EZNEC User Manual

Table Of Contents
Welcome.................................................................................................................1 Introduction.............................................................................................................2 Acknowledgements.............................................................................................2 Acknowledgement and Special Thanks: Jordan Russell and Inno Setup.......4 Acknowledgement: vbAcellerator Software.....................................................4 Acknowledgement: Info-Zip Software..............................................................4 Acknowledgement: Scintilla Software.............................................................4 A Few Words About Copy Protection..................................................................4 Standard EZNEC:............................................................................................4 EZNEC Pro:.....................................................................................................5 Guarantee............................................................................................................5 Amateur or Professional?....................................................................................5 Notes For International Users.............................................................................6 Getting Started........................................................................................................8 A Few Essentials.................................................................................................8 What's New in v. 5.0............................................................................................8 Insertion Objects..............................................................................................9 Transformers...................................................................................................9 L Networks.......................................................................................................9 Parallel Connected Loads...............................................................................9 A common problem in modeling with EZNEC has been the connection of a load in parallel with a source or transmission line, because a load, unlike other insertion objects, is connected in series with any other insertion object in the same segment. EZNEC v. 5.0 introduces the parallel connected load which as the name implies is connected in parallel rather than series with other insertion objects......................................................................................9 Transmission Line Loss...................................................................................9 Y Parameter Networks (EZNEC Pro only)....................................................10 What Was New in v. 4.0....................................................................................10 Undo/Redo.....................................................................................................10 Control Center Menus....................................................................................11 Segments.......................................................................................................11 Segmentation Check (formerly Guideline Check).........................................11 Geometry Check............................................................................................11 Wires Window Features................................................................................11 View Antenna Display....................................................................................12 Circular Polarization (plus and pro only).......................................................12 Plot Displays..................................................................................................12 Calculating Engines.......................................................................................12 Wire Insulation...............................................................................................12 Improved Printing...........................................................................................13 Easy Import of Wire Coordinates from NEC Files (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only)...............................................................................................................13 Multiple Instances (EZNEC Pro only)............................................................13

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Table Of Contents Other..............................................................................................................13 If You Downloaded EZNEC...............................................................................14 Getting Acquainted with EZNEC.......................................................................14 Making a Desktop Shortcut...............................................................................15 EZNEC Pro Users.............................................................................................15 Printing The Manual..........................................................................................15 Program Version Compatibility..........................................................................16 Test Drive..............................................................................................................17 Test Drive Introduction......................................................................................17 Along The Straightaway....................................................................................17 Through The Curves.........................................................................................22 On The Race Course........................................................................................27 A Lap Around Track 5.......................................................................................30 Building The Model...............................................................................................36 Introduction to Modeling....................................................................................36 Modeling With EZNEC......................................................................................36 Opening The Description File............................................................................37 Modeling The Antenna Structure: Wires...........................................................37 About Wires...................................................................................................37 Segmentation.................................................................................................40 Using The Wires Window..............................................................................41 Wire Coordinate Shortcuts............................................................................44 Wire Loss.......................................................................................................46 Wire Insulation...............................................................................................47 Importing Wire Coordinates...........................................................................48 Other Wire Considerations............................................................................48 Advanced Wire Features...............................................................................49 Advanced Wire Features Introduction.......................................................49 Loop Creation.............................................................................................49 Loop Resizing............................................................................................49 Radial Creation..........................................................................................49 Helix Creation.............................................................................................50 Wire Grid Creation.....................................................................................50 Stepped Diameter Correction........................................................................51 Stepped Diameter Correction Overview....................................................51 Using the Stepped Diameter Correction Display.......................................53 Some Special Cases.....................................................................................53 Acute Angles..............................................................................................53 Buried Wires...............................................................................................54 Closely Spaced Wires................................................................................54 Crossed Dipoles.........................................................................................55 Elevated Radial Systems...........................................................................56 Feedlines and Baluns................................................................................57 Linear Loaded Antennas............................................................................57 Log Periodic Antennas...............................................................................57 Phased Arrays............................................................................................58

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EZNEC User Manual Small Loops...............................................................................................58 Stacked Yagis............................................................................................59 Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials.......................................................60 Wire Grid Modeling....................................................................................61 Yagi Antennas............................................................................................62 Insertion Objects...............................................................................................62 About Insertion Objects.................................................................................62 Placing Insertion Objects On Segments........................................................63 Using Insertion Objects Windows..................................................................64 Using Sources...................................................................................................64 About Sources...............................................................................................64 Source Types.................................................................................................65 Using The Sources Window..........................................................................66 Plane Wave Excitation...................................................................................67 Plane Wave Overview (EZNEC Pro only)..................................................67 Specifying Plane Wave Excitation.............................................................67 Plane Wave Excitation With a Ground Plane............................................68 Interpreting Plane Wave Results...............................................................69 Source Placement.........................................................................................69 Source Placement Precautions..................................................................69 Placing Sources On Segments..................................................................71 Placing Sources At Wire Junctions............................................................71 Connecting Sources to Ground..................................................................72 Multiple Sources............................................................................................72 Using Multiple Sources..............................................................................72 Phased Arrays............................................................................................73 Using Loads.......................................................................................................73 About Loads...................................................................................................73 Load Types....................................................................................................74 Load Connections..........................................................................................74 Placing Loads At Wire Junctions...................................................................75 Loading Coils.................................................................................................75 Traps..............................................................................................................75 Using The Loads Windows............................................................................76 Load Types And The Loads Window.........................................................76 The R + j X Loads Window........................................................................76 The RLC Loads Window............................................................................77 The Laplace Loads Window.......................................................................78 Using Transmission Lines.................................................................................79 About Transmission Lines.............................................................................79 Using The Transmission Lines Window........................................................80 Transmission Line Loss.................................................................................82 Modeling Coaxial Cable.................................................................................83 Using Transformers...........................................................................................84 Transformers.................................................................................................84 Using The Transformers Window..................................................................85

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Table Of Contents Using L Networks..............................................................................................86 L Networks.....................................................................................................86 Using the L Networks Window.......................................................................87 Using Y Parameter Networks............................................................................88 Y Parameter Networks (EZNEC Pro only)....................................................88 Using the Y Parameter Networks Window....................................................88 Modeling Ground...............................................................................................89 About Ground Models....................................................................................89 Real Ground Types........................................................................................90 MININEC-type............................................................................................91 High Accuracy............................................................................................91 Limitations of Real Ground Models...............................................................92 Using The Media Window..............................................................................93 Using Two Ground Media..............................................................................93 Connecting Wires to Ground.........................................................................94 Connecting to High Accuracy Ground...........................................................94 The NEC Radial Model..................................................................................95 Interpreting The Results........................................................................................97 Currents.............................................................................................................97 Load Data..........................................................................................................98 Source Data.......................................................................................................98 Far Field Table..................................................................................................99 Near Field Table................................................................................................99 Far Field Patterns............................................................................................100 Reference............................................................................................................102 Features..........................................................................................................102 Alternative 2D Plot Grid...............................................................................102 Antenna Notes.............................................................................................102 Automatic Segmentation.............................................................................103 Average Gain...............................................................................................103 Combining Antenna Descriptions................................................................104 EZNEC Editor..............................................................................................104 Frequency Sweep........................................................................................105 Geometry Check..........................................................................................107 Ground Wave Analysis................................................................................109 Group Modify...............................................................................................110 Near Field Analysis......................................................................................110 Writing IONCAP/VOACAP Files (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only)...................111 Options.....................................................................................................111 Rescaling.....................................................................................................112 Segment Length Tapering...........................................................................113 Segmentation Check ..................................................................................114 Stepped Diameter Correction......................................................................115 SWR Graph.................................................................................................115 TraceView....................................................................................................115 Starting TraceView...................................................................................115

EZNEC User Manual Running TraceView..................................................................................115 Ending TraceView....................................................................................116 Undo/Redo...................................................................................................116 Virtual Segments.........................................................................................116 The Control Center..........................................................................................117 Control Center Introduction.........................................................................117 The Control Center Menus..........................................................................118 Control Center Menus Introduction..........................................................118 File............................................................................................................118 Edit...........................................................................................................119 Options.....................................................................................................119 Outputs.....................................................................................................125 Setups......................................................................................................125 View..........................................................................................................125 Utilities......................................................................................................125 Help..........................................................................................................126 Information Window and Action Buttons.....................................................126 Control Center Selections........................................................................126 Action Buttons..........................................................................................128 The Graphics Windows...................................................................................129 Graphics Windows Overview.......................................................................129 Graphics Windows Sections........................................................................129 Graphics Windows Menus...........................................................................130 File............................................................................................................130 Edit...........................................................................................................131 View..........................................................................................................131 Options.....................................................................................................132 Reset (2D, 3D, View Antenna only).........................................................132 Creating Graphics Files...............................................................................132 Using The View Antenna Display................................................................132 Using The 2D Display..................................................................................135 Using The 3D Display..................................................................................137 Using The SWR Display..............................................................................138 EZNEC Pro Information...................................................................................138 EZNEC Pro Section Note............................................................................138 EZNEC Pro And NEC..................................................................................139 Working With NEC Format Files..................................................................140 Very Large Models.......................................................................................143 Double Precision Operation ........................................................................145 Controlling Memory Use..............................................................................145 MaxAbsRAMUsedK = #...........................................................................147 MaxAbsRAMUsedPct = #........................................................................147 MaxQualRAMUsedPct = #.......................................................................147 Using An External NEC-4 Engine (EZNEC Pro/4 Only)..............................147 Please note..............................................................................................148 Running EZNEC Pro/4 with an external NEC-4 program........................148

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Table Of Contents Tips for Running DOS Programs.............................................................148 Limitations................................................................................................149 Incompatibility..........................................................................................149 NEC-4.1 Medium Height Bug...................................................................150 Additional Information......................................................................................150 Software Incompatibilities............................................................................150 The Calculation Progress Window..............................................................151 Reinstalling or Copying EZNEC..................................................................152 LastZ.txt file.................................................................................................153 Parallel Connected Loads Polarity..............................................................153 Polarity Differences Between Series and Parallel Connected Loads......153 Special Options............................................................................................155 OpenPF Plot File Format.............................................................................157 Header ....................................................................................................159 Data Blocks .............................................................................................159 NOP Block................................................................................................160 Rest of block............................................................................................160 Relative Far Field Blocks.........................................................................160 Absolute Near and Far Field Blocks.......................................................162 Smith Chart Programs.................................................................................164 MicroSmith...............................................................................................164 winSMITH.................................................................................................164 Input File Formats........................................................................................164 Frequency Sweep Input File....................................................................164 Wire Coordinate File................................................................................165 First Format Type: All program types...................................................165 Second Format Type: EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only...............................168 Legal Notices......................................................................................................170 Legal Disclaimer..............................................................................................170 License Agreement.........................................................................................171 SINGLE USE SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT.....................................171 Copyright and Trademark Notice....................................................................172 NEC-4 Notices.................................................................................................172 Third Party Software Legal Notices.................................................................172 vbAccelerator...............................................................................................172 Info-ZIP........................................................................................................173 Scintilla.........................................................................................................174 Support................................................................................................................176 Updates (Maintenance Releases)...................................................................176 Reporting bugs................................................................................................176 How to Contact Me..........................................................................................177 Index...................................................................................................................178

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Welcome
Welcome to EZNEC version 5.0! This manual has been written to cover all EZNEC program types, both standard and professional. Sections which don't apply to all program types are identified; otherwise, all references in the manual to EZNEC apply equally to EZNEC+ and EZNEC Pro programs EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4. It's assumed that you know basic Windows operation, such as clicking, dragging, and selecting, and references will occasionally be made to common Windows tools such as Notepad or the Windows Explorer. Please consult your Windows documentation if you're not familiar with basic Windows techniques. Comments about this manual are always welcome and will be read, although a prompt personal reply might not always be practical. Please send comments and suggestions to [email protected]. Manual updates are included in the EZNEC maintenance releases which are available as they're developed. Please see Updates for details. EZNEC is a registered trademark of Roy W. Lewallen. All rights are reserved.

Introduction
Acknowledgements
This program would not be possible without the help of the people who tested the program during its development stages. These testers have provided invaluable suggestions for new features and improvement of existing ones, ways to make the user interface easier to use, and scrutiny of the manual. And, of course, they've found and reported many bugs and actively helped in tracking them down. This has occurred for every version of EZNEC and its predecessor ELNEC. Since each version has built upon the previous ones, the people who have helped with any version have made a very substantial contribution to the present one. I am grateful and indebted to all. I hasten to add, however, that shortcomings of the program and remaining bugs are entirely my responsibility and not at all theirs. The following people were involved in the testing of the present version as it was developed. Their help and suggestions, and the considerable amount of time they willingly contributed, are gratefully acknowledged: Steve Best, VE9SRB L.B. Cebik, W4RNL Gerd Janzen, DF6SJ Dan Maguire, AC6LA Dan Richardson, K6MHE Dean Straw, N6BV Jim Streible, K4DLI Roger Steyaert, K7RXV EZNEC v. 5.0 is built upon v. 4.0, which underwent a great deal of development effort. I want to give very special thanks to four people who, for a period of over a year, tested and commented on over 30 alpha program revisions as features were added, tested, and modified. Their effort was exceptional, and neither version 4.0 nor 5.0 would not have been possible without them. They are: L.B. Cebik, W4RNL Dan Maguire, AC6LA Dan Richardson, K6MHE Dean Straw, N6BV A great, heartfelt thank-you to these wonderful folks. And many, many bugs were found, reported, and doggedly tracked down during the v. 4.0 beta testing phase by the above people, plus beta testers: Vil Arafiles Steve Best, VE9SRB Dave Rodman, KN2M Jim Streible, K4DLI Bert Barry, VE3QAA I'm indebted to all these people, for all their time, trouble, and valued comments, criticisms, and suggestions. They deserve a great deal of credit for EZNEC v. 4.0's better features, which you'll also enjoy in v. 5.0. 2

Introduction Although I've listed a call sign beside most of the testers' names, several of them are also professionals actively involved in antenna design. Speaking of which. . . This manual will be read by both professional and amateur users, so I'll like to emphasize one point. Although amateur radio callsigns are listed for most of the fine people acknowledged below, many in fact most of them are highly experienced and regarded professionals in addition to being licensed amateurs. Please take a look at "Amateur or Professional?" for a little more about this topic. A special thank-you to Dick Green, WC1M, for his extensive and valuable help in tracking down a very elusive bug which affected only a few systems and couldn't be duplicated here. Version 4.0 began as 3.0, and four people patiently reviewed the more than 30 "alpha" versions of EZNEC v. 3.0 as features were activated and debugged. They are: Gary Breed, K9AY L.B. Cebik, W4RNL Ed Farmer, P.E., AA6ZM Roger Steyaert, K7RXV These gentlemen continued on to provide help and encouragement during the extended beta testing phase, and were joined by the following people: John Devoldere, ON4UN; Linley Gumm, P.E., K7HFD; Rus Healy, K2UA; Prof. Dr. Gerd Janzen, DF6SJ; Dick Kiefer, P.E., K0DK; Dean Straw, N6BV; and C.H. "Buck" Walter. Many others offered to help test the program, and I thank them, but I was regrettably unable to constructively process the input from a larger group. Valuable help in discovering and tracking down bugs after product release has been provided by Leland Scott, KC8LDO. Thanks also to others who have reported bugs, provided important information, and when necessary have downloaded and run diagnostic programs to help me find and fix them. The fundamental computation portion of this program is that of NEC-2 and/or NEC-4. Many people have contributed to the development of these codes, but in recent years the major contributors have been G.J. Burke and A.J. Poggio of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Without their monumental effort this program would not be possible. EZNEC v. 5.0 has evolved from earlier versions and from its predecessor ELNEC, and the extensive help from the testers of earlier versions is instrumental in its success. These include: Dr. Dick Adler, K3CXZ; Dr. Jack Belrose, VE2CV; Gary Breed, K9AY; Jim Bromley, W5GYJ; John Brosnahan, W0UN; Paul Carr, P.E., N4PC; Dr. L.B. Cebik, W4RNL; Dr. Al Christman, K3LC; Bill Clarke, WA4BLC; Tony DeBiasi, K2SG; Ed Farmer, P.E., AA6ZM; Dick Gardner, N1AYW; Ernie Guerri, W6MGI; Linley Gumm, P.E., K7HFD; Jerry Hall, K1TD; Ed Hanlon; Bob Haviland, W4MB; Wes Hayward, W7ZOI; Dick Kiefer, P.E., K0DK; Doug McGarrett, WA2SAY; Bob Rullman, K7MSH; Jim Sanford, WB4GCS; Roger Steyaert, K7RXV; C.H. "Buck" Walter; and Dean Straw, N6BV.

