be as small as
    possible.
    Typical specification
    Motion sensors
     These transducers measure the following
    variables: displacement, velocity, acceleration,
    force, and stress.
     Such measurements are used in mechanical
    equipment such as servo-systems, robots, and
    electrical drive systems.
     Motion sensors include the following types of
    devices: potentiometers, resolvers, optical
    encoders, variable inductance sensors
    (displacement), tachometers (velocity), piezo-
    resistive sensors (strain).
    Resolver
     Resolvers are used in
    accurate servo and robot
    systems to measure angular
    displacement. Their signal
    can be differentiated to
    obtain the velocity.
     The rotor is connected
    with the rotating object and
    contains a primary coil
    supplied by an alternating
    current from a source
    voltage vref. The stator
    consists of two windings
    separated by 90o, with V01= K vref sin θ
    induced voltages V02= K vref sin θ
    Tachometer

     The permanent magnet generates


    a steady and uniform magnetic
    field. Relative
     motion between the field and the
    rotor induces voltages, which is
    proportional
     to the speed of the rotor.
     The inductance gives the
    tachometer a certain time
    constant so that the
     tachometer cannot measure fast
    transient accurately.
    Optical encoders
     These are optical devices to
    measure angular displacement and
    angular velocity.
     A disk of an optical encoder is
    connected to the rotating shaft.
     The disk has patterns (holes).
     On one side of the disk there is a
    light source and on the other
    photo-detectors. When the disk
    rotates the light is going through
    the holes and the photo-detectors
    generate series of pulses.
     There are two types of optical
    encoders: incremental and
    absolute.
    Optical encoders

     The incremental encoder provides a pulse each


    time the shaft has rotated a defined distance.
     The disc of an absolute encoder has several
    concentric tracks, with each track having an
    independent light source and photo detector.
     With this arrangement a unique binary or Gray
    coded number can be produced for every shaft
    position.
    LVDT
     The two secondary coils are
    connected in the opposite phase.
    When the core is in the middle
    there is no output voltage.
     Moving the core from the central
    position unbalances the
    secondaries, developing an output.

