MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

LAB MANUAL
Strength of Materials-II Lab
(ETME-254)
MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE OUTCOMES

ETME 254 Strength of Materials-II Lab

After the completion of the course, the student will be able to

CO.ETME254.1 Verify the Maxwell reciprocal theorem and various end

conditions of column.
CO.ETME254.2 Determine the endurance strength and shear strength of the
material.
CO.ETME254.3 Demonstrate the working of strain gauge and the creep
phenomena.
CO.ETME254.4 Compute the mechanical properties of materials and the
flexural strength of concrete beam.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS-II LAB
Paper Code: ETME-254

Exp No.
Experiment

Exp 1 To verify the Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem on beams.

To study behaviour of different types of columns and find Euler’s buckling load for
Exp 2
different end conditions.

To determine the endurance limit of the given specimen under fatigue or cyclic
Exp 3
loading.

To perform Shear Test and find maximum (ultimate) shear strength of given test
Exp 4
specimen
To measure mechanical strain in a cantilever beam using strain gages and to
Exp 5 compare the results with theoretical strain values calculated from an equation
derived from solid mechanics.
To study the behaviour of mild steel rod subjected to gradual increasing equal loads
Exp 6
at 1/3rd span and to determine its mechanical properties

Exp 7 To inspect the property of creep in metals

To determine flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete using simple beam

Exp 8
with third-point loading.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM: To verify the Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem on beams.

APPARATUS: Bending bench with beam deflection apparatus, beam,

hangers, weights, adjustable stand with dial gauge.

THEORY: The Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem states that “The work done by
the first system of loads due to displacements caused by a second system of
loads equals the work done by the second system of loads due to displacements
caused by the first system of loads.”

PROCEDURE:
1. Choose two points A and B on the simply supported beam. At constant
temperature and unyielding supports, consider a beam subjected to a
load W at point A. Let δ be the deflection produced at point B by load
W in Y direction pointing south.
2. If the load at point A is removed and applied at point B in Y direction
pointing south, the deflection measured at A will also be equal to δ.
3. Repeat the steps 1 and 2 above with different set of loads and tabulate
the results.

OBSERVATIONS:

S. NO. Load at point Deflection at Load at point B Deflection at

A (g) point B (mm) (g) point A (mm)
1
2
3

RESULTS: Deflection at point A when load is at point B = Deflection at

point B when load is at point A. Hence, Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem is
proved.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The beam should be symmetrically placed on the supports.
 2. The dial should be properly adjusted so that the deflection is exactly in
the centre and the hanger does not obstruct the dial gauge.

SOURCES OF ERRORS:
1. The beam may be inclined or may not be horizontal.
2. The dial gauge may not measure the deflection exactly in the centre.
3. There may be error in taking dial gauge reading due to highly sensitive
movement of needle.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem?

2. Define strain energy?
3. What is resilience?
4. Explain the concept of continuous beam?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM: To study behavior of different types of columns and find Euler’s

buckling load for each case.

APPARATUS: Column Buckling Apparatus, Weights, H

Hanger,
anger, Dial Gauge,
Scale, Vernier caliper.

THEORY: If compressive load is applied on a column, the member may fail

either by crushing or by buckling depending on its material, cross section and
length. If member is considerably long in comparison to its lateral dimensions
it will fail by buckling.
kling. If a member shows signs of buckling the member leads
to failure with small increase in load. The load at which the member just
buckles is called as crushing load. The buckling load, as given by Euler, can be
found by using following expression
expression:
𝟐
P= 𝟐
𝒆

Figure 1
Where, E = Modulus of Elasticity= 2 x 105 N/mm2 for steel
I = Least moment of inertia of column section
le = Effective length of column
Depending on support conditions, four cases may arise. The effective length
for each of which are given as:
1. Both ends are fixed le = L/ 2
2. One end is fixed and other is pinned le = L/√ 2
3. Both ends are pinned le = L
4. One end is fixed and other is free le = 2L

PROCEDURE:
 Pin a graph paper on the wooden board behind the column.
 Apply the load at the top of columns increasing gradually. At certain
stage of loading the columns shows abnormal deflections and gives the
buckling load.
 Not the buckling load for each of the four columns.
 Trace the deflected shapes of the columns over the paper. Mark the
points of change of curvature of the curves and measure the effective or
equivalent length for each case separately.
 Calculate the theoretical effective lengths and thus buckling loads by the
expressions given above and compare them with the observed values.