EZNEC User Manual I want to give special thanks to L.B. Cebik, W4RNL, who has consistently provided a tremendous amount of help during the development and testing of this and several previous versions. Thanks to all the EZNEC users who took the time to send in their suggestions, and those who have patiently waited for this version. Finally, but foremost, thanks to my family for being understanding and supportive during the many, many hours I've spent away from them working on this program.

Acknowledgement and Special Thanks: Jordan Russell and Inno Setup

All variations of EZNEC version 4.0.31 and later use the open source Inno Setup installer, created by Jordan Russell. This is a tremendously rich and powerful but easy to use installer. I'm very grateful to the author and any other contributors who have obviously put in a tremendous amount of effort in developing this fine application and have made it available to be freely used at no charge. It wasn't chosen for EZNEC because it's free it was chosen because it's simply the best installer available, at any cost, for the job.

Acknowledgement: vbAcellerator Software

This product includes software developed by vbAccelerator (http://vbaccelerator.com/). I thank vbAccelerator for generously making this high quality software available at no charge. The full license statement and disclaimer is in the Legal Notices section of this manual, Third Party Software Legal Notices.

Acknowledgement: Info-Zip Software

All EZNEC program types make use of file compression and decompression software which is generously provided free of charge by Info-ZIP. A list of contributors to this project can be found in the Third Party Software Legal Notices section of this manual.

Acknowledgement: Scintilla Software

All EZNEC program types make use of Scintilla editor software which is generously provided free of charge by Neil Hodgson (scintilla.org). The full license statement and disclaimer is in the Legal Notices section of this manual, Third Party Software Legal Notices section of this manual.

A Few Words About Copy Protection

Standard EZNEC:
A friend of mine made the observation that a conscience is kind of like a little wheel with sharp teeth that spins and digs into you. But each time it does, he said, the teeth wear down a little so the next time it's not quite as sharp. Eventually, if you use it enough, there aren't any teeth left. If the teeth on your

Introduction wheel are worn all the way down, what I'm about to say won't reach you anyway so you may as well skip the rest of this section. Copy protection is a big nuisance to both the user and the software developer. It also can necessitate an increase in price. That's a lousy deal -- more nuisance for a higher price. That's why this software is not copy protected. Yet copying it is easier than ripping off a Walkman from K-Mart, with zero chance of getting caught (although it's just as illegal and dishonest). So it's pretty risky to put the product out without copy protection. I'm well aware that sellers of similar programs have had to copy- protect their programs to prevent such theft. Theft? You bet! Over a year of virtually full-time work have gone into developing just this version of this program and refining it to make it useful and easy for you to use, and over two years for the first Windows version. (Other expenses, like advertising, aren't cheap either!) So please, when someone asks you for a copy of the program, realize that he or she is asking you to steal. Politely say no, but tell them where they can order a copy (http://eznec.com). It's a bargain at the price, it'll save future users more nuisance and a higher price, and it'll save the wear on your conscience wheel. Thanks.

EZNEC Pro:
This software is protected by a hardware key. Every effort has been made to make the protection system as reliable and easily usable as possible. It not only protects the developer from theft of software which has taken literally thousands of hours to develop, but also protects you, the user, from having to compete with those who might otherwise use the same tools without having paid for them. All comments about this copy protection method, both positive and negative, are solicited and welcome.

Guarantee
If you're not completely satisfied with EZNEC, I'll promptly refund the full purchase price. There is no time limit to this guarantee for the standard and plus programs, and it's good for 90 days after the purchase of EZNEC Pro. This is my only guarantee, but I honor it rigorously. Please refer to the Legal Disclaimer for specifics.

Amateur or Professional?
Early versions of EZNEC and EZNEC Pro have had separate manuals. Besides the obvious difference of EZNEC Pro's additional features, the manuals were written with a bit different orientation, with an eye toward the most likely level of technical expertise of their respective users. Since then, the manuals have been combined. Because maintaining two or more separate manuals involves a great deal of extra time, combining them frees that time to be put to use in improving the program itself. Even the standard EZNEC program has an extremely diverse user base. It's purchased and used by amateurs who have very little technical background in electrical fundamentals, let alone electromagnetics or antenna design. It's also used by the U.S. and foreign military services, aerospace companies, defense 5

EZNEC User Manual contractors, international broadcasters, universities, and so forth. Add to that the EZNEC Pro users, and you have an idea of the enormous range of background knowledge represented by the readers of this manual. So please, for those of you who are more knowledgeable, don't be insulted if some concepts are explained more simply than you're accustomed to. And for those with less experience, don't think for a minute that an effort is being made to snow you. The sole objective here is to communicate, and give you the information you need to get the most from EZNEC, whichever program type you're using. The only relevant question is whether you get from this manual the information you need. If I fail to communicate, the fault is mine, and I'd like very much to hear where I failed. With today's tools it's not difficult to modify the manual, and your input will help improve it and make it more useful to others. So please let me know when you run across problems with the manual. I apologize in advance for not always being able to respond personally and promptly. But your comments will be read, and they will be acted upon. Please send your comments to [email protected] I'm sometimes asked if there are any restrictions on professional use of the standard program. No, there are none at all, and in fact it's widely used for a wide variety of professional purposes. The distinction between program types is only in price and features, not in how they're used. The other side of that coin is that people wanting to use the professional version for strictly amateur purposes pay the same price for the professional version as everyone else. The only use restriction on any program is that only one person can use the program at one time unless corresponding additional copies are purchased. Like many, many EZNEC and EZNEC Pro users, I also wear two hats, so welcome to both amateur and professional customers. I'm one of you both. 73, Roy Lewallen, P.E., W7EL

Notes For International Users

Although EZNEC is currently offered only in an English language version, a very sizeable fraction of its users are outside the U.S. or even English-speaking countries. A great deal of effort has been made to make EZNEC work correctly on computers set for the standards of other countries. This means that if a comma (,) is set as the decimal separator by the Windows Control Panel Regional Settings, all numbers should be displayed with that convention, and all numerical inputs are designed to accept that convention. (The decimal separator is automatically chosen according to your language preference. However, it can be changed to another character via the Regional Settings if desired.) You must use the separator chosen for the computer when entering numbers into EZNEC. (There are a few exceptions to this, detailed below.) Dates should be displayed according to your standard. All outputs should print correctly on A4 as well as U.S. sized paper, and the program should otherwise operate normally in all respects. If you encounter any operation, at any time, which requires you to enter

Introduction or view data in a format other than the standard convention for your country, please let me know. Of course, all details you provide will be helpful.
Exceptions

EZNEC might be unable to correctly format numbers when run on some operating systems if both the decimal and thousands separators are set to characters which aren't standard for the region of operation. If the setting causes a problem, EZNEC will detect it and show an error message when the program starts. A period (.) is used as the decimal separator in all comma-delimited output files such as Lastz.txt. Comma-delimited output files are intended to be used for importing data into spreadsheets and other such programs. In this format, fields are separated with commas, so the period must be used for decimals. It is also used for IONCAP/VOACAP and Smith chart program files which expect this convention. EZNEC Pro only: NEC-format files read and written by EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4 use the U.S. standard, because most compiled versions of NEC-2 and NEC-4 expect and produce files using this convention. Please let me know if you have any information to the contrary, or if you see any indication that EZNEC is not producing or interpreting these files with U.S. conventions. Thousands separators are not used in EZNEC. However, certain settings of this option might cause a problem. See the first paragraph in the Exceptions section.

Getting Started
A Few Essentials
First, please make one or more backup copies of your program! Read the Reinstalling or Copying EZNEC section for important information. Next, a story. Once at the Dayton Hamvention, a very skeptical and critical person was asking rapid-fire pointed questions about EZNEC, which I made every effort to answer directly and honestly in spite of his combative nature. This approach somewhat dampened the desired effect of intimidation, so finally in desperation, he nearly shouted, "Does your program have bugs?!!" To which I immediately replied, "Yes! In fact, I guarantee that it has bugs and will always have bugs. No matter how many are found and fixed, some will always remain. They will never all be found. I'm incapable of writing a program as complex as EZNEC which is entirely free of bugs, and I doubt that anyone else could do it either." He got uncharacteristically quiet. "So," I said, "I do the next best thing. Whenever a bug is found and reported, I fix it as quickly as I can and issue an update. This is uploaded to my web site where any user can download it to update his program to the latest revision at any time. No one will have a program with any known bugs for any longer than it takes me to track down and fix the most recent one found." At that point, he faded back into the crowd. I've made every effort to eliminate program bugs, and consider a bug to be unacceptable and something to be corrected as quickly as possible. But as I told the fellow, there will always be some lurking. It's unlikely that you'll ever encounter one, but if you do, please report it so it can be found and fixed. And program crashes are not normal operation and if one happens it's not something you did wrong! You should not be able to crash the program no matter what you do. Please see Reporting Bugs and Updates for more information. Third, some users don't realize that EZNEC features context sensitive help. Whenever you want more information about the current menu, window, or display, press the F1 key. From most locations, this will open the manual to the appropriate section. Please notify me if you see the menu opening to the wrong place. Finally, enjoy using EZNEC! I guarantee you'll learn from it, as I continue to do. Roy Lewallen

What's New in v. 5.0

This topic describes the differences between v. 5.0 and the previous version, 4.0. If you're upgrading directly from v. 3.0 to 5.0, please also see What Was New in v. 4.0. EZNEC v. 5.0 marks the transition of EZNEC from an antenna analysis tool to an antenna system analysis tool. The new Transformer and L Network objects, in addition to the ability to include transmission line loss, extend the modeling capability for the first time from the antenna all the way back to the transmitter. Array phasing networks, tuners, impedance matching networks, along with 8

Getting Started realistic effects from transmission line loss, can now be part of the model. For the first time, the performance of the entire system can be seen. New tutorial topic A Lap Around Track 5 covers use of virtual segments, L networks, and transformers. It's intended for users who are already familiar with basic EZNEC operation.

Insertion Objects
Not a new feature, but a new designation for the objects which can be inserted into a wire. These include the sources, loads, and transmission lines of previous versions, plus the new transformers, L networks, and Y parameter networks described below. They share a number of properties besides being inserted in wires, hence the new collective name of Insertion Objects. Program Names EZNEC Pro programs EZNEC-M and EZNEC/4 have been renamed EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4 respectively. As before, the sole difference is the availability in EZNEC Pro/4 of NEC-4 calculating engines.

Transformers
Ideal transformers can now be connected between wires, between a transmission line and a source or wire, or in other places in a model.

L Networks
L Networks are powerful new objects which can be used to simulate a wide variety of networks, including phase shift and impedance matching networks. They can be cascaded to form pi, tee, and other more complex networks.

Parallel Connected Loads A common problem in modeling with EZNEC has been the connection of a load in parallel with a source or transmission line, because a load, unlike other insertion objects, is connected in series with any other insertion object in the same segment. EZNEC v. 5.0 introduces the parallel connected load which as the name implies is connected in parallel rather than series with other insertion objects. Transmission Line Loss
Loss can now be included in transmission line objects. If desired, the amount of loss can be made to automatically vary with frequency at approximately the same rate as a real transmission line in the HF-UHF range. Wire Scaling You can now easily scale wires or a group of wires and, optionally, their diameters by a constant. See Scale Wires in Using The Wires Window. New 2D Plot Grid Style A new grid style is offered for the 2D pattern plot. An advantage of the new style is a half-circle display when ground is specified, allowing larger plots. The

EZNEC User Manual traditional style is still available if preferred. The choice appears in the Control Center Options menu, 2D Plot Grid Style selection. When using the new style grid with a linear plot scale, you can also select the value represented by the center of the plot. Additional Impedance Displays (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) There are several new ways to display the impedances from an SWR sweep, besides the traditional SWR plot: reflection coefficient magnitude, return loss, and Smith chart. Note that the Smith chart is an impedance display only, and not a substitute for a Smith chart program that interactively aids in designing matching networks. Additional Advanced Wire Features (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) New, powerful features have been added to make multiple copies of wires (with each copy rotated and/or translated from the previous one if desired), generate a cylindrical structure, and reflect wires in one of the principal planes. See Making Multiple Offset and/or Rotated Copies of Wires, Making a Cylindrical Structure, and Reflecting Wires in a Plane in Using The Wires Window. These are replacements of the former EZNEC Pro-only feature of direct NEC 'card' entry, but are more versatile and easy to use. IONCAP/VOACAP file writing (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) EZNEC can write type 13 IONCAP/VOACAP files after running a 3D plot. These files contain gain data at every degree of azimuth and elevation in a defined format. Increased frequency sweep steps (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) Standard EZNEC allows up to 1,000 frequency steps for SWR and frequency sweeps. 10,000 are now permitted for EZNEC+ and 100,000 for EZNEC Pro.

Y Parameter Networks (EZNEC Pro only)

Y Parameter Networks can be used to simulate nearly any kind of two port network at a single frequency by defining the port characteristics with y parameters. Familiarity with y parameters is required for use, however. This is a direct implementation of the NEC network. Plane Wave Excitation (EZNEC Pro only) The model can be excited by a plane wave from a distant source, instead of being excited by conventional sources. This allows finding the scattering cross section and directly finding the output of a receiving antenna.

What Was New in v. 4.0

This topic describes the differences between v. 4.0 and the previous Windows version, 3.0. If you're upgrading from v. 4.0 and are familiar with it, you can skip this section and go to What's New in v. 5.0.

Undo/Redo
EZNEC v. 4.0 has unlimited undo/redo capability.

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Getting Started

Control Center Menus

The Plot menu no longer exists. Its functions have been moved to the Desc Options line in the Control Center Information Window. The Information Window now contains all the choices which are saved with the description file, except for the near field and frequency sweep setups, which remain in the Control Center Setups menu.

Segments
The new EZNEC+ program type permits 1500 segments. The EZNEC Pro program types (EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4) now allow 20,000. Note, however, that files as large as 6 GB can be written for the largest possible pro models at double precision, and calculation times can run to more than a day with 2 GHz machines.