    Applications:
     To measure linear displacement, e.g. V
    out
    for measuring tube lengths in a steel
    plant,
     applied in linear servomechanisms,
    etc.
    displacement
    LVDT
    Strain gauge
     When external forces
    are applied to a
    stationary object, stress
    and strain are the
    result.
     Stress is defined as
    Strain gauge
     Strain is defined as the amount of
    deformation per unit length of an object
    when a load is applied.
    Strain (ε) = ΔL/L
     Typical values for strain are less than 0.005
    inch/inch and are often expressed in micro-
    strain units:
    1 μstrain = 10-6 strain
    Strain gauge
     Strain may be compressive or tensile and is
    typically measured by strain gages.
     It was Lord Kelvin who first reported in
    1856 that metallic conductors subjected to
    mechanical strain exhibit a change in their
    electrical resistance.
     This phenomenon was first put to practical
    use in the 1930s.
    Strain gauge
     Fundamentally, all strain gages are designed
    to convert mechanical motion into an
    electronic signal.
     A change in capacitance, inductance, or
    resistance is proportional to the strain
    experienced by the sensor.
    Strain gauge
     If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly
    longer and its cross-sectional area is reduced.
    This changes its resistance (R) in proportion
    to the strain sensitivity (S) of the wire's
    resistance. When a strain is introduced, the
    strain sensitivity, which is also called the gage
    factor (GF), is given by:
    GF = (ΔR/R)/(ΔL/L)
    Strain gauge
     The ideal strain gage would change
    resistance only due to the deformations of
    the surface to which the sensor is attached.
     However, in real applications, temperature,
    material properties, the adhesive that bonds
    the gage to the surface, and the stability of
    the metal all affect the detected resistance.
    Strain gauge
     Because most materials do not have the
    same properties in all directions, a
    knowledge of the axial strain alone is
    insufficient for a complete analysis.
     Poisson, bending, and torsion strains also
    need to be measured. Each requires a
    different strain gage arrangement.
    Strain gauge
     The deformation of an object can be
    measured by mechanical, optical, acoustical,
    pneumatic, and electrical means.
     The earliest strain gages were mechanical
    devices that measured strain by measuring
    the change in length and comparing it to the
    original length of the object.
    Strain gauge
     The most widely used characteristic that varies in
    proportion to strain is electrical resistance. Although
    capacitance and inductance-based strain gages have
    been constructed, these devices' sensitivity to vibration,
    their mounting requirements, and circuit complexity
    have limited their application.
     The photoelectric gage uses a light beam, two fine
    gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an
    electrical current that is proportional to strain. The gage
    length of these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but
    they are costly and delicate.
    Strain gauge
     The first bonded, metallic wire-type strain
    gage was developed in 1938. The metallic
    foil-type strain gage consists of a grid of
    wire filament (a resistor) of approximately
    0.001 in. (0.025 mm) thickness, bonded
    directly to the strained surface by a thin
    layer of epoxy resin
    Strain gauge
    Strain gauge
    Applications of Strain gauge
     Strain gages are used to measure displacement, force,
    load, pressure, torque or weight. Modern strain-gage
    transducers usually employ a grid of four strain
    elements electrically connected to form a Wheatstone
    bridge measuring circuit.
     The strain-gage sensor is one of the most widely used
    means of load, weight, and force detection.
     As the force is applied, the support column experiences
    elastic deformation and changes the electrical resistance
    of each strain gage. By the use of a Wheatstone bridge,
    the value of the load can be measured. Load cells are
    popular weighing elements for tanks and silos and have
    proven accurate in many other weighing applications.
    Applications of Strain gauge
     Strain gages may be bonded to cantilever
    springs to measure the force of bending.
     The strain gages mounted on the top of the
    beam experience tension, while the strain gages
    on the bottom experience compression. The
    transducers are wired in a Wheatstone circuit
    and are used to determine the amount of force
    applied to the beam.
    Application of Strain gauge
     Strain-gage elements also are used widely in the
    design of industrial pressure transmitters. Using
    a bellows type pressure sensor in which the
    reference pressure is sealed inside the bellows
    on the right, while the other bellows is exposed
    to the process pressure.
     When there is a difference between the two
    pressures, the strain detector elements bonded
    to the cantilever beam measure the resulting
    compressive or tensile forces.
    Applications of Strain gauge
     A diaphragm-type pressure transducer is
    created when four strain gages are attached to
    a diaphragm.
     When the process pressure is applied to the
    diaphragm, the two central gage elements are
    subjected to tension, while the two gages at the
    edges are subjected to compression.
     The corresponding changes in resistance are a
    measure of the process pressure. When all of
    the strain gages are subjected to the same
    temperature, such as in this design, errors due
    to operating temperature variations are
    reduced.
    Piezoelectric Materials

     Many polymers, ceramics, and


    molecules such as water are
    permanently polarized:
    some parts of the molecule
    are positively charged, while
    other parts of the molecule
    are negatively charged.
    Piezoelectric Materials

     When an electric field is applied to


    these materials, these polarized
    molecules will align themselves
    with the electric field, resulting in
    induced dipoles within the
    molecular or crystal structure of
    the material.
    Piezoelectric Materials
    Furthermore, a permanently-
    polarized material such as
    quartz (SiO2) or barium
    titanate (BaTiO3) will produce
    an electric field when the
    material changes dimensions as
    a result of an imposed
    mechanical force.
    These materials are
    piezoelectric, and this
    phenomenon is known as the
    piezoelectric effect.
    Piezoelectric Materials

     Conversely, an applied electric


    field can cause a piezoelectric
    material to change dimensions.
     This phenomenon is known as
    electrostriction, or the reverse
    piezoelectric effect.
     Piezoelectric Effect Reverse
    Piezoelectric Effect
    Piezoelectric Materials
     Piezoelectric materials are
    used in acoustic transducers,
    which convert acoustic (sound)
    waves into electric fields, and
    electric fields into acoustic
    waves. Transducers are found in
    telephones, stereo music
    systems, and musical
    instruments such as guitars and
    drums.
    Piezoelectric Materials
     Quartz, a piezoelectric material, is often found
    in clocks and watches. An oscillating electric
    field makes the quartz crystal resonate at its
    natural frequency. The vibrations of this
    frequency are counted and are used to keep the
    clock or watch on time.
     A manufacturer has recently embedded
    piezoelectric materials in skis in order to damp
    out the vibrations of the skis and help keep the
    ski edges in contact with the snow.

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