OBSERVATION:
Width of strip (mm), b =
Thickness of strip (mm), t =
Length of strip (mm), L =
Least moment of inertia, I=bt3/12

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. End Condition Euler’s Effective Length (mm)

Buckling Load
𝟐
P= 𝟐
𝒆
 Theoretical Observed Theoretical Observed
1. Both ends fixed
2. One end fixed
and other pinned
3. Both ends pinned
4. One end fixed and
other free.

RESULTS:

The theoretical and experimental Euler’s buckling load for each case is found
nearly same.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define buckling?
2. What is the difference b/w buckling and twisting?
3. What is the difference b/w column and strut?
4. Define buckling facture?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM: To determine the endurance limit of the given specimen under fatigue
or cyclic loading.

THEORY: Very few parts are subjected to constant load. In general large
numbers of parts of all systems are subjected to varying loads. The loads may
be varying in tension or compression or the bending moments may be varying
resulting in varying stresses or the parts are subjected to torques which also is
responsible for varying shear stresses. The behavior of materials under
varying or fluctuating loads causing repeated loads is known as Fatigue.
Some examples are: springs, rotating shafts, gears, railway axles, aircraft
wings, river bridges. etc. The following are varying types of loads.

Range of stress R = 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏
Mean stress δ =
𝟐
𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏
Stress ratio =
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
Endurance limit or Fatigue limit or strength: It is the maximum value of
repeated stress or reversed stress applied infinite times without causing
failure. Fatigue life is the number of cycles of stress reversals that the
material can withstand without failure. The ratio of endurance strength to
static strength (UTS) is called Endurance Ratio. It is about 0.45 for steels

Factors affecting Fatigue Strength: Fatigue strength can be increased by fine

surface finish, surface rolling, shot peening, cold work hardening, carburizing
and nitriding. Stress concentrations decrease the fatigue strength.

Fatigue Testing Machine: The machine consists of an electric motor provided

with specimen holder and runs at a constant speed. The number of rotations
is recorded by a counter. The specimen is reduced in diameter near the
specimen holder where bending moment is maximum and stress is maximum
because of the reduced diameter. Eight to ten similar specimens are taken
from the same material. The first specimen is loaded with load W1 so that the
stress produced is equal to yield stress. When the specimen breaks, the
machine stops and counter indicates the number of rotations or cycles of
stress. The second specimen is loaded with a load W2 <W. When the second
specimen breaks, the no. of cycles are noted. The procedure is repeated with
more specimens, till the specimen does not break even after 107 cycles.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

For mild steel (20C8) yield stress δy = 260 N/mm2

Bending Moment on critical section M = WL
𝑴 𝑾𝑳×𝟑𝟐
Bending Stress 𝒃 𝒁  𝒅𝟑
𝟑
𝒅 𝝈𝒃  × 𝟐𝟔𝟎 × 𝒅𝟑
𝑾𝟏 = =
𝟑𝟐 𝑳 𝟑𝟐𝑳
 𝒅 𝟑 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑾𝟐 =
𝟑𝟐𝑳
𝟑
 𝒅 × 𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝑾𝟑 =
𝟑𝟐𝑳

When the specimens do not break after 107 cycles, the machine will be
stopped.
A graph will be plotted between stress and no. of cycles. ‘x’ indicates
unbroken specimens and curve will be made asymptotic over the unbroken
specimens. The maximum value of stress where the specimens do not break is
the Endurance strength or Fatigue strength.

Factors affecting Fatigue Strength:

1. Fatigue strength increases with surface finish.
2. Cold working i.e surface hardening (carburizing, nitriding) work
hardening, cold rolling, shot preening, surface rolling increases the
fatigue strength.
3. The strength also increases with frequency of stress reversals.
4. The fatigue strength decreases with stress concentrations and corrosion.

S. Load Bending Moment Average 𝒅𝟑 Stress No. of

No. W (N) M (Nmm) diameter = M/Z cycles
𝟑𝟐
d (mm) N/mm² N
RESULTS:

Endurance strength of specimen = x (say) N/mm²

U.T.S of the material = 480 N/mm²
Endurance ratio = x/480
This ratio is ………………………..(should vary between 0.2 to 0.6).