Segmentation Check (formerly Guideline Check)

The EZNEC 3.0 " Guideline Check" has been renamed "Segmentation Check" to reduce confusion with the new Geometry Check (below). As before, the Segmentation Check is only run when opening a file and under a few other conditions, and its results won't inhibit calculations. It now takes into account the velocity factor when evaluating buried wires (EZNEC Pro/4 only), which can result in warnings in descriptions which didn't formerly generate any.

Geometry Check
EZNEC v. 3.0 has a Guideline Check feature to check the model against modeling guidelines for segment length. In EZNEC v. 4.0, this has been renamed Segmentation Check and a new Geometry Check feature has been added. This powerful feature, run automatically before each calculation, checks the model for errors such as wires crossing at other than a wire end or segment junction, wires occupying the same space or overlapping, or wires coming too close to each other.

Wires Window Features

There are a number of new, powerful features in the Wires Window Wire menu: Rotate Wires, Move Wires XYZ, Stack, Copy Wires (which allows making offset copies), and Change Loop Size. These can be used with a group of selected wires, or with a sequential group of wires selected after choosing the action to perform. There's a new Create menu, with the familiar Create Radials and, for EZNEC Pro users, Create Wire Grid. Check out the two new additions, Create Helix and Create Loop. Create Loop and Change Loop Size should be of particular interest to quad designers, although they're useful for many other applications. The new "Rotate Wires" feature shouldn't be confused with the Elevation Rotate End and Azimuth Rotate End features accessed by right-clicking a wire end cell present in both v. 3.0 and 4.0. The new feature allows rotating any group of wires

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EZNEC User Manual around any axis, around the end or center of any wire, or around any point in space, while the right-click feature rotates a single wire around one of its ends.

View Antenna Display

The display can now be moved by dragging while holding down the right mouse button, and zoomed by dragging while holding down both buttons. See Using The View Antenna Display. Because of the new use of the right mouse button, the Wire Information popup window appears when you pause the cursor over a wire. This behavior can be changed via the WireInfoDist Special Option.

Circular Polarization (plus and pro only)

There are several new 2D and 3D plot, and Far Field Table display options: right and left circular polarization, and linear component along the major and minor axis of an elliptically polarized field. These are selected via the new Desc Options line in the main Control Center window. Click Desc Options, then select the Plot tab, then the Fields tab. Note that the selection affects the 2D and 3D plots and the FF Table.

Plot Displays
Major enhancements have been made to the 2D plot display. When displaying multiple fields (e.g., Total, Vertical, and Horizontal), you can click on the field name in the list at the left of the display, and the cursor will move to that field. The data in the data window will reflect the values for that field. When you add saved traces to the display, you can view only one field at a time, selected via the Mult Trc Fld choice in the 2D plot window View menu. There, you can choose among the fields selected in the main window Desc Options dialog box for the normal 2D display. If you add traces to the display, clicking on the name of any added trace file at the left of the display will move the cursor to that trace, and the data in the data window will reflect the value for that trace. Also, an extra line will appear in the right column of the data window, giving the field strength of the selected trace relative to the primary trace at the cursor angle. The minimum step size for the 3D plot is now 1 degree instead of 2.

Calculating Engines
There's now a fully double-precision NEC-2 engine choice (plus and pro only), selected via the Control Center Options menu. All calculating engines are faster than before, most notably in the calculation of currents. The amount of speed improvement depends on which engine you've selected, what portion of the total calculation time is needed for the calculation of currents, and the type of CPU you have. But it can be quite spectacular with the NEC-2 engines, in particular. In program types allowing a choice of more than one calculating engine, the choice is shown just above the FF Plot button in the Control Center.

Wire Insulation
EZNEC v. 4.0 has the capability of including the effect of wire insulation. See the new Wire Insulation topic for more information. 12

Getting Started

Improved Printing
If you chose other than the default printer in EZNEC 3.0, your choice would become the system default printer. Also, many printer property choices were ignored by EZNEC 3.0. These deficiencies have been corrected.

Easy Import of Wire Coordinates from NEC Files (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only)
An additional format is allowed for importing wire coordinates from an ASCII file: the NEC GW "card" format. See the Wire Coordinate File topic for more information. This is the "second format" discussed in that topic.

Multiple Instances (EZNEC Pro only)

Multiple instances are permitted in the pro programs, including doing simultaneous calculations. The instance number is identified by a number in parentheses in the title bar of each window. (EZNEC Pro/4 only): An external NEC-4 program can be run only from the first instance.

Other
Multiple Instances -- EZNEC 3.0 permitted multiple instances to be operating at the same time, provided that calculations weren't run. Because of the way certain new features were implemented, the v. 4.0 standard and plus program types don't allow more than one copy to run at once. Ground -- The Real, Fast (reflection coefficient) ground type is no longer available. With today's machines, the saving in calculation time over the HighAccuracy (Sommerfeld) ground isn't significant, and the Fast option is limited in accuracy with low antennas. Description files with Fast ground specified are converted to High Accuracy when opening, and will be saved with High Accuracy ground. Loads -- When you convert from R + jX to RLC type loads (either directly or due to combining descriptions with different load types), you now have the option of conversion to a parallel RL or RC equivalent. Wire Connections -- Wire end coordinates will always be modified to be identical if the wire ends are deemed connected (same coordinates within about 1/1000 segment length), because NEC always does this. It was formerly an option (Options menu Auto Coord Match), but no longer is. LastZ.txt (EZNEC pro only): LastZ.txt files for instances beyond the first will persist in the EZW program directory as LastZ_N.txt, where N is the instance number. The file for the first instance will still be simply LastZ.txt. Messages -- The tooltips can now be turned off, as well as the new message warning you if the description has changed before opening a new description, via Messages On/Off in the Options menu. Crash Recovery -- A feature that I hope won't see much use. . . if you should ever encounter a program crash (please report it!), the next time you start the program you'll get a prompt giving you the opportunity to recover to the model as it was just before the crash.

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EZNEC User Manual Ground Wave Analysis -- (EZNEC Pro only): Ground wave analysis can produce somewhat different phase angles for the polarization components than earlier versions, particularly when the observation point is many wavelengths from the origin. The cause is some slight changes in internal constants. The calculation of the phase at many wavelengths is sensitive to very small changes in these values. However, the important thing is the relative phases of the components, which remain very close to the same as in previous versions. NEC Format Files -- (EZNEC pro only): EZNEC Pro v. 4.0 can read GH (helix) and IS (wire insulation) "cards". EZNEC pro will accept a file if it contains at least one GW, GH, or GA "card" in addition to a source. New Special Option choice LD5Translation = First will cause EZNEC Pro to apply the wire loss parameters of the first LD5 "card" read as global Wire Loss, and ignore additional LD5 "cards".

If You Downloaded EZNEC

If you downloaded EZNEC, it came in the form of one file. Please back this up. Major changes to your computer system might necessitate a reinstallation of the program, and you'll need this file to do it (see Reinstalling or Copying EZNEC for important information.). And a virus or hard drive crash can corrupt or delete the file. If you aren't able to back up the file, please contact me to purchase the CD. The cost is nominal for people who have purchased the download. Updates (maintenance releases) will be available from time to time, and you should also keep the most recently downloaded update. See Updates for details. You will not be able to reinstall EZNEC or copy it to another machine by copying the files created by the installation process. You need the file you downloaded.

Getting Acquainted with EZNEC

The fastest way to get acquainted with EZNEC is to take the Test Drive. This leads you through some of the basic operations. After the Test Drive, you'll be ready to model simple antennas. Then as you progress and want to learn more, begin reading the Building The Model chapter. For detailed information about a window or menu, look in the Reference chapter. And, as you use EZNEC, press the F1 key when you have a question about a particular menu, control, or display. It's not possible to cover all menus, controls, and displays, but many of the important ones or ones particularly needing explanation do have links. If a link isn't present, the manual will open to an introductory section. The EZNEC manual might seem long and complex. This isn't because EZNEC is hard to use or learn, but because it has a rich set of features, and every effort has been made to explain them as thoroughly as possible. The combination of hyperlinks, detailed index, and comprehensive search capability make it easy to find information about any topic of interest. I'm sure you'll find EZNEC to be a valuable and educational tool.

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Getting Started

Making a Desktop Shortcut

When you install EZNEC on your machine, you'll get the option of creating a desktop shortcut. If you decline, you can still make one manually at any later time. Here's how to make a shortcut to EZNEC on your desktop. The precise wording might vary slightly from one operating system to the other. Right-click the Start button at the lower left of your Windows desktop. From the menu, chose "Explore" to open Windows Explorer. Navigate to the EZNEC program file directory (folder). If you selected the default directory during installation, this will be C:\Program Files\EZW. Otherwise, it will be whatever you specified at installation time. In the EZNEC program file directory, locate the file EZW.exe (standard or plus program), EZWpro.exe (pro programs), or EZWDemo50.exe (demo program). (You might not see the .exe part, depending on how you have Windows set up.) Right-click the appropriate .exe file and select "Send To" from the menu. From the next menu, select "Desktop (create shortcut)". You'll probably see a message telling you that, sure enough, Windows is going to do what you asked it to. When you click "Ok", the shortcut will be placed on your desktop. You can rename it if you like. Double-clicking it will start EZNEC. The program will open with a description file of your choice if you put its name on the command line in the shortcut properties, or when starting EZNEC from Windows Start/Run. Note that the path\EZW[pro|demo].exe combination has to be enclosed with quotation marks if it contains a space. You can also start EZNEC by dragging an EZNEC description (.EZ) file to the shortcut and dropping it. Or, if you chose to associate .EZ files with EZNEC during installation, simply by double-clicking any .EZ file in Windows Explorer.

EZNEC Pro Users

If you're acquainted with using NEC-2 or NEC-4, please review the EZNEC Pro And NEC section, which outlines some of the differences between these programs. You'll find other EZNEC Pro-specific information in the EZNEC Pro Information chapter of the Reference section under Additional Information.

Printing The Manual

Nearly all Windows software currently being sold uses a help system for a manual, as EZNEC does. I personally disliked help systems for some time, but after getting used to using them, have come to greatly prefer them to printed manuals. Among the advantages are the hyperlinks, or jumps, allowing instant movement between topics, and extensive indexing. However, many requests have been received from EZNEC users for a printed or printable manual. So a printable manual has been made available for those who want one. If you purchased EZNEC on a CD, you'll find the printable manual in the Printable Manual directory of the CD. The Readme.txt file in that directory contains information and instructions. If you don't have a CD, you can download the printable manual from http://eznec.com/ez50manual.htm. Please respect the

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EZNEC User Manual copyright. The manual is for use only by EZNEC customers and EZNEC demo users. The printed manual is generated from the help file by the software used to develop the help file. The conversion process may have some imperfections, so the resulting format isn't flawless. However, because the on-line help system is intended to be the primary manual for EZNEC, and any formatting changes would have to be repeated each time the manual is updated, comprehensive editing and correction of minor formatting flaws in the printable manual won't be undertaken. After some deliberation, it was decided to furnish the manual in Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) format. The free Adobe Reader, available from Adobe, is readily available via the web. An increasing number of other applications can also directly display and print these files. The printable manual comes in two versions, formatted for U.S. (8.5 X 11 inches) and A4 (210 X 297 mm) letter size paper. The integral manual (help file) is updated from time to time, the revised manual being part of program updates. When this occurs, the printable manuals at the web site are also updated.

Program Version Compatibility

A great deal of effort has been made to keep programs and description files compatible in both forward and reverse directions. This has been largely successful; ELNEC (EZNEC's predecessor) of 17 years ago can read and use today's EZNEC files, although source and load placement will require adjustment and most insertion objects, which didn't exist in ELNEC, will be ignored. Similarly, the earliest ELNEC files can be opened and read by the current version of EZNEC. All versions between are similarly compatible. However, because earlier versions can't be aware of the features which follow, a file created with a later version of EZNEC won't necessarily be complete when opened with an earlier version. In some cases it's been possible to adapt new features to retain full compatibility with older versions. For example, virtual segments didn't exist prior to EZNEC v. 5.0. But when a description file is saved, the virtual segments are converted to real segments on a distant wire so that earlier EZNEC versions can properly process the model. However, there's simply no equivalent to most new features. Transformers and L networks, for example, were introduced in EZNEC v. 5.0. There is no equivalent in earlier versions, so if a file containing these objects is opened with an earlier version, those objects will simply be missing. And there is likely no way any substitute can be devised, so it won't be possible to analyze the model with the earlier version. You can be assured that a new version will never be introduced which won't be able to read and analyze the description files you've saved with earlier versions!

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Test Drive
Test Drive Introduction
The best way to get familiar with EZNEC is to take it for a spin. Let's analyze a 20-meter dipole hung 30 feet up in the back yard. If you've started EZNEC, you should see the Control Center. The file Dipole1.ez is included with the program and should be installed at the proper location, so we'll start with that antenna and modify it as necessary. Notes: <Enter> means the Enter key, <ESC> is the Escape key. You can type any entry in uppercase, lowercase, or any combination. When text to be typed is surrounded by single or double quotation marks, don't type the quotation marks themselves. The Test Drive begins with Along The Straightaway.

Along The Straightaway

This exercise leads you through the creation of a simple dipole, and illustrates some of the basic steps in creating an EZNEC model. Most of the steps could be done in any order. The order of steps in this exercise is pretty much arbitrary. If you'd like to take a break before finishing the tutorial, you can simply end EZNEC by selecting Exit from the Control Center File menu, and the next time you start EZNEC, it will resume where you left off. Or you can save the description by selecting Save Description As from the File menu, or by clicking the Save As action button, and giving the file a name. Then you can open the description by selecting Open from the File menu, or clicking the Open action button, and specifying the name you used for saving. In the Control Center, locate the Open action button and click it. This will open a file selection dialog box. Select Dipole1.ez, or enter dipole1' in the "File name" text box and click Open. Click here if you have trouble. The bar at the top of the Control Center information window should now read "Dipole in free space" -- this is the title of the antenna description stored in file Dipole1. Let's enter a title for our back yard dipole. Click anywhere on the information window title bar (where the text "Dipole in free space" is), and a dialog box will open for you to enter the new name. Enter Back yard dipole', then click Ok or press the <Enter> key. Notice that the information window title bar now shows the new description name. Now let's change the frequency to 14 MHz -Click anywhere on the Frequency information window line, or on the selection button to its left. Enter 14' in the dialog text box, and click Ok or press <Enter>. Let's choose feet for a convenient unit of measure. (This isn't the most convenient for international users, but please select feet for this example.) Click on the Units line or the selection button to its left, then select Feet, and Ok.

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EZNEC User Manual The ground type for model Dipole1 is Free Space, and we'll want to model this antenna over ground. This will be taken care of after we define the wires and sources. Next we'll describe the antenna itself. EZNEC gives you the ability to see the modifications you're making as you make them. To take advantage of this powerful feature, open the View Antenna window by clicking the View Ant action button in the Control Center. In the View Antenna Window, click to open the View menu. If a checkmark appears next to Show Controls, click Show Controls to turn the control box off. Repeat for Show Data if it's also checked. This turns off the control and data boxes, which aren't needed now. Next, open the Wires Window by clicking on the Control Center "Wires" line, or the selection button to its left. Position the Wires and View Antenna Windows for convenient viewing. You can resize the View Antenna Window if desired by dragging a side or corner. It's ok to cover all or part of the Control Center for the time being. The Wires Window is where the wires of the antenna are actually defined. The position of each wire in space is specified by giving its x, y, and z coordinates. These coordinates represent distances from the origin. For example, look at the numbers in the Wires Window for Dipole1. It consists of one wire which extends along the y axis. The y coordinate of End 1 is about 0.82 feet, and the y coordinate of End 2 is about +0.82 feet, so the wire is about 1.64 feet long. You can confirm this by moving the mouse cursor to the y-axis line in the View Antenna display (where the wire is it might be a little hard to see at the moment) and leaving it still for a moment to open the Wire Information window. Alternatively, you can move put the mouse cursor over the selection button at the very left of Wire 1 in the Wires Window and right-click it. Dipole1 is a half wavelength long at about 300 MHz, so it's much too short for our 20 meter dipole. Let's make the wire the length we want. Assuming our back yard dipole was designed using 468/f(MHz) to determine the length, the length is 33.43 feet. EZNEC doesn't require any symmetry, and we're free to choose where in space we put the origin (except that it has to be at z = 0 if a ground is used) so for convenience we'll put one end of the wire at x,y = 0, 0 and the other at x,y = 0, 33.43. Placing it along the y axis makes the maximum lobes in the direction of the x axis. Ground is always defined as being at z = 0 (for the innermost medium). Since the antenna is horizontal and up 30 feet, the z coordinate of both ends is 30. To enter the coordinates, Click on the Wires Window cell for Wire No. 1, End 1, Y (where the current value is 0.82), and change the value to 0. Notice that the mark on the button at the left has changed to a pencil. This indicates that the row (wire) has been edited. Note also that the number you've entered is shown in red. This indicates an edited value. The edited value won't be accepted by EZNEC until you click on another row of the grid, move the insertion point off the row with the <Tab> or arrow keys, or press <Enter>. You can undo

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Test Drive an edited value, but only before it has been accepted, by pressing <Esc>. Pressing <Esc> again will undo all edited values in the row. Move to the next cell (End 1 Z) with the mouse or <Tab> key and enter 30. The coordinates of End 1 are now 0, 0, 30. Similarly, modify the End 2 coordinates to be 0, 33.43, 30. Finally, define the wire diameter. We'll assume the antenna will be made from 12 gauge (AWG) wire. In the "Diameter" column, enter #12'. (EZNEC will also accept the diameter in inches, or other appropriate units depending on the Control Center Units selection.) The last column is to define the number of segments for the wire. 11 is a reasonable number for pattern analysis of a half-wave antenna, so we don't need to change it. (We do need an odd number of segments so we can put our source in the middle of the wire.) Then press <Enter> so EZNEC will accept the values. Notice that the View Antenna display has changed to show what the new antenna looks like. You should see a horizontal wire parallel to, but above, the y axis. If you don't, go back to the Wires Window and correct the coordinates. End 1 coordinates should be x, y, z = 0, 0, 30, and End 2 coordinates should be 0, 33.43, 30. Move the mouse cursor to the wire in the View Antenna display, and leave it still for a moment to open the Wire Information window. The length of the wire should be 33.43 feet. If it isn't, correct the coordinates in the Wires Window. The next step is to define the source. This is connected at the point where the power is applied to the real antenna, in this case the center of the wire. Close the Wires Window by clicking the close button in the upper right corner (the small box with the "X" mark). Open the Sources Window by clicking on the Sources line in the Control Center information window, or on the selection button to its left. In the Sources Window grid, you can see that there's one source (source no. 1), which is placed on wire #1, 50% from end 1. This is where we want the source to be. However, this is a good time to practice a little with the Sources Window. In the Sources Window, locate the cell in the % From E1 column in the Specified Pos. group. Change the value from 50 to 25 and press <Enter>. This change had several effects. First, the value shown in the % From E1 column in the Actual Pos. group changed from 50 to 22.7273. When you specify a source (or load or transmission line) position, EZNEC attempts to place it as close as it can to the specified position. But it's restricted to placing the source in the center of a segment. (In reality, the source excitation is spread over the whole segment, but it's easier to visualize as being at a single point.) So EZNEC tells you, in the Actual Pos. group, where the source is actually placed. So the Actual Pos. group columns show that the source is 22.7+ percent from end 1 of the wire, and it's on the third segment from end 1. You can see this placement in the View Antenna display. (You can maximize the display by clicking the maximize button -- the one

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EZNEC User Manual with a square -- near the upper right corner, for better viewing, then return it to normal size by clicking the same button again. Segment junctions are shown as dots on the wire.) The benefit to specifying source, load, and transmission line positions in terms of percent from the wire end is that the wire length or number of segments can be changed without affecting the relative position of the source (except as necessary to place it at a segment center). The source type, shown in the Type column, is a current source. The Sources Window also show the source amplitude and phase, in this case one ampere at zero degrees. When a model contains only a single source, the magnitude, phase, or type have no effect on the pattern or source impedance. So we'll leave these as they are for now. Now restore the source to the correct position in the middle of the wire. Change the value in the % From End 1 column of the Specified Pos. group from 25 to 50, then pressing <Enter>. The source should now appear in the middle of the wire in the View Antenna display, and the Actual Pos. should now show as 50 percent, on segment 6. The source could have been connected through a transmission line. However, this will affect only the impedance seen by the source. It will have no effect on the antenna gain, pattern, or other characteristics. No transmission line will be used in this example. Close the Sources Window by clicking the close button in the upper right corner. Now it's time to deal with the ground. Presuming you don't have a perfect ground plane in your back yard (and for many wavelengths in all directions), you'll want to do the analysis over "real" ground. Click on the Ground Type line, and select Real. The height of the antenna will determine which ground model we use. If you have a fast computer, you can always choose High Accuracy analysis unless you need to make a connection to ground. Let's choose MININEC type ground for now. That model is good with horizontal wires which are at least 0.2 wavelength high, and it's fast. Choose MININEC, then Ok. Finally, we need to specify the ground characteristics. Click on the Ground Descrip line. This opens the Media Window. Note that the Ground Descrip selection isn't visible unless Ground Type is Real. The Media Window is where specification of Real ground is done. One or two ground media can be specified, but we'll only need one for this model. When we changed the ground type to Real, one ground medium was created. The conductivity and dielectric constant of newly-created grounds can be set for your local ground conditions by means of the Control Center Options menu Default Ground Const selection. The values initially used by EZNEC are those of "average" or "good" ground (conductivity of 0.005 S/m, dielectric constant of 13). These are the values you should see in the Media Window at this point, unless you've changed the default ground constants.

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Test Drive For this exercise, let's suppose your back yard has the characteristics of "very good" ground. Move the mouse cursor to either the Cond. or Diel. Const. cell in the Medium No. 1 row, and click the right mouse button. Note: Make sure the mouse cursor, not just the text insertion point, is in the designated cell when you right-click. This will open the Ground Characteristics dialog box. Select the Very Good option, then click Ok. The Media Window should show 0.0303 for the conductivity, and 20 for the dielectric constant. Close the Media Window by clicking the close box in the upper right hand corner. This completes creation of the model itself. We can now choose what to calculate and display. Note that all the information in the Control Center information window is saved with the description when the description is saved to a file. In addition, frequency sweep and near field analysis setups, and the selections in the Control Center Plot menu, are saved in this file. We know that the dipole's maximum lobe will be at zero degrees, but at what angle above the horizon will it be maximum? We'll run an elevation plot to find out. (3D plotting is covered in "On The Race Course", in the last section of the Test Drive.) Click on the Plot Type row in the Control Center. This opens the Plot Type dialog box. Select Elevation, then Ok. The azimuth angle for the plot is zero degrees (broadside to the antenna), which is where we'd like to look, and all the other parameters look fine. To plot the pattern, Click the FF Plot action button. This tells EZNEC to compute and display the 2D far field pattern. You'll briefly see the Calculation Progress Window while the calculation is running. When it's finished, you should see the plot and some text below it with information about the pattern. If you don't see the text below the plot, open the 2D Plot Window View menu, and select Show Data. The plot represents an elevation "slice" of the antenna pattern. From the text in the data box, you can see that the pattern is maximum at 34 degrees above the horizon, and other information about the pattern. You can see the antenna gain (second row in the data box, on the right) at any elevation angle by moving the cursor. This can be done by simply clicking on the 2D plot. The cursor will move to a point on the plot which is on an imaginary line from the plot center to the mouse cursor location. Note that the mouse cursor must be in the plot window when the button is initially pressed, although it can be moved outside the window while being held down. You can also press and hold the left mouse button and drag the cursor to the desired angle. The cursor can also be moved with the arrow keys (for fine steps) or the <Page Up> and <Page Down> keys (for coarser

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EZNEC User Manual steps). Before using the arrow keys, you should click on the 2D plot window. Otherwise, they might adjust some other program parameter or control. Click the Src Dat action button in the Control Center. This gives you information about the source. The fact that the impedance of 79.16 - j 45.11 ohms has a negative reactive part indicates that the antenna is operating below resonance and needs to be lengthened if resonance is important. The formula of 468/f (MHz) feet is an approximation, and the exact resonant length depends on the wire diameter and height above ground. The Source Data display also shows that if a 50 ohm transmission line were connected to this antenna, the SWR on the line would be about 2.3:1. If a 75 ohm line is used, the SWR on the feedline would be about 1.8:1. Close the Source Data display by clicking the close box. In the View Antenna display, an additional line has appeared, above the antenna wire. This indicates, by the distance of the line from the wire, the magnitude of the current along the wire. You can see that the current is maximum at the antenna center and tapers to zero at the ends. The current indication appears only after calculations have been done, and it can be removed from the display if desired. In the 2D Plot Window, open the File menu and select Save Trace As. Enter the name "Back Yard Dipole", and click Save. This saves the 2D plot (trace) in a file named Back Yard Dipole.pf. We'll use it in the next exercise. Save the antenna description by clicking the Save As action button, entering the name Back Yard Dipole', then clicking Save. This concludes the drive down the straightaway. If you'd like to try your hand at a little more complex maneuvering, try taking EZNEC Through The Curves. You can continue directly from here, or you can exit EZNEC and do the next exercise later.

Through The Curves

If you haven't yet done so, take EZNEC "along the straightaway". In this section you'll begin with the plot generated by the "straightaway" drive and get introduced to a few of EZNEC's more advanced features. Ready to go? Let's see how an inverted vee compares with our back yard dipole. If you've shut down EZNEC since doing the "along the straightaway" exercise, you'll have to open the back yard dipole description after starting EZNEC. This is done by clicking the Control Center Open action button, entering the name Back Yard Dipole', and clicking Open. You should also open the View Antenna window by clicking the View Ant action button. Open the Wires Window by clicking on the Wires line of the Control Center information window. We'll make the inverted vee by beginning with a dipole, then use one of EZNEC's powerful editing features to convert it into an inverted vee without having to calculate any additional wire end coordinates. An inverted vee can't be made from just one wire since it's bent in the middle and all wires must be straight. So we'll have to add another wire and use each of the

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Test Drive two wires for half of the inverted vee. Let's put the center of the antenna at x, y, z = 0, 0, 30 (30 feet straight up from the origin). Note that end 1 of wire 1 is already at this point, but we'll need to modify its length to be suitable for the new antenna. To make the new inverted vee the same length as the original dipole, each of the two wires should be 16.715 feet long. So first we'll modify the existing wire to be this length. Watch the View Antenna display when you press <Enter> in the following step. Change the End 2 Y coordinate to 16.715 and press <Enter> to make EZNEC accept the new value. If you watched the View Antenna display when you pressed <Enter>, you saw that the wire appeared to change both its length and height above ground. The height, however, didn't really change. The reason for the apparent change is that EZNEC rescales the View Antenna display each time you change a wire, making it as large as possible without going beyond the window boundaries. Although the relative dimensions of everything on the display are correct, you can't determine absolute values from this display. Notice that in the display, the height of the wire is a little less than twice its length, which is the correct proportion. The coordinates of Wire 1 should now be 0, 0, 30 (end 1) and 0, 16.715, 30 (end 2). If not, manually correct them and press <Enter>. Now we'll add the second wire. A wire can be added at least two ways. The simplest way to add a single wire is to simply type its coordinates and other parameters on the add row, identified by the asterisk (*) on the button to its left. In this step, you'll also learn how to use one of EZNEC's powerful editing shortcuts. Position the mouse cursor over any of the cells of End 1 of the add row and click the right mouse button. This opens the list of shortcuts. Select Connect End to. In the dialog box, enter the value 1 in each of the two boxes. This tells EZNEC that you want to connect this end (end 1) of the current wire (the new wire) to end 1 of wire 1. Click Ok or press <Enter>. There should now be two wires shown in the grid, numbered 1 and 2. The coordinates of end 1 of wire 2 are the same as the coordinates of end 1 of wire 1, as a result of the last step. Take a look at the column labeled Conn. (Connections) in the End 1 group. This shows which wire and end is connected to an end. In the wire 1, end 1 Connections column, you should see "W2E1". This tells you that wire 1, end 1 is connected to wire 2, end 1. Likewise, the entry in the wire 2, end 1 column shows the connection to wire 1, end 1 as "W1E1". In this example, the connection is pretty obvious, since the coordinates of the two ends are right above and below each other. But you'll find this feature handy with more complex antennas. If more than one wire is connected to an end, only one connection will be shown in the Connections column, but by following the connections you can identify all the wires connected together. There are a couple of other things to point out about the new wire (wire 2). Notice that it's the same diameter as wire 1, and has the same number of segments. By

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EZNEC User Manual default, EZNEC gives a new wire the same diameter and number of segments as the preceding wire. It will, of course, use other values you specify if you do specify them. In the View Antenna display, you can see the new wire you've created, although it might not be too obvious. It extends from one end of the horizontal wire (wire 1) to the origin, right along the z axis. If you don't see the numbers beside the wires, select Objects from the View Antenna display View menu, and check the Wire Numbers box, then Ok. End 2 of the new wire is at the default coordinates of 0, 0, 0. When a ground is specified (as it is here), a z coordinate of zero automatically means a connection to ground. This shows in the Wires Window Wire 2 End 2 Connection column as "Ground". Now it's time to fix end 2 of wire 2. Change the wire 2, end 2 coordinates to 0, -16.715, 30, and press <Enter>. Notice in the View Antenna display the effect this change has on the antenna. Wire 2 now looks like an extension to wire 1. We could have reversed the ends of wire 2 with no effect on the overall result. The choice of which end to call end 1 and which to call end 2 is pretty much arbitrary. One thing to keep in mind, however, is that reversing the ends causes a reversal in the direction of current which EZNEC reports. So when multiple sources are used, or where the currents are of interest, it's wise to be systematic in assigning the end numbers. For example, in an array of phased vertical antennas, you should face all end 1s the same way, so all element currents will be defined as flowing in the same direction. For this antenna, though, the choice of end 1 makes no practical difference. Our new antenna has twice as many segments as the back yard dipole. This is fine unless you're using the EZNEC demo program, which is limited to 20 segments. If you are using the demo, change the number of segments on both wires to 10 before proceeding. Close the Wires Window. You can see in the View Antenna display that the source (represented by the circle) is still on wire 1. To make a dipole or inverted vee from the two wires, the source has to be at the junction of the two wires. However, the NEC calculating engine used by EZNEC spreads the source excitation over a whole segment (or, conceptually, places it at a segment center). We don't have a segment center at the center of the antenna, so what should we do? One solution to this problem is to insert a third wire between the two and put the source on it. However, this can be trickier than it seems, because of NEC's general fussiness about source placement. The best solution is to make use of EZNEC's split sources, which can be placed at a wire junction. Please click the link for more information about them. Open the Sources Window by clicking the Sources line in the Control Center information window. Click the cell in the Source 1 Type column. As soon as you click the cell, a small button with an arrow appears in the cell. This indicates that several distinct choices are available. Clicking on the button opens a pull-down list of choices.