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define Endurance strength.

2. What is the relation between Endurance strength and UTS?
3. Name four parts subjected to Fatigue load.
4. How can the fatigue strength of a material be increased?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM: To perform Shear Test and find maximum (ultimate) shear strength of
given test specimen.

THEORY: When two equal and opposite forces act on two surfaces of a
body so as to make one part of the body slide over the other, are called shear
forces F. The shear stress i.e resistance acts parallel or tangential to the shear
plane. The average shear stress is:
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭
Shear Stress (τ) =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑨)

Figure 1

On a rectangular element if a force acts on the top surface AB, there will be
equal and opposite force F on the bottom surface CD forming a couple. To
maintain equilibrium, there will equal to and opposite couple to the forces
causing shear. These forces will deform the block to A’B’ CD.

Shear stress τ will act opposite to shear force F and the deformation produced
is measured by the angle of slide (or rotation) from the rectangular position.
𝑨𝑨
Shear strain = = tan  =  as  in radians is very small.
𝑨𝑫
The shear stresses τ acting pair of opposite sides A’D and B’C are called
complimentary shear stresses.
Up to elastic limit, shear stress is proportional to shear strain and the ratio of
shear stress to shear strain is called Modules of rigidity G
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝛕
G=
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 
If there is one cross-section which resists the forces, the material or part is
said to be in single shear.

If two areas of cross section resist the forces, the part is said to be in double
shear.
𝟒𝑭
The average stress in single shear τ =
𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝟒𝑭
The average stress is in double shear τ =
𝟐.𝝅𝒅𝟐

Figure 2
PROCEDURE: The diameter of the specimen is measured and inserted in
the attachment of Shear as shown in Fig. The attachment is placed in the
UTM (universal testing machine) and loaded gradually. The maximum load
at which the specimen breaks is noted. The ultimate shear strength is
calculated as:
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭
Ultimate Shear Strength = 𝝅 N/mm2
𝟐×𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 ( 𝒅𝟐 )
𝟒

RESULTS: The Ultimate Shear Strength = N/mm2

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Is the shear force responsible for change of dimensions?

2. Definer Modulus of rigidity.
3. What type of distortion takes place when shear force is applied?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM: To measure mechanical strain in a cantilever beam using strain gages

and to compare the results with theoretical strain values calculated from an
equation derived from solid mechanics.

APPARATUS: Strain gauge kit, Cantilever beam weights, Multimeter

THEORY: Strain gages are made of thin metal wires whose resistance
changes whenever it is strained. Strain gauges are made into two basic forms,
bonded wire and bonded foil. Wire gauges are sandwiched between two sheets
thin paper and foil gauges are sandwiched between two thin sheets of epoxy.
The strain gauge is connected to the material in which it is required to
measure the strain, with a thin coat of adhesive. Most common adhesive used
is Eastman, Deco Cement, etc. as the test specimens extends or contracts
under stress in the direction of windings, the length and cross sectional area of
the conductor alter, resulting in a corresponding increase or decrease in
electrical resistance.

As the wire is strained, its length L and its cross-sectional area A changes,
which leads to a change in resistance R given by the formula
𝑳
𝑹= 𝝆
𝑨

We can see that if the wire is stretched, L will increase, A will decrease, and
resistance R will increase. Note that the wires resistivity, ρ, will also change
when the wire is strained, but we will not take that into account here. As we
will see below, if we can measure the change in resistance, say ΔR, then we can
infer the strain and ultimately the stress. If we take the derivative of equation
1 with respect to each variable, we have that (derivation omitted)

𝒅𝑹 𝒅𝑳 𝒅𝝆 𝒅𝑨
= + −
𝑹 𝑳 𝝆 𝑨

From above equation, we can define Gage Factor (GF), as unit change in
resistance for per unit change in length of strain gauge wire given as