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Test Drive Select SI'. Then move to the % From E1 column in the Specified Pos. group and change the value from 50 to 0. This will put a split current source at end 1 of wire 1. Press the <Enter> key. On the View Antenna display, you should now see two source circles, one on each side of the wire 1 wire 2 junction. You can rotate the display for better viewing by pressing the left mouse button while the cursor is in the display window, then moving the mouse while holding the button down. You can also resize the display by dragging any of the sides of the window. At this point, we have a dipole again, but made from two wires instead of one. Click the FF Plot action button to generate a 2D plot. In the 2D Plot window, open the File menu and select Add Trace. If you saved the trace from the "Along the Straightaway" exercise, you should see a file named "Back Yard Dipole". Click it, then click Open. This overlays the back yard dipole plot with the plot from the new dipole. It should overlay exactly, showing that the new dipole, made with two wires and a split source, and centered with respect to the x axis, has the same pattern as the single wire, offset dipole with a standard source. This illustrates that you have a great deal of flexibility in modeling your antenna. Click the Src Dat Control Center action button. The indicated impedance is slightly different than it was for the original dipole. Most of the difference is due to the fact that the new dipole has twice the number of segments. But small differences in reported impedance are to be expected whenever a model is changed, however slightly. The differences are insignificant for any practical purpose. If you'd like to experiment a little, open the Wires Window and change the number of segments on the wires, keeping the number the same for both. Then click Src Dat again to see the effect of this change on the source impedance. Repeat for several different numbers of segments. Close the Wires Window when you're finished to get it out of the way. Close the Source Data display. Now we'll make the dipole into an inverted vee. At this point, most other modeling programs would require you to do some trigonometry or carefully draw the inverted vee on graph paper to determine the coordinates of the wire ends. But not with EZNEC. We'll use EZNEC's Rotate feature to make it into an inverted vee with an included angle of 90 degrees. Before proceeding, it's a good idea to save the description. This way, an easy recovery can be made if an error is made. Click the Control Center Save As action button. Furnish a name, such as "Temp" (don't use "Last" it's used by EZNEC for the description present when the program ends), then click Save. Open the Wires Window by clicking on the Wires line in the Control Center information window. With the mouse cursor over the X, Y, or Z coordinate cell of Wire 1, End 2, click the right mouse button. (Remember, the mouse cursor has to be over the right cell, regardless of where the text insertion point is.) This opens the shortcut list.

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EZNEC User Manual Select Elevation Rotate End. Enter the value -45, and click Ok. This rotates end 2 of wire 1 downward 45 degrees, without changing end 1. In the View Antenna display, you should now see wire 1 drooping downward 45 degrees. Rotate the View Antenna display if desired by clicking in the display window and dragging with the mouse. If you don't see this, you should return to the dipole by either re-entering the wire end coordinates or by reopening the file you saved a moment ago by clicking the Open action button and selecting the file. Then try the rotation feature again. The 2D plot disappeared as soon as you modified the antenna wire. This is intended operation. EZNEC removes any displays that are no longer valid. As soon as you modified the wire, the display no longer represented the pattern of the current antenna, so it was closed. Now repeat the rotation for the second wire. With the mouse cursor over the X, Y, or Z coordinate cell of Wire 2, End 2, click the right mouse button. Select Elevation Rotate End. Enter the value 45, and click Ok. You should see the completed inverted vee in the View Antenna display. If the inverted vee looks ok, close the Wires Window. Click the FF Plot action button to generate a 2D plot. The plot should resemble the dipole plot. To see how the pattern compares to the dipole's, Open the 2D Plot display File menu and select Add Trace. Locate the Back Yard Dipole file you saved at the end of the "Along The Straightaway" exercise and click Open. Note that when automatic outer ring scaling is selected, it's scaled for the largest of all the plots being displayed. It can be shown that the center of current for a sinusoidal distribution is 1/3 of the way from the current loop. This means that the effective radiation strength from the inner 1/3 of the inverted vee equals that from the outer 2/3 (since the current is heavier toward the center). If we raise the inverted vee by 3.94 feet, it will place this current center at 30 feet, which was the height of the dipole's center of current. Let's try it and see what happens: Open the Wires Window. Open the Wire menu and select Change Height by. Enter 3.94 in the bottom text box and click Ok or press <Enter>. Again the 2D plot is closed as soon as the model is changed. Close the Wires Window if desired, then click the FF Plot action button. Add the Back Yard Dipole trace to the 2D display as you did before. The higher inverted vee is closer to the dipole pattern but still has slightly lower maximum gain. This shouldn't be surprising if you investigate the patterns in more detail. The inverted vee has more radiation off the end, reducing the gain from the side. But as you can see, the gain difference between the dipole and inverted vee is less than one dB (providing the centers of current are at the same height). This concludes the "Through The Curves" exercise. If you'd like to learn some additional techniques, try taking EZNEC On The Race Course. You can continue directly from here, or you can exit EZNEC and do it later.

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Test Drive

On The Race Course

This section takes you through some of EZNEC's more advanced features. Open the back yard dipole model included with EZNEC: Click the Control Center Open action button, and select and open the example file BYDipole.ez. Let's look at the full 3D pattern. Click the Plot Type line in the Control Center information window. Select 3 Dimensional, then Ok. You'll see a notice that EZNEC is reducing the plot resolution to 5 degrees per step. The minimum step size for 3D plots is 2 degrees, although this is too dense for general use. One degree resolution is a good choice for 2D plotting, and the example file was set to this value. Click Ok to close the message box. Click the FF Plot action button to start the calculation. When the calculation finishes, you'll see a full three-dimensional (3D) display of the dipole pattern. You'll note that it doesn't look much like the textbook pictures you may have seen. This is because the textbook pictures usually show a dipole in free space or, at most, over a perfect ground. This, on the other hand, is the model of a dipole over real ground. You can move the 3D display around to view it from different angles. Position the mouse cursor anywhere on the 3D plot window. Press and hold the left mouse button down as you move the mouse. The mouse cursor has to be in the 3D plot window when the button is initially pressed. However, once the button is down the mouse cursor can be moved anywhere on screen. You can also do fine positioning with the arrow keys, as long as you first click anywhere in the 3D plot window. One of EZNEC's powerful features is the ability to view individual 2D "slices" of the 3D display. To use this feature, the 3D display control box must be activated. If you see some controls to the left of the plot, the control box is on. If not, you need to turn it on at this point by opening the 3D display View menu and selecting Show Controls. In the control box Highlight section, choose Elevation Slice. The 3D plot will dim, and an elevation "slice" will appear in a distinctive color. (You can modify these colors via the 3D display Options menu Colors selection.) The two control box scroll bars are now active, and can be used to change the slice and to move the cursor. Most of the scroll bars in EZNEC can be adjusted in several different ways. You can click on the arrow boxes at the ends to move the control a single step. Holding the left mouse button down when on an end box moves the control rapidly. If you click in the area between the adjustment bar and the end box, the control will move in larger steps. Or you can simply drag the adjustment bar to the desired position. Finally, the keyboard arrow keys will move the control if it has focus (that is, if it's the currently active control). Now click the Show 2D Plot box at the bottom of the 3D display control box.

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EZNEC User Manual This turns on the 2D display, where the currently highlighted "slice" of the 3D plot is shown. Notice that as you change the 3D "slice" and the cursor position, the 2D plot changes accordingly. Turn on the 2D display control and data boxes as follows. On the 2D plot, open the View menu. If Show Controls isn't checked, select it. Repeat for Show Data if it isn't checked. The 2D display controls track the corresponding controls on the 3D display. So once a 3D plot has been calculated, various "slices" can be selected directly from the 2D display if desired. When the Plot Type is 3D, the only way to open the 2D display is from the 3D display (either by checking the Show 2D Plot box in the control box, or by selecting Show 2D Plot in the 3D display View menu). If you close the 3D display and want to reopen it, click the FF Plot action button in the Control Center. Experiment with the 2D and 3D controls, selecting different "slices" and "slice" types, and moving the cursor. You can move the cursor in the 2D display by clicking in the 2D plot window. After clicking in the 2D plot window, the cursor can also be moved with the arrow keys and <Page Up> and <Page Down> keys. And, when the 2D control box is being shown, you can move the cursor with the appropriate scroll bar. Various information about the 2D pattern is shown in the 2D display data box (under the plot). One entry, on the right side, is the gain given as "dBmax". This is the gain relative to the maximum value anywhere in the 3D pattern. Open the View Antenna display by clicking the Control Center View Ant action button. In the View Antenna display, open the View menu and select Objects. Check the 2D Pattern box and click Ok. The 2D "slice" now appears on the View Antenna display. This shows how the "slice" is oriented relative to the antenna. Notice that as you change the selected "slice" with either the 2D or 3D controls, the View Antenna display changes accordingly. Also notice that as you rotate either the 3D or View Antenna display, the other changes position to match. (They don't track moment to moment, but synchronize when the mouse or keyboard key is released.) One last point to mention before leaving the 3D display. You can save a 3D plot from this display (File/Save 3D Plot), but you can't open one from the 3D display or superimpose 3D plots. You can specify any azimuth or elevation "slice" of a saved 3D plot to add to the 2D display. Or, you can recall and view the entire 3D plot with TraceView. Close all the windows except the Control Center. Now let's run an SWR plot of the antenna. Click the SWR action button. Enter 14, 14.4, and .1 in the Start Frequency, Stop Frequency, and Frequency Step boxes respectively. Then click Run. This will run an SWR sweep, with the results being shown when the sweep is finished. Turn on the control and data boxes via the SWR display View menu, if they're not already on. You can move the cursor on the SWR graph to any position by clicking on the graph near the point where you want the cursor to go, or by dragging the cursor.

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Test Drive You can also move the cursor with the arrow keys after first clicking anywhere on the SWR graph. As the cursor moves, you can see the SWR for that frequency in the data box below the graph. The graph clearly shows that the antenna is too short, if lowest SWR on 20 meters is a goal. This is indicated by the fact that the SWR decreases clear across the band. Let's make the antenna resonant at 14.1 MHz. One way would be to adjust the lengths of the wires and find resonance by trial and error. But we'll use another method. First we find out just where the antenna is currently resonant. We know it's at or above 14.4 MHz, so Click the SWR action button. Click No in the message box which appears. Enter 14.3 and 14.8 in the Start and Stop frequency boxes, and click Run. From the graph, the SWR looks lowest at around 14.42 MHz or so. What we'll do is change the frequency to 14.42, about where it's resonant. Then we have a resonant antenna but at the wrong frequency. We'll then rescale that resonant antenna to the right frequency. In the Control Center information window, click the Frequency line. Enter the value 14.42, then Ok. Click the Frequency line again. Enter the value 14.1. But this time, check the Rescale box before clicking Ok. Open the View Antenna display by clicking the View Ant action button. Right-click on the wire in the View Antenna display. You can see that EZNEC has lengthened the wire to about 34.2 feet. (It was originally 33.43 feet.) Close the View Antenna display. Click the Control Center Src Data action button. The source impedance still has a slight negative reactance (about 4 ohms), indicating that the antenna is still a little short. The SWR/rescaling process could be repeated, or the antenna length changed in the Wires Window to fine tune it. Let's run another SWR sweep to see how close we got to the target of 14.1 MHz. Close the Source Data display. Click the SWR action button. Enter 13.9 and 14.4 for the Start and Stop Frequencies, then click Run. From the result, you can see that we got pretty close to 14.1. There are a couple of reasons we didn't hit it exactly. One is that we guessed at the initial resonant frequency. Another SWR sweep with a finer step would have been more precise. The second reason is that when an antenna is scaled, the wire diameter isn't changed if it's specified as an AWG gauge. The diameter of our antenna wire is specified as #12, so it wasn't changed with the scaling. Exact scaling requires changing the wire diameter in the same proportion as the antenna length. EZNEC doesn't do this when wire diameter is specified as a gauge, because it would usually result in a diameter which doesn't correspond to any standard wire size. Ground conductivity also doesn't scale linearly with frequency. This will generally make a noticeable difference only with the patterns of vertically polarized antennas, however. You might want to feed the antenna with 75 ohm line instead of 50 ohm line. An alternate Z0 is available for analysis. It's set in the Control Center information window, as Alt SWR Z0. Since we didn't change it, its value is 75 ohms, which

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EZNEC User Manual was the value in the DIPOLE1 description we started with. To see what the SWR would be on a 75 ohm feedline, Select the Alt option in the SWR display control box Z0 section. 75 ohm feedline feeding this antenna would have a lower SWR than 50 ohm line. (However, the SWR is low enough that it's unlikely to make any difference in performance unless the feedline is exceptionally long or lossy.) If analyzing an antenna with more than one source (such as the example antenna 4Square), you can select which source to view using the up-down control in the SWR display control box. This concludes On The Race Course, and the Test Drive. Now you've taken EZNEC for a good run. The Building The Model chapter gives tips for creating models and interpreting results. The Reference chapter contains complete information about each menu and its features. The Stacked Yagis section contains an additional step-by-step tutorial that illustrates additional EZNEC features. You might want to go through it now or at a later time. A Lap Around Track 5 is an additional tutorial, covering the use of transformers, L networks, and virtual segments. However, it's recommended that you get more familiar with basic EZNEC operation before going through it.

A Lap Around Track 5

This section of the Test Drive tutorial will acquaint you with using the transformer and L network insertion objects, and virtual segments. These features were introduced in EZNEC v. 5.0. It's assumed that you're already familiar with basic EZNEC operation. The examples involve modeling L network type feed systems for phased arrays. The design of the feed systems of the two examples used here are described in Chapter 8 of the 21st Edition of the ARRL Antenna Book, which became available at just about the same time as EZNEC v. 5.0. The first example is a two element cardioid array fed with an L network feed system:

Of course, transmission lines TL1 and TL2 each have two conductors, and the models have two sets of two terminals just like the L network object LNet1. The second conductor is omitted from the diagram for simplicity.