∆𝑹/𝑹 ∆𝑹/𝑹
𝑮𝑭 = =
𝜹𝑳/𝑳 ɛ

In this relationship R and L represent, respectively the initial resistance and

initial length of the strain gauge filament, while δR & δL represents the small
change in resistance and length, which occurs as the gauge is strained
along with the surface to which it is bonded. This gauge factor of a gauge is a
measure of the amount of resistance change for a given strain. The higher the
gauge factor greater the electrical output for indication or recording purpose.
The gauge factor is supplied by the manufacturer and may range from 1.7 to
4. The usual method of measuring the change of resistance in a gauge element
is by means of Wheatstone bridge as shown in figure. It consists of
Galvanometer, 4 resistors & a battery. Resistance R1 is the strain gauge is
used for strain measurement, which is mounted on the specimen. The three
resisters R2, R3 and R4 are internal to the device. Let us assume that the
resistance have been adjusted so that the bridge is balanced i.e. Voutput = 0.

Thus for initial balance,

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒

If the structural member, to whom the strain

gauge is bonded, is to be loaded and strained,
there would be a resultant change in the
resistance R1. According to the relationship,
𝜹𝑳
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑮𝑭
𝑳
Since ɛ is strain in the specified direction. Finally, we find that the relationship
between strain and the change in resistance of the wire is given by

∆𝑹/𝑹
ɛ𝒆𝒙𝒑 =
𝑮𝑭
Experimental strain is calculated from above equation

Arrangement: In certain applications where equal and opposite strains are

known to exist it is possible to attach similar gauges in way that one gauge
experiences positive strain and other negative strain. Depending on the
number of gauges used the bridge, the circuit configurations are:
a) Quarter Bridge :

b) Half Bridge:
 c) Full Bridge:

In Quarter Bridge, the strain gauge is connected in one arm as shown in the
above diagram. In half bridge arrangement two active gauges are used, while
in case of full bridge all the gauges are active. In this arrangement two acts in
tension while other two are compression. With the help of this type of
arrangement temperature compensation is also achieved. When possible, the
full-bridge configuration is the best to use. This is true not only because it is
more sensitive than the others, but because it is linear while the others are not.
Quarter-bridge and half-bridge circuits provide an output (imbalance) signal
that is only approximately proportional to applied strain gauge force.
Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits is best when the amount
of resistance change due to applied force is very small compared to the
nominal resistance of the gauge(s). With a full-bridge, however, the output
voltage is directly proportional to applied force, with no approximation.

Determination of theoretical strain:

Consider the beam shown by Figure 1. This a simple cantilevered beam

subject to a force F at the end of the beam. In this case, the top of the beam
will experience tension and the bottom of the beam will experience
compression. In this way, the wires in the strain gage on top of the beam will
be stretched, inducing a positive strain and thus positive ΔR. The wires in the
strain gage on the bottom of the beam will be compressed, inducing a negative
strain and thus negative ΔR. We will use this process to determine the strain
in this cantilever beam.
Figure 1: Schematic of the Cantilever Beam used throughout the Experiment

Let us first determine the theoretical equation for strain in the b

beam
eam using our
knowledge of beams in bending. A uniaxial stress state is obtained on the
surface of a cantilever beam when it is
loaded at its free end. The loading
condition, illustrated in Figure, places the
beam in a combined shear and bending
state but the shear stresses are zero on the
upper and lower surfaces. The bending
tresses are directed along the longitudinal
axis of the beam; they maximize on the
upper surface and decrease linearly through the thickness. When the beam
has a rectangular cross-secsection,
tion, the magnitude of the tensile stress on the
upper surface is equal to that of the compressive stress on the lower surface.
Consider the bending stress experienced at the location of the strain gages.
This is given by

𝑴𝒚 𝑷𝑳𝒆 𝒚
𝑮𝑭 = =
𝑰 𝑰

The gages are mounted at the top/bottom of the beam, i.e., y = t/2. Also, I =
bt3/12. Thus
𝟔𝑷𝑳𝒆
𝝈=
𝒃𝒕𝟐
where b, and t are beam width and thickness and Le is equivalent length of
Beam, as shown in figure. Consider the stress-strain relationship given by
𝝈
ɛ=
𝑬

Therefore final equation for the theoretical strain on the surface of the beam
at the location of the gages is given by

𝟔𝑷𝑳𝒆
ɛ𝒕𝒉 =
𝒃𝒕𝟐 𝑬

STRAIN GAUGE TRANSDUCER TRAINER PRODUCT CODE:

AL-E153
CONNECTOR

GAIN ADC
TRANSDUCER
AMPLIFIER CHANNEL

POWER SUPPLY
DIGITAL READOUT

200mV
ADC CHANNEL
+
-
- POWER SUPPLY 230V,50Hz
+

ON

WEIGHT CONTAINER
STRAIN GAUGE

100GM

BEAM

BASE
PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the cantilever beam, strain gauge kit and multimeter as shown
above in figure.
2. Calibration of instrument will be performed by adjusting the digital
display reading to 377 μ corresponding to the load of 1 kg.
3. After calibration, put the weight on the rod of cantilever beam.
4. Measure the digital display reading for a particular weight.
5. The reading will represent the experimental strain for the particular
weight.
6. Increase the strength of weight.
7. Repeat the steps for increased weight.
8. Measure all dimensions of scale of cantilever.
9. Calculate theoretical strain for each weight with the help of formula
derived above.
10.Compare theoretical and experimental values of strain by calculating
percentage error.
11.Plot a graph between theoretical and experimental strain.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Calibration of instrument will be performed by employing the following

readings:
Load, P = 10 N
Length of beam, Le = 220 mm
Width of beam, b = 28 mm
Thickness of beam, t = 2.5 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 200 GPa
Therefore,
𝟔𝑷𝑳𝒆
ɛ𝒕𝒉 = = 𝟑𝟕𝟕𝝁
𝒃𝒕𝟐 𝑬
S. No. Weight Experimental Theoretical % error
(N) strain (εexp) strain (εth) 𝝐𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝝐𝒕𝒉
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝝐𝒆𝒙𝒑

RESULTS:

Values of Experimental strain (εexp) and Theoretical strain (εth) were

evaluated and compared.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the effect of temperature on strain gauge and means to reduce

the same.
2. What is Gauge Factor? What is its significance?
3. Explain different bonding materials that can be used with strain gauge?

4. What are the various problems associated with load measurement using

strain gauge?
 Experiment No. 6
AIM: To study the behavior of mild steel rod subjected to gradual increasing
equal loads at 1/3rd span and to determine its mechanical properties.

APPARATUS: Universal Testing Machine, Dial Indicator, Scale & Vernier

Calipers.

THEORY: Bending strength is defined as a material's ability to resist

deformation under load; it represents the highest stress experienced within
the material at its moment of rupture. There are two types of bending tests.
Three point bending test and four point bending test. In a three point bending
test the area of uniform stress is quite small and concentrated under the
centre loading point. In a four point bending test, the area of uniform stress
exists between the inner span loading points (typically half the outer span
length).
When a specimen is bent, it experiences a range of stresses across its
depth. At the edge of the concave face the stress will be at its maximum
compressive value. At the convex face of the specimen the stress will be at its
maximum tensile value. Most materials fail under tensile stress before they
fail under compressive stress, so the maximum tensile stress value that can be
sustained before the specimen fails is its flexural strength. The flexural
strength would be the same as the tensile strength if the material were
homogeneous. Therefore the flexural properties of a specimen are the result of
the combined effect of all three stresses as well as (though to a lesser extent)
the geometry of the specimen and the rate the load applied. Bend testing
provides insight into the modulus of elasticity and the bending strength of a
material.

From bending equation,

It is desirable to calculate the maximum (ultimate)compression stress from
average area considering constant volume i.e
Ao = Original area of specimen
Lo = Original length of specimen
Af = Final area of specimen
Lf = final length of specimen
𝐀 𝐨 𝐋𝐨
Ao. Lo = Af. Lf so 𝐀𝐟 =
𝐀𝐟
 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
Average compression strength =
𝐀𝐟
Cast Iron is the most common material for beds of all machines as it has high
compression strength, can absorb shocks and vibrations and is not affected by
stress concentration. As it is not homogeneous so a compression test on C.I.
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
gives useful information. To avoid the buckling, the ratio of is kept
𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
between 1 and 3. In addition to compression strength, yield stress and
Young’s modulus of elasticity, percentage reduction in length and percentage
increase in area are also found.

PROCEDURE: Test specimen is placed between two flat surfaces and

gradually increasing load is applied. Load values for change of 1mm length
are observed till fracture and graph is plotted between load in N and decrease
of length in mm and also for aluminum.