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Test Drive The ARRL Antenna Book example design shows that the value of the series inductor in the L network needs to be 1.815 uH and the shunt capacitor 199.7 pF to achieve the correct element current ratios, with transmission lines TL1 and TL2 being quarter wavelength 75 ohm lines. With an EZNEC model, you'll be able to not only verify that the design is correct, but also to check the pattern and impedance over a range of frequencies. We'll begin with a model of a two element array using the "simplest" feed system -- a feed system using only two transmission lines whose lengths are calculated with a special program for the purpose. It looks just like the diagram above, except that there's no L network, and TL1 and TL2 have particular unequal lengths. The chief advantage of the L network feed over the "simplest" system is its adjustability. In the Control Center, locate the Open action button and click it. This will open a file selection dialog box. Select Cardioid TL ARRL Example.ez. The bar at the top of the Control Center information window should now read "Cardioid with feed system". Open the View Antenna display, where you can see that the two transmission lines are connected from the two elements to a short connection wire, Wire 3. The source is also connected at that wire. Click the FF Plot Action Button to generate a 2D plot. Then save it by opening the File menu 2D Plot Window, then selecting Save Trace As. Enter the name Cardioid TL ARRL Example and click Save. You now have a pattern which can be used to verify that the following steps produce an equally good result. The first thing we'll do is replace Wire 3 with a virtual segment. Prior to EZNEC v. 5.0, it was necessary to create a short wire any time you wanted to connect sources or transmission lines in parallel. Virtual segments are now available to make this unnecessary. The source and both transmission lines connect to Wire 3, so we need to change all three connections. Close the 2D Plot Window to reduce clutter. Open the Sources Window by clicking on the Sources line in the Control Center. In the Specified Pos. Wire # column, replace 3 with V3 and press <Enter>. The source is now connected to Virtual Segment 3. (The number 3 was chosen simply because it's the number of the wire it replaces. Any number from 1-999 could have been chosen.) Close the Sources Window and open the Transmission Lines Window. In the End 1 Specified Pos. Wire # column, replace 3 with V3 in both rows, then press <Enter>. Close the Transmission Lines Window. The source and transmission lines are now still connected together as before, but on Virtual Segment 3 rather than Wire 3. Wire 3 is no longer needed so it can be deleted: Open the Wires Window. Select Wire 3 by clicking on the box at the left of the line, which will highlight the line. Then press the <Del> key on your keyboard. Click Ok in the dialog box which appears. Close the Wires Window.

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EZNEC User Manual The source and transmission lines are now gone from the View Antenna display, since they connect to virtual segments whose location isn't specified. To see all virtual segment connections, Open the View menu in the View Antenna display and select Show Virt Seg Conn. This shows what is connected to each of the virtual segments. From it you can see that Source 1 (Src1), End 1 of Transmission Line 1 (TL1-1), and End 1 of Transmission Line 2 (TL2-1) are connected to Virtual Segment 3. Close the Virtual Segment Connections display. The model should work exactly as before. To check the pattern, Click the FF Plot Action Button. In the 2D Plot Window, open the File menu and select Add Trace. Locate and double-click Cardioid TL ARRL Example.pf. This superimposes the previously saved pattern over the current one. As you can see, the two plots overlay exactly, as they should. Close the 2D Plot Window. Now we'll change the transmission lines to a quarter electrical wavelength each and add the L network. Please refer to the diagram above as you do the next steps. First let's change the transmission line lengths and connections. Open the Transmission Lines window. It shows that the velocity factor of the two transmission lines is 0.66, and we'll continue using the same type lines. In the Control Center, the wavelength is shown as 137.562 ft at this frequency, so a quarter electrical wavelength transmission line is 137.562 * 0.66 * 0.25 = 22.698 ft. Enter this value into both rows of the length column and press <Enter>. From the diagram above, we see that Transmission Line 1 will be connected to Virtual Segment 1, and Transmission Line 2 to Virtual Segment 2. Change the Transmission Line 1 End 1 Specified Pos. Wire # value from V3 to V1. Change Transmission Line 2 End 1 from V3 to V2. Press <Enter>. Close the Transmission Lines Window. The source is connected to Virtual Segment 1. Open the Sources Window. Change the wire connection from V3 to V1 and press <Enter>. Close the Sources Window. Now it's time to create the L Network. Open the L Networks Window. We want to specify the L network branch impedances as an L and C rather than fixed R and X. So In the L Networks Window, open the Other menu and click Change L Network Type. In the dialog box which opens, select the RLC button and click Ok. The L Networks Window now has columns for R, L, and C. We'll do the connections first, then enter the L and C values. In an L network model, the shunt component is always at Port 2. (Or, to put it another way, Port 2 is the port having the shunt component across it.) So from the diagram it's apparent that Port 1 is connected to Virtual Segment 1 (V1) and Port 2 to Virtual Segment 2 (V2). Each L network consists of two rows in the L Networks Window grid. The

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Test Drive upper row of the Specified Pos. and Actual Pos. columns are the connection to Port 1, and the lower row for Port 2. For the remaining columns, the upper row is for the series branch and the lower row for the shunt branch. The meaning of each cell is indicated by the column heading. Connect Port 1 to Virtual Segment 1 by entering V1 in the Port 1 Wire # cell. The is the upper cell of the leftmost two-row column. Under that entry, in the lower column (Port 2 Wire #), enter V2. In the upper (Series Branch) row of the L column, enter the value in uH of the series inductor, 1.815. In the lower (Shunt Branch) cell of the C column, enter the value in pF of the shunt capacitor, 199.7. Press <Enter>. The configuration defaults to series connection, and empty cells are set to zero which for a series connection means a short circuit. So the series branch has only the inductor and the shunt branch has only a capacitor. The first two rows of your L Networks Window grid should look like this:

You might have to use the horizontal scroll bar to see some parts of it. We haven't specified an R Freq because we're using an ideal inductor for this example. If the L Networks Window display looks ok, close the L Networks Window. Only one step remains, to move the source to Virtual Segment 1. Open the Sources Window. Change the Specified Pos. Wire # from V3 to V1. Press <Enter>, then close the window. The L network feed system is complete. Press the FF Plot Action Button to see the resulting pattern. In the 2D Plot Window, open the File menu, select Add Trace, and locate and doubleclick Cardioid TL ARRL Example.pf. Notice that the added trace overlays the plot perfectly. If it doesn't, you might want to try going through the steps again. The finished project is furnished as example file Cardioid L Network Feed ARRL Example.ez. This model can be used to investigate how the pattern and feedpoint impedance vary with frequency and with such things as ground resistance. If desired, realistic transmission line loss and L network component loss can also be included. In the second example, you'll use a transformer and series capacitor to improve the impedance match of an array. Open example file 4 Square L Network Feed ARRL Example.ez. This is the 4 square L network feed system example from Chapter 8 of the 21st Edition ARRL Antenna Book. It can be (and in fact was) developed from 4 Square TL ARRL Example.ez using exactly the same process as used in the first example. But the purpose here is to illustrate how a transformer and series capacitor can be added to the model to improve the impedance match.

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EZNEC User Manual The changes we'll make will be made between the array common feedpoint and the source, so it will have no impact at all on the array pattern or gain. Only the impedance will be affected. In the Control Center, click the Open Action Button, then locate and double-click 4 Square L Network Feed ARRL Example.ez. Click the Src Dat Action Button and look at the reported impedance and SWR. As you can see, the impedance of 10.55 + j3.832 ohms is too low for a good match to a 50 ohm feedline. As is, the SWR on a 50 ohm feedline (which is what we'll use for this exercise) connected to the common feedpoint would have an SWR of about 4.8:1. It appears that a 4:1 impedance ratio transformer would improve the impedance match considerably. We'll insert this transformer between the source and its connection to the array feed system. Before we begin, we need to know two things: the wire or virtual segment the source is connected to, since that tells us where the common feedpoint is; and what virtual segment numbers have been used so we can choose a new one for the source-transformer connection. We can get both bits of information from the Virtual Segment Connection display, since interconnections in this model which don't need a wire connection use virtual segments. Close the Source Data Window. (You don't have to close each window before opening another -- it just reduces clutter to close windows which aren't being used.) Open the View Antenna display. In the View Antenna display, open the View menu and click Show Virtual Seg Conn. This display shows that the source (Src1) is connected to Virtual Segment 5, and virtual segment numbers 5 and 6 have been used. So we want the lowimpedance side of the transformer to go to the array common feedpoint Virtual Segment 5 and the high-impedance side to connect to the source. We'll create Virtual Segment 4 for that purpose. The transformer requires specifying an impedance for the two ports, or windings. Their ratio will be the impedance transfer ratio. As explained in the Transformers topic, the values of impedances chosen should be in the general ballpark of the impedances connected to the windings. So we'll use 50 and 12.5 ohms for the two windings, which will give us the desired 4:1 impedance ratio. Open the Transformers Window. In the Port 1 Specified Wire # column, enter V4 to connect Port 1 of the transformer to Virtual Segment 4. Enter V5 in the Port 2 Specified Wire # column to connect Port 2 to Virtual Segment 5 (the array common feedpoint). In the Port 1 Rel Z column, enter 50, and enter 12.5 in the Port 2 Rel Z column. The Rev/Norm connection column will default to Normal, but in this application it doesn't make any difference. After entering the impedances, press <Enter>. That completes the transformer entry. You can close the Transformers window. All that's left is to move the source to new Virtual Segment 4 where the transformer primary is connected. Open the Sources Window. Change the V5 position entry to V4. Press <Enter>. Click the Src Dat Action Button. The impedance seen by the source is now very close to four times what it was before. It won't be exact because of program accuracy limitations and the small

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Test Drive unavoidable transformer resistance. The SWR for a 50 ohm transmission line is now 1.445:1, much improved from the previous value. Although this SWR is acceptable for nearly all purposes, let's see how much we can improve it by cancelling out the 15.24 ohms of inductive reactance with a series capacitor. A quick calculation shows that 15.24 ohms of capacitive reactance requires a 1460.6 pF capacitor. We want it to be between the source and transformer, in series. The final impedance matching system will look like this:

We'll need to create additional Virtual Segment 3 as a place to connect the source and input to the new L Network. How do we make an L network with a missing shunt branch? An easy way is to use a parallel RLC configuration and set all three component values to zero. In a parallel configuration, a specified value of zero means an open circuit, so setting all three to zero results in a completely open circuit. Close the Source Data Window and open the L Networks Window. In the add row below the currently defined L Network 1, specify a connection to V3 for Port 1 and V4 for Port 2. In the top row of the new network, enter 1460.6 in the C column. This is the series branch. In the bottom row of the Config column, enter P or select Par from the drop-down box. Press <Enter>. Notice that the R, L, and C values for the shunt branch (bottom row) all show Open as they should. The final step is to move the source onto new Virtual Segment 3. Close the L Networks Window and open the Sources Window. Change the position of the source from V4 to V3 and press <Enter>. The impedance transforming system now looks like the figure above. Click the Src Dat button to see the impedance. It's now 43.45 - j0.2612 -- the reactance is very nearly gone, as we planned, and the SWR is down to 1.151:1. The finished project is available as example file 4Square L Network Feed With Z Matching.ez. This completes the lap around Track 5.

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Building The Model

Introduction to Modeling
Modeling is the technique of evaluating the performance of one object or system by evaluating the performance of a substitute called a model. Models can be physical objects, like a reduced size scale model antenna sometimes used for evaluating HF antennas. Models can also be purely mathematical, like the equations you use in circuit analysis. The accuracy of the results are never better than the accuracy with which the model matches the real object. For example, a model of a circuit consisting of a battery and resistor will do a poor job of predicting the current if the battery is old and the model doesn't include internal resistance. Likewise, a model for analyzing UHF circuits which doesn't include accurate inductive and capacitive effects won't produce accurate results. So it's imperative that you learn the limitations of your modeling tools. This manual will help you in that endeavor. Skillfully used within its limitations, EZNEC can do a remarkably accurate job of predicting antenna performance. But remember, it's analyzing a model of an antenna, not an actual antenna. So its accuracy is always limited by the accuracy of the representation of the real antenna and its environment by the model. In some cases, the tools simply are not available to make an accurate representation, so approximate results are the best that can be obtained. For example, a parabolic reflector can be approximately modeled as a wire grid, but the representation will not accurately predict low-level lobes or characteristics sensitive to dish smoothness. But for many antennas under a wide range of circumstances, EZNEC will give you startlingly accurate results. And for most antennas, the results will be close enough for nearly any practical use. Building a good model and interpreting the results requires considerable skill. This manual is intended to help you acquire the skills necessary to get consistently good results. You may want to take the Test Drive before or during the reading of this chapter.

Modeling With EZNEC

All antenna models are made from EZNEC components wires, insertion objects, and ground media. The accuracy of the model depends on how accurately the actual antenna and its environment can be represented by the model made from these components. Some physical objects, like a physical wire or metallic tube, are easily modeled with high accuracy. Some, like a round loop or small flat metal plate, must be approximated. And some, like a close helically wound dipole antenna, can't be modeled accurately at all with the available components. But a very wide variety of objects can be successfully modeled with EZNEC. All EZNEC operations are accessed via the Control Center. This is the form which opens when you start EZNEC, and stays open while EZNEC is running. The following sections will lead you through the steps of building a model. You can get additional information by clicking on the links. 36

Building The Model

Opening The Description File

EZNEC doesn't have a provision for starting with a blank description; it always begins with the last antenna you've analyzed. So it's helpful to accumulate a collection of template antennas which are similar to the types you commonly model. These make fast and easy starting points for developing your new model. A description file is opened by clicking the Control Center Open action button or clicking the Open selection in the Control Center File menu. If EZNEC isn't already running, it can be started with the desired description file open by dragging the description (.EZ) file to the EZNEC shortcut icon on your Windows desktop, or, if you chose to associate EZNEC with .EZ files at installation time, simply double-clicking on the .EZ file in Windows Explorer. EZNEC Pro only: To open an NEC-format file, follow the above procedure, but include the extension .NEC when you enter the file name. Likewise, to save a file in NEC format, include the .NEC extension.

Modeling The Antenna Structure: Wires

About Wires
When modeling an antenna, you'll generally spend most of your time working on the physical structure made up of the antenna's conductors. That's the subject of this chapter. It's important to realize that EZNEC doesn't know, or care, what you consider to be the "antenna" and what other conductors in the model might represent. If you've included conductors to represent towers, rain gutters, fences, or other antennas, they're just as much a part of the model and the calculation as the part of the model you consider to be the "antenna". The whole model is a single coupled system to EZNEC just as it is in the real world. (I've often commented to amateurs seeing strange results from multiple antennas in a small area that they don't have several antennas they have one antenna with several feedpoints. And this is just how EZNEC looks at it.) All antennas in an EZNEC model are made from "wires". In this manual the term "wires" refers to the EZNEC component of that name. Real, physical wires are called "physical wires". The distinction is important because EZNEC wires are idealized models of the real thing, much like a resistance is an idealized model of a resistor. EZNEC wires are also used to model other physical objects such as cars or other structures. Connected as a grid, or screen, they can be used to model flat conductive surfaces. EZNEC models every antenna as a collection of straight wires. Straight should be emphasized; a round loop, for example, must be modeled as a polygon of straight wires. The diameter of each wire can be freely chosen, and the program will give accurate results with diameters from arbitrarily small up to at least 0.02 wavelength. With some imagination, nearly any type of conducting structure can be modeled as wires (although not always practically or with great accuracy). For example, a metal wall can be modeled as a grid of wires with a mesh on the order of 0.1 wavelength or less.