Observations:
For CI For Aluminum
Mean initial length lo = Mean initial length lo =
Mean initial diameter do = Mean initial diameter do =
Final length lf = Final length lf =
Final diameter df = Final diameter df =
Change Load Load (N) Change Load Load (N)
in length (kgf) in length (kgf)
(mm) (mm)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
….. …..
……. …….
Till end Till end

CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS: From the straight line part of

graph, two points are selected from which

Original Area, Ao = do 2
𝟒
Change in load = ΔP
Change in length = ∆𝒙
∆ 𝑷𝑳
E= N/mm2
𝑨𝒐 ∆𝒙
Maximum contraction = Xf (mm)

Final area of cross section, Af = df 2 mm2
𝟒

𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
Max compression strength = N/mm2
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨𝒐 )

𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝

Proportional limit stress = N/mm2
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨𝒐 )

𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐗 𝐟 )
% contraction in length = 100
𝒍𝒐
𝑨𝒇 𝑨𝒐
% increase in Area = 100
𝑨𝒐

Proof Stress: By drawing a line PQ parallel to straight limit OA at a distance

𝟎.𝟐 𝒍𝒐
x=
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒏
Proof stress =
𝑨𝒐

OBSERVE THE FRACTURE FOR CI AND ALUMINUM:

The fracture is approximately at an angle of 45º in CI. When compression

load is applied, max shear stress is at 45º. As cast iron is weaker in shear as
compared to compression, the fracture in cast iron is due to shear at 45º.
There is no fracture in aluminum. There is decrease of length and increase in
diameter.
PRECAUTIONS :

1. Surfaces of the Test piece should be perfectly flat and parallel to each
other.
2. Measure length and diameter at three places and take the mean value.
 3. Take the values of contraction and load simultaneously.

VIA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the type of fracture in cast iron and aluminum specimens?

2. Which stress is responsible for this fracture of CI?
3. What is type of fracture in Aluminum? Explain.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM: To inspect the property of creep in metals.

THEORY: The creep of metals and alloys is very important for some types
of engineering designs, particularly those, operating at elevated temperatures.
For example an engineer selecting an alloy for the turbine blades, must choose
an alloy with a very low creep rate that the blades can remain in service for a
long period of time. Similarly consider the automotive exhaust manifold.
Creeps and rupture is very important in this case, because the manifold has to
operate at elevated temperature and can creep if the material is not of the
required properties. In this experiment you will study how materials creep at
constantly applied load.
Creep is a property of great importance in materials used at high
temperature. It may be defined as a continuous slow plastic deformation
under constant conditions of loads. Under certain combinations of stress and
temperature, all materials when subjected to constant stress will exhibit an
increase of strain extent at all temperatures, although the engineering metals,
such as steel, aluminum and copper creep, which is often accompanied by
micro structural changes.

Creep in Metals:
A creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a specimen and
observing the increase in strain (or extension) with time. A typical extension-
time curve is shown in Figure. Three regions can be readily identified on the
curve:

1 to 2 Primary Creep:
Creep proceeds at a diminishing rate due to work hardening of the
metal.

2 to 3 Secondary Creep:
Creep proceeds at a constant rate because a balance is achieved between
the work hardening and annealing (thermal softening) processes.

3 to 4 Tertiary Creep:
The creep rate increases due to necking of the specimen and the
associated increase in local stress,
Failure occurs at point 4.
Apparatus
Creep Terminology

Creep strength: Creep strength of the material is defined as the

maximum stress that the material can withstand for a specified length of time
without excessive deformation.
Creep Rupture: Creep rupture strength of the material is the maximum
stress that the material can withstand for a specified length of time without
rupture

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a blank table of time v/s extension.
2. You will need a timer, with an accuracy of one second.
3. Put the weight hanger in position and fit its support pin in its highest
hole to hold the arm up and ready for the test specimen
4. Fit the specimen into place between the black support block and the
arm, and fit the pins
5. Put the transparent cover into place around the specimen. Make sure
that the thermometer is in its hole in the top of the cover and its tip is
near to the specimen. Wait for at least five minutes for the temperature
reading to stabilize, and then record the temperature around the
specimen.
6. Fit a suitable weight to the Weight Hanger, to give a stress that gives the
longest test time that you can allow.
7. Carefully remove the Weight Hanger support pin from the highest hole
in the Weight Hanger.
8. Switch on the digital indicator and press its button to set its display to
zero.
9. Lift the Weight Hanger and support it while you fit the support pin in
the lowest hole.
 10.Gently (and at the same time) - let go of the Weight Hanger and start
your timer.
11.Record the specimen extension every 30 seconds (0.5 minutes), until it
fractures or stops extending due to the limits of the machine.
12.Repeat the test on new specimens at higher loads (stresses), so that you
have a set of at least two more stress results.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Tabulate the results and plot the graph of strain against time.