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EZNEC User Manual You tell EZNEC where the wires are placed in space by giving their x, y, and z coordinates relative to a universal origin, or 0,0,0 point. You're free to decide where the origin is, except that ground is always assumed to be at the height of the origin (z = 0). (There are also some additional considerations involving the origin choice when two ground media are included in the model. EZNEC has several features to make entry within the coordinate system as easy as possible; they're described in the Wire Coordinate Shortcuts section. Wires are connected whenever an end of both have the same coordinates (actually, if the ends are within about 0.001 segment length of each other). Wires can be connected only at their ends. EZNEC automatically connects wire ends which have very nearly identical coordinates. The actual criterion used by EZNEC is that wire ends have to be within about 1/1000 of a segment length to be connected. When the Auto Coordinate Match option is on (the default), the coordinates of any wire ends which are close enough to be considered connected will be modified as necessary by EZNEC to make them identical. If a ground is used, a wire is connected to ground if its z coordinate is within about 1/1000 segment length of zero. When Auto Coordinate Match is on, the z coordinates of ground-connected wires are modified by EZNEC to be exactly zero. (NOTE: For High Accuracy ground, the connection will be unpredictably lossy (resistive). See Real Ground Types. Serious errors will occur if wires cross or occupy the same space. Because wires can be connected only at their ends, simply crossing wires won't connect them, and would cause severe calculation errors if not for EZNEC's Geometry Check feature which prevents calculation when this error is present. (The calculating engine won't object to wires crossing at segment junctions, and will consider them connected. However, these connections won't be recognized by the interface portion of EZNEC, so errors can easily be made. Also, any change in wire length, orientation, or number of segments will break the connections. Therefore, attempting to make connections at segment junctions other than wire ends is strongly discouraged.) As an example, modeling an "X" - shaped structure with the recommended restrictions requires four wires if the cross members are connected at the center of the "X". Modeling the following wire grid

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Building The Model

requires 24 wires. Each side of each square is a separate wire. A common problem involves wire spacing. When wires are to be close but not connected, users frequently space them very close, sometimes a fraction of an inch or centimeter when the wavelength is tens of meters. This isn't good practice, and can lead to numerical problems. (It's difficult for any program to deal with wires which are 40 meters long but spaced .0001 meter apart.) Always use realistic spacing. If you're analyzing a 3 MHz antenna, you probably can space wires six inches (15 cm) without materially affecting the antenna operation. If you can, do so. If you can't, make sure the results aren't unduly sensitive to the spacing or number of segments. If they are, numerical problems might be occurring. More information about closely spaced wires and wires intersecting at an acute angle is given in the sections below. Wires are divided into segments for computational purposes, and good segmentation is essential to accurate results. See the Segmentation section for more information about this important topic. Several NEC guidelines are checked by the automatic Segmentation Check. It runs automatically when you open a file or change the wire description, or you can run it manually at any time. There are two sets of guidelines: conservative and minimum recommended. In general, the conservative guidelines will result in more segments and better accuracy than the minimum recommended. It's impossible to place an accuracy figure on either set of guidelines, because the effect of small errors in current amplitude or distribution can vary greatly, depending on the type of antenna and the role the wire plays. As a general rule, you should use more conservative guidelines when modeling antennas which have a narrow bandwidth or use parasitic elements, such as a Yagi. See Segmentation for more information. More serious errors, such as crossing or overlapping wires are detected by the Geometry Check, which can be run manually at any time but always runs at the beginning of a calculation. Unlike the segmentation check, you can't choose to ignore these errors; EZNEC will refuse to do the calculations if geometry errors exist. Bear in mind that neither check

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EZNEC User Manual can find all possible errors, so care and knowledge on the part of the user are still required. The Some Special Cases section describes special considerations which need to be taken when modeling several common configurations. Additional and more detailed information about the Wires Window and View Antenna display can be found in the Reference section.

Segmentation
Each wire is divided into segments for analysis purposes. The NEC calculating engine assumes that the current has an essentially sinusoidal shape over the length of a segment, and that the currents of adjacent segments match at their junctions and some distance beyond. This makes the problem one of finding a finite number of impedances, currents, and field strength contributions. Some of the skill in modeling is in choosing the number of segments. EZNEC will choose for you (with its automatic segmentation feature) if you wish, but its choice will often not be best. Although accuracy generally improves when more segments are specified, computation time increases approximately as the square of the number of segments. A useful rule of thumb is 10 segments per half wavelength for pattern/gain analysis, and perhaps twice that number if really accurate impedance values are required. Wires joining at very acute angles may require more segments (see Acute Angles). If in doubt, a straightforward way of telling whether you've specified enough is to increase the number and see how much the results change. You should also develop the habit of looking at the currents on the wires. Abrupt current changes might indicate an insufficient number of segments (but note that apparently abrupt phase reversals at wire end connections may be due to internal conventions of assigning current direction see Interpreting The Results). One place more segments aren't better is if wires of different diameters are connected in a configuration which EZNEC can't correct with its stepped diameter correction. (This isn't a problem with the NEC-4 engine in EZNEC Pro/4.) See Stepped Diameter. Determining a reasonable number of segments isn't as hard as it sounds. You'll soon get a good feel for about how many you need to get the shape of a pattern or a feedpoint impedance with the accuracy you need. Altering the number of segments is often part or all of a solution to a problem of poor average gain. Refer to that topic for more information. In looking at models created by EZNEC users, it's apparent that many people use more segments than necessary. This is usually no disadvantage in small models, but it unnecessarily increases calculation time, and often is the source of a perception that not enough segments are available. One important thing to keep in mind is that if a wire carries little current, it contributes little to the overall field, since the field is proportional to the current. Consequently, wires that carry little current can often be given fewer segments than the "minimum recommended" number, or even removed from the model altogether. The exception to this is situations where deep nulls or high front-back ratios have to be determined. In those cases, even the small fields from wires with little current can modify the results and should be undersegmented or removed with care.

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Building The Model When studying the effect of an undriven nearby antenna, the model of the nearby antenna can frequently be undersegmented or simplified a great deal. For example, the elements of a 20 meter beam are far from being resonant on 15 meters, so constant diameter, somewhat undersegmented elements could be used for the 20 meter beam when analyzing its effect at 21 MHz. The tip in the Log Periodic Antennas section for segmenting that type of antenna might give you some ideas for others. See Some Special Cases in "Modeling The Antenna Structure" for some examples where the number of segments or segment length requires special consideration. Also see the index under "Segments" or "Segmentation" for additional references. EZNEC permits a maximum total of 500 segments, and EZNEC+, 1500. EZNEC Pro programs EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4 permit 20,000.

Using The Wires Window

Other than the Control Center, the Wires Window is probably the part of the program you'll interact with most. This is the place where the basic structure of the antenna is defined. The antenna is made from straight wires. The location, diameter, and interconnection of these wires are all defined in the Wires Window. The Wires Window is opened by clicking on the Wires line in the Control Center Information Window. Open the Wires Window by clicking on the Control Center Wires line or the button to its left. Wires are defined by specifying their end coordinates in the appropriate grid cells. However, several structures such as loops and helices can be created without specifying any end coordinates. Also, wires and groups of wires can be easily modified and copied, so you can almost always begin with very simple geometries and then modify the wires to reflect the actual design. Menus and selections in the following paragraphs refer to the Wires Window. Unless otherwise noted, a sequence like Wire/Add refers to first the menu, then the selection(s). For example, Wire/Add means the Add selection in the Wires menu (in the Wires Window). Adding Wires To add any number of wires, select Wire/Add. Enter the number of wires in the upper box. If the lower box is left unchanged, the new wire(s) will be added below the existing wires. If desired, you can specify other locations for the new wire(s) by entering the position in the lower box. To add a single wire, you can also simply type the coordinates, diameter, and number of segments in the add row, then press <Enter> or click on another row of the grid. Any cells left blank will be filled with duplicates of the values for the last wire. Entering End Coordinates Coordinates are entered in the appropriate columns of the grid. Coordinates can also be modified by means of editing shortcuts. International users: Numbers must use the decimal separator defined by your Windows regional setting. Entering Wire Diameter

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EZNEC User Manual Diameter can be entered as a number or as American wire gauge (AWG). The units used for numerical diameter are shown near the top of the grid column. To enter diameter as a wire gauge, prefix it with #'. For example, AWG 12 wire is specified as #12. Note that wires specified as gauge aren't scaled if frequency scaling is done, but can be scaled with the Scale Wires feature. See About Wires for diameter limitations.. Entering The Number of Segments The number of segments is entered in the Segs column. Choosing the correct number of segments is something of an art and skill. See Overview for more information. Defining Wire Insulation Please refer to Wire Insulation for a full description of this feature. Selecting Wires Deleting, copying, and moving wires require first selecting which ones are to be operated on. In addition, wires can be selected before starting Group Modify. To select a wire, click on the button on the left side of the appropriate row. The selected wire will be highlighted. To select additional wires, hold <Ctrl> down when clicking the button. To select a group of wires, select the first wire, then hold <Shift> while clicking the last wire in the group. Deleting Wires The current wire, or selected wires, can be deleted by pressing the <Delete> key. Alternatively, a sequential group of wires can be deleted by selecting Wire/Delete and specifying which to delete. Changing the Position of Wires in the List To move wires in the list, first select the wires as described above. Then Move Wire(s) in List from the Wire menu. You'll be asked for the location in the list for them to be put. You can also select Wire/Copy or Wire/Move Wire(s) in List before selecting wires, in which case you'll be asked for a range of wire numbers to copy or move. Copying, Moving, and Rotating Wires To copy, move, or rotate wires in the model, first select the wires as described above. Then open the Wire menu and select Copy Wires, Move Wires XYZ, Rotate Wires, or Stack. The individual dialog boxes offer additional choices for the action you've chosen. You can also choose the action from the Wire menu before selecting wires, in which case you'll be asked for a range of wire numbers to copy or move. Scaling Wires Lengths and optionally diameters of any selection of wires can be multiplied by a constant factor by selecting Scale Wires in the Wire menu. Note however that both ends of the wire will change unless one end is at the origin. To change the lengths of wires while keeping one end fixed, use the Change Length By or Change Length To shortcut instead. Making Multiple Offset and/or Rotated Copies of Wires (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) Multiple offset and/or rotated copies of a wire or group of wires can be made with the Make Multiple Copies feature in the Wire menu. Each copy is offset and/or

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Building The Model rotated from the previous one by the specified amount. This feature can also be used to move a wire or group of wires without copying, although this can be done more easily using other features. Making a Cylindrical Structure (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only) The feature makes copies of the selected wires and places them in an evenly spaced circle around the Z axis. Choose Make Cylindrical Struct in the Wire menu. Reflecting Wires in a Plane (EZNEC+, EZNEC pro only) A copy of selected wires can be made which are positioned as though reflected in any of the three principal planes by choosing Reflect Wires in the Wire menu. Note that the direction of reflected wires might appear reversed from the originals depending on their orientation and the reflection plane. Therefore, the phase angle of copied sources might have to be changed by 180 degrees to achieve the expected result. Modifying Wires Wires can be modified individually, or if desired, a group of wires can be modified at the same time using the Group Modify feature. The procedure is the same for both cases, except that to modify a group of wires, Group Modify must first be activated. Basic modification of one parameter is done simply by entering the new value in the cell, then pressing <Enter> or clicking on a cell in another grid row. But EZNEC also has a number of shortcut features that make it easy to modify wires. These shortcuts are described in a separate section. Modifying A Group of Wires Group Modify See Group Modify for information about this powerful feature. Changing the Antenna Height To change the height of the entire antenna or any group of wires, select Other/Change Height By, and enter the amount by which you want to change the height. This simply modifies the z coordinate of both ends of all wires by the specified amount. Printing or Saving the Wire Coordinates To print the wire coordinates or save them to a file, select Other/Print/Save Wire List. This opens the EZNEC Editor with a formatted list of the wire coordinates. You can save or print the data from this window. For a similar display which includes other features of the model such as sources and loads, see the Control Center Outputs menu. Other Features EZNEC has a number of very powerful features for modifying groups of wires, located in the Wires Window Wires menu. There are also several powerful features in the Create menu, described in the Advanced Wire Features section. Wire Information (wire, segment length) You can see the wire and segment length for any wire by right-clicking the box at the left of the row. Importing Wires Wire end coordinates can be imported from a simple ASCII file. This isn't intended to substitute for EZNEC's file format, but primarily as a way to import wire end coordinates generated by another program. Wires are imported by selecting Import Wires From ASCII File in

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EZNEC User Manual the Other menu. The file format is detailed in the Wire Coordinate File section. You can add the imported wires to your existing description or you can replace the existing wires with the imported ones. See Importing Wire Coordinates for additional information. Change Units, Retain Numbers This option allows you to recover from an easy trap to fall into. It's easy to begin entering data only to find that you're not using the units you intended. For example, you might be entering data intended to be in meters into a grid where the units are feet. This option, in the Other menu, lets you recover without having to re-enter the coordinates. It will change the units but leave the numbers you entered (and all others in the grid) intact. Coord Entry Mode This check box is just above the data entry grid. When checked, all columns except the wire coordinate columns are skipped. This allows faster entry of a large number of wire coordinates. Preserve Connections This is a powerful feature but it must be used with caution. It's a good idea to use the View Antenna display while this feature is enabled. When Preserve Connections is on and you modify a wire end, all wires connected to that end are also modified so their connections to it are preserved. This can be used with Group Modify to preserve the connections of all modified wires. If selected wires are both modified and connected to each other, unpredictable results can occur. So be sure to verify that each operation did what you intended before doing the next modification, and use the undo feature when necessary. Preserve Connections is turned off each time you close the Wires Window. A number of other features are described in the Features chapter of the Reference section. Tip: Turn on the View Antenna display when entering or modifying values in the Wires Window. This allows you to immediately see the changes you've made.

Wire Coordinate Shortcuts

EZNEC includes powerful features to help you modify wires without having to determine coordinates. For example, you can easily change the length of a wire, or rotate it about one end. Shortcuts can be applied to either individual wires or, in Group Edit mode, to groups of wires. Wire coordinate shortcuts can be applied in two ways, both in the Wires Window. One is to right-click any coordinate cell in the Wires Window grid. The other is to enter a special shortcut abbreviation for the desired action into a coordinate cell. (Shortcut text abbreviations aren't case-sensitive.) Each of the selections below appears in the popup menu you get if you right-click one of the coordinate cells. For example, to use the first method to change the coordinates of wire 4 end 1 so that it connects to wire 3 end 2, you right-click the X, Y, or Z column in the End 1 group of the Wire 4 row. This opens the shortcut popup menu. Select Connect End To. In the dialog box, enter 3 in the Wire to connect to box, and 2 in the End to connect to box, then click Ok or press <Enter>. To use the second method,

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Building The Model enter W3E2 in the X, Y, or Z column in the End 1 group of the Wire 4 row, then press <Enter> or move the mouse cursor to another cell. Unless otherwise noted, the shortcut is applied only to the end of the wire where the mouse cursor is located when the right mouse button is pressed. This will be called the "current end". A change will be applied only to the current wire (that is, the wire number of the row where the mouse cursor is located when the mouse is right-clicked) unless in Group Edit mode. If in Group Edit mode, the change will be applied to all selected wires. See Using The Wires Window for more information about Group Edit. All shortcuts except Change Coordinate By will or can change all three of the end coordinates (x, y, and z) regardless of which of the three cells the mouse cursor is placed on or where the shortcut text abbreviation is entered. International users please note: Floating point numbers (numbers with a fractional part) must have the proper decimal separator. NOTE: Only the Connect End To shortcut is available in the Add Row (the blank line at the bottom of the grid). Connect End To This is a convenient way to connect a wire end to an end of another wire. Simply specify the wire number and end to which you want the current end connected. The text abbreviation for this shortcut is W#E# where # are the number of the wire and end you want to connect to. See the example above. Change Coordinate By This shortcut adds or subtracts the specified amount to or from the current end coordinate. Unlike all other shortcuts, this affects only the particular coordinate where the entry is made. The text abbreviation for this shortcut is ++# to increase, or - -# to decrease, the coordinate by #. For example, to decrease the Wire 4, End 2 y coordinate by 3, you can enter - -3 in the appropriate cell. Change Length By This shortcut changes the length of a wire by the specified amount. The current end is modified while the other end is fixed. Wire direction is unchanged. The text abbreviation for this shortcut is L+# to increase the length by #, or L-# to decrease it by #. The length of a zero-length wire can't be changed because the direction isn't defined. Change Length To Use this shortcut to make the wire a particular length without changing the wire direction. The current end is modified and the other end is fixed. The text abbreviation for this shortcut is L# to change the length to #. The length of a zero-length wire can't be changed because the wire direction isn't defined. Multiply Length By, Divide Length By These function like Change Length By, above, except they multiply or divide the length by the specified amount rather than adding or subtracting a fixed amount. The text abbreviation for this shortcut is L*# to multiply and L/# to divide. Elevation Rotate End, Azimuth Rotate End This shortcut rotates the current end of the wire, leaving the length and other end fixed. The rotation amount is specified in degrees. For elevation rotation, a positive angle causes rotation upward, negative downward. For azimuth rotation,

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EZNEC User Manual a positive angle results in counterclockwise rotation, negative in clockwise rotation. When elevation rotation is done, the azimuth angle of the wire is unchanged. A vertical or near-vertical wire can't be rotated in elevation because the azimuth angle is undefined. When azimuth rotation is done, the elevation angle of the wire is unchanged. The text abbreviation for these shortcuts are RE# and RA# for elevation and azimuth rotation respectively, where # is the angle to rotate in degrees. Additional operations and more detailed information can be found in The Wires Window chapter in the Reference section.