Load (N):
Temperature (°C):
Time ∆L Strain (ε)

RESULT: The general trend of creep curve of a material is relatively same

for different temperature.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. How will you measure the strain values in a creep test that occurs at
elevated temperatures?
2. How will the graph change for creep with increase in temperature
during the test?
3. How will the graph change for creep with increase in load during the
test?
4. Name two structural or machine members in which creep strength is an
important property.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: To determine flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete using
simple beam with third-point loading.

THEORY:
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in compression and weak in tension.
In reinforced concrete members, little dependence is placed on the tensile
strength of concrete since steel reinforcing bars are provided to resist all
tensile forces. However, tensile stresses are likely to develop in concrete due to
drying shrinkage, rusting of steel reinforcement, temperature gradients and
many other reasons.
When concrete is subjected to bending, tensile and bending compressive
stresses and in many cases, direct shear stresses are developed. The most
common plain concrete structure subjected to flexure is a highway pavement
and the strength of concrete for pavements is commonly evaluated by means
of bending test. Flexural test intended to give the flexural strength of concrete
in tension. The flexural test is also more easily carried out and may even be
more convenient than the crushing test use in field, since in this test much
smaller loads are required. The loading pattern on the beam is called the
third-point/two-point loading. The main advantage of third-point loading is
that, the behavior of the beam can be studied under pure bending as there is
no shear at the central portion of the beam.

Apparatus: Flexural Testing Machine, Beam mould of size 15×15×70 cm

(when size of aggregate is less than 38 mm) or of size 10×10×50 cm (when size
of aggregate is less than 19 mm).

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of Test setup according to ASTM C 78 (a) Centre

point load test (b) Three point load test
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3
layers of approximately equal thickness. Tamp each layer 35 times
using the tamping bar as specified above. Tamping should be
distributed uniformly over the entire cross section of the beam mould
and throughout the depth of each layer.
2. Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers, and
remove any loose sand or other material from the surfaces of the
specimen where they are to make contact with the rollers.
3. Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with
diameter 38 mm will be used for providing support and loading points
to the specimens. The length of the rollers shall be at least 10 mm more
than the width of the test specimen. A total of four rollers shall be used,
three out of which shall be capable of rotating along their own axes. The
distance between the outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance
between the inner rollers shall be d. The inner rollers shall be equally
spaced between the outer rollers, such that the entire system is
systematic.
4. The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal
from water; whilst they are still wet. The test specimen shall be placed
in the machine correctly centered with the longitudinal axis of the
specimen at right angles to the rollers. For moulded specimens, the
mould filling direction shall be normal to the direction of loading.

The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0 cm
specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

CALCULATION:

The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by:

fb = 𝑷𝑳/𝒃𝒅𝟐 (when a > 20.0 cm for 15.0 cm specimen or > 13.0 cm

for 10 cm specimen)
OR
fb = 𝟑𝑷𝒂/ 𝒃𝒅 (when a < 20.0 cm but > 17.0 for 15.0 cm specimen
𝟐

or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0 cm for 10.0 cm specimen.)

 where,
a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support,
measured on the center line of the tensile side of the specimen
b = width of specimen (cm)
d = failure point depth (cm)
l = supported length (cm)
p = max. Load (N)

RESULT: The The average flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of

specimen is …………….. N/mm².

PRECAUTIONS:

 Use hand gloves while, safety shoes at the time of test.

 After test switch off the machine.
 Keep all the exposed metal parts greased.
 Keep the guide rods firmly fixed to the base & top plate.
 Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the relationship of flexural strength of concrete with its

compressive strength?
2. What is the significance of moment of inertia with respect to bending
stress?
3. What is cracking load?