Wire Loss
Realistic wire loss can be included in the model. In the vast majority of typical antennas, wire loss doesn't cause enough difference to be of concern, but it can be important particularly with electrically small antennas. Currently, only one type of metal or one amount of resistivity and permeability can be specified for the entire antenna model. However, only one part of the model or another typically dominates the loss, and choosing its characteristic will produce good results. If the metal is plated, the plating material should be specified unless the plating is exceptionally thin or the frequency low. EZNEC assumes that the specified material is at least several skin depths thick at the analysis frequency. Copperclad steel wire consisting of a thick layer of copper over steel will have the loss characteristics of copper, so that metal should be specified. If you're not sure whether a plating is several skin depths thick, run a calculation with the resistivity of the plating metal, then with the underlying metal. The actual antenna performance will be somewhere between these limits. (In some special circumstances, it can theoretically be a bit outside the limits, but not enough to be likely to alter any conclusions about antenna performance.) Wire loss is specified by clicking the Wire Loss line in the Control Center Information Window. This opens a dialog box which allows you to choose from a number of common metals or enter the resistivity and permeability. Please note: The value used by EZNEC is the bulk resistivity of the metal, not the DC or RF resistance per unit length of the wire. The bulk resistivity doesn't change with wire diameter; it's a function only of the metal of the wire or the outer layer of the wire if plated (assuming, as EZNEC does, that the outer layer is at least several skin depths thick). EZNEC calculates the skin depth from the bulk resistivity and frequency, and uses that and the diameter of the wire to determine how much resistance each wire has. If you know the resistance per unit length of a solid, non-plated or layered wire, you can calculate the bulk resistivity of the metal from Rb = R' A where Rb is the bulk resistivity in ohm-meters, R' is the wire's resistivity in ohms per meter length, and A is the cross-sectional diameter of the wire in square meters. Wire loss is especially important to include in a model showing low source resistance. In these antennas, wire loss can sometimes be substantial. You can determine the amount of loss caused by the wire by calculating the pattern with zero wire loss and realistic wire loss and comparing the gain.

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Building The Model If feedpoint resistance is very low and your model has a single source, you should temporarily remove the wire loss to insure that the source resistance isn't negative. A negative source resistance with a single source model is an indication of numerical problems, and it can sometimes be concealed by wire loss. See Source Placement Precautions for more information.

Wire Insulation
Important note: The Wire Insulation feature is accurate only for a thin insulation layer, and dielectric constants in the range of those of typical wire insulating materials. Attempts to extend its use to purposes other than simulating the effect of wire insulation will produce inaccurate results. EZNEC has the capability of including the effect of wire insulation. Only the pro programs provide for lossy insulation, but the loss of normal insulation coatings will have virtually no effect on antenna performance. The loss feature is useful only for very unusual circumstances, not typically encountered. The parameter choices appear as new columns in the Wires Window grid. These columns can be hidden for convenience if desired, via the checkbox above the grid. If you right-click any of the insulation columns, you'll get a dialog box for convenient entry. Here's how the dialog box works: The first three fixed choices, PVC (polyvinyl chloride), PTFE (Teflon), and PE (polyethylene or polythene), will enter values for dielectric constant (k, or relative permittivity) and (pro only) loss tangent into the grid but won't alter the thickness value already in the grid. The None choice and the three custom choices will replace the thickness value. Choices, including custom values, are saved permanently unless you close the dialog box with <Esc> or Cancel. The intent of the custom values is to let you enter parameters appropriate for some specific wire you might be using for antenna construction. To set insulation to zero, enter a thickness of zero. For convenience, there's a None choice in the dialog box which will do this. A dielectric constant of 1 and (pro only) loss of zero will result in no effect. However, calculations will be done any time the thickness isn't zero. Insulation thickness is scaled when the antenna is scaled. Insulation properties of added wires are copied from the wire just preceding, as are the diameter and number of segments. The Segmentation and Geometry checks and the stepped diameter correction don't take any notice of the insulation, since its effect as a percentage of wire length is generally small (typically on the order of 2 - percent. Segment length rules won't change significantly when using wire insulation unless (EZNEC Pro/4 only) the insulation is on buried wires and is relatively thick. When the insulation's dielectric constant is considerably lower than that of the medium (possible only with buried conductors, available only with EZNEC Pro/4), the velocity factor increases significantly, so segments can be longer. This is under consideration for a future modification of the Geometry Check feature. The characteristics of PVC vary widely, so the values are a rough average for the HF range. The Custom windows can be used for any values you think are better. (EZNEC Pro only):

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EZNEC User Manual EZNEC Pro programs also permit you to specify insulation loss, but you'll find that even a fairly gross loss tangent doesn't make a huge difference. PTFE and PE are pretty constant over a wide range of frequencies, so the fixed values should be adequate for nearly any use. Loss tangent stays relatively constant with frequency, while conductivity doesn't, so loss tangent was chosen for loss specification. For any reasonable loss tangent, the loss tangent is for practical purposes equal to the dissipation or power factor. So table values of DF or PF can be used directly. The level of loss associated with normal wire insulation generally has only a small effect on overall performance, so it will probably be most useful for unusual coatings.

Importing Wire Coordinates

Wire coordinates can be imported from an ASCII file in a simple format, either replacing or adding to the existing model. This can be used to import coordinates from another program. To import wire coordinates, select Import Wires From ASCII file in the Wires Window Other menu, or the Control Center File menu. The file format is described in the Wire Coordinate File section. Combining and importing are sometimes confused. If you want to add an existing description to your present model, see Combining Antenna Descriptions.

Other Wire Considerations

Some NEC literature cautions against permitting the center of a segment to lie within the volume of another wire. See the Geometry Check topic for an illustration of this condition. It can occur when segments are short, wires have large diameters, and intersection angles are acute. I haven't been able to devise a test which shows any adverse effects from permitting this to happen, so it should be allowed to happen only if erroneous results are likely to be recognized if they should occur. The Geometry Check tests for this condition, but the test can be disabled for the current description via the Control Center Desc Options selection. This choice is saved with the description. A case was found where EZNEC produced results which were very inaccurate, and showed great sensitivity to the number of segments. This case was where a wire approached the middle of another at an angle, but wasn't connected, like an insulated guy wire at the midpoint of a tower. Reliable results were obtained only by spacing the end of the "guy wire" from the "tower" by about a segment length. With slightly closer spacings, reasonable results were obtained by making sure the segment lengths of both wires were the same, and the junctions were directly across from each other, as viewed through the bisector of the angle they formed. EZNEC Pro/4 with an NEC-4 calculating engine may not be as sensitive, but use care with this wire arrangement, and make sure it isn't highly sensitive to the number of segments.

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Advanced Wire Features

Advanced Wire Features Introduction Advanced wire features are available for easily creating and modifying antenna structures. Automated wire grid creation is available only in EZNEC Pro program types. Helix, Loop, Radial, and Wire Grid Creation features are accessed via the Wires Window Create menu. The others are accessed via the Wire menu. See Using The Wires Window for discussion of additional features. Loop Creation To create a loop, open the Create menu in the Wires Window and select Loop. Although the dialog box might appear complex, it's actually quite simple to use. Most items are self-explanatory. The wire diameter can be entered either as a value, or as a wire gauge, just like wires in the main wire entry grid. In the Loop Size frame, you can define the loop size in any one of three ways, by circumference, side length, or the approximate diameter (the diameter of the circumscribed circle). As you enter a value, the remaining two are calculated for you. You can position the loop anywhere, and can orient it with its axis in any of the three principal directions. Loop Resizing You can use the loop resizing feature (Wires Window, Wires menu, Change Loop Size) to change the size of any polygonal loop. The first step is to specify the loop, by selecting the wires in the Wires Window or View Antenna display. Or you can click the selection before you select wires, in which case you'll have to choose a set of wires in numerical sequence. The selected wires have to be connected in a loop, of course, and no wires can be connected to the loop other than the wires comprising the loop. If you've recently created a loop, its wires will be entered as an initial choice. The buttons and text box at the bottom of the dialog box allow you to modify the size with any of three different operations, on any of three loop size measurements. Radial Creation EZNEC's automated radial creation feature is a convenient way to make a group of radial wires. This feature is accessed from the Wires Window, Create menu, Create Radials selection. When this selection is made, a dialog box appears which prompts for a range of "prototype" wires. To make a simple set of radials, you should first create a single radial wire. End 1 of the radial wire should be where you want the center of the radials to be. Enter its number as both the first and last wires in the prototype group. In the bottom box, enter the total number of radials you want the finished structure to have, then click Ok. The radials will be created, fanning out evenly around end 1 of the prototype wire. A vertical wire can't be used as the prototype. More complex radial structures can be made by specifying a group of wires as the prototype radial to be copied. A prototype group of wires has to be 49

EZNEC User Manual sequentially numbered (that is, you can't use wires 1, 2, and 4 as the prototype group, for example) and must be connected end 1 to end 2. This group of wires will then be duplicated, centered around end 1 of the first wire in the prototype group. The first wire in the group can't be vertical, since this would result in the first wire of the copies all occupying the same space. Helix Creation The helix creation dialog box opens when you select Helix from the Wires Window Create menu. Most entries are self-explanatory. In the Turns/Spacing/Length frame, you must choose any two measures for the length; the third will be calculated and entered automatically. If you check the "Extend ends to helix axis", an extra wire will be created on each end of the helix, extending to the helix axis. Only plain cylindrical helices are created. Turn spacing should be at least two wire diameters, and ideally several wire diameters. A few experiments, making use of the Undo feature, will quickly get you acquainted with the various features. Wire Grid Creation The automated wire grid creation feature is available only in EZNEC Pro programs (EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4). For information about manually creating wire grid structures, see Wire Grid Modeling. A wire grid is a good way to simulate a flat, solid, conductive surface such as a metal roof or car top. A wire grid looks like a screen, with each side of each screen hole made from a wire. (See the diagram in the About Wires section.) In general, the best implementation is for each side of each hole to be a single onesegment wire. Although wire grid modeling is an art in itself, a few general rules have evolved which give good results for most situations. One is that the size of the holes (that is, the wire spacing) shouldn't exceed about 0.1 wavelength. Some studies have indicated that a coarser structure is adequate far from the source, where current is lower. The same general rule should be followed here as for elsewhere in any model, that segmentation needs to be finer when the current changes rapidly from one segment to another. Another general practice is to make the surface area of the wires equal to the area of the surface being modeled. This requires larger diameter wires than normally used (diameter equal to the spacing divided by pi), but usually produces the best results. EZNEC provides an automated method which greatly simplifies the creation of wire grids. Wire grid definition is done with a dialog box opened by selecting Create Wire Grid from the Wires Window Other menu. It requires you to specify the coordinates of three corners of the grid, then EZNEC will do the rest. You can adjust the wire spacing and diameter if you wish. But the default values, which follow the rules described above, are generally adequate. The Wire Grid Creation dialog box is opened by choosing Other/Create Wire Grid in the Wires Window. In the dialog box, note the rectangular area with "GRID" shown in the center, and with "Side A" and "Side B" labeled. This represents the physical grid. Sets of text boxes labeled "X", "Y", and "Z" are placed close to the corners of the grid which

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Building The Model their coordinates represent. That is, the coordinates on the upper left are for the upper left corner of the grid (the junction of Side A and Side B), and so forth. The approximate number of wires to be created is shown near the lower left. If insufficient information has been entered to calculate the number of wires, "Data incomplete" appears. Note: After creating a wire grid using the default wire spacing, Segmentation Check will show that the segment length exceeds the conservative maximum. This is normal. X, Y, Z (three sets) In these boxes, enter the coordinates of three corners of the grid. Note that it's possible to create a parallelogram as well as a rectangle by the appropriate choice of coordinates. The units of the coordinates are the current units chosen for EZNEC, which is shown below the lower left set of coordinates. Incl Side A Wires If this box is unchecked, the wires along Side A will be left off. This option is used when connecting two wire grids, to avoid creating duplicate wires at their junction. Grid Spacing Allows you to specify the spacing between wires (the width of the holes). The default value of 0.1 wavelength can be easily selected by checking the box. Wire Diameter Allows you to specify the wire diameter. The default value of spacing/pi, which results in wire area equal to modeled surface area, can be selected by checking the box.

Stepped Diameter Correction

Stepped Diameter Correction Overview The following information applies only to the NEC-2 calculating engine(s), which are the only choices for all EZNEC program types except EZNEC Pro/4. This problem doesn't occur when using NEC-4 with EZNEC Pro/4 for calculations unless there are extreme differences in the diameters of connected wires. In general, if you have EZNEC Pro/4, you should use an NEC-4 calculating engine whenever wires of different diameters are connected. NEC-2 is known to be inaccurate in modeling connected wires having different diameters. (Note: This is sometimes called being "tapered". It shouldn't be confused with EZNEC's segment length tapering.) The problem gets worse as the segments near the junctions get shorter and as the diameter difference gets larger. The error is small enough that it's not important for many applications, such as evaluating a tower top-loaded with a beam. However, if the stepped diameters are on a parasitic element or exceptionally high-Q antenna, the inaccuracy can cause significantly bad results. EZNEC incorporates a method developed by Dave Leeson and described in his book Physical Design of Yagi Antennas (ARRL, 1992) for calculating an equivalent wire of constant diameter to replace a group of wires of different diameters. The method is valid only under a narrow range of circumstances, however, and EZNEC will apply it only under those circumstances. The requirements are that: - There must be at least two wires in the group.

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EZNEC User Manual - At least two of the wires must have different diameters. - All wires in the group must be collinear (in a straight line). - All wires must be connected to each other. - Both ends of the group must be open, or one end open and one connected to ground. - The group must be nearly resonant (within about 15% of half-wave resonance if both ends are open, or within about 15% of quarter-wave resonance if one end is grounded). - Only one source is permitted in the group, and it must be at the center if the ends are open, or at the bottom segment if the group is grounded. If the ends are open and the center of the group is a wire or segment junction, the source must be a split source. If the group is grounded, the source must not be a split source. - The rules for loads are the same as for sources, except that two equal loads must be used wherever a split source would be used. - A single transmission line can be connected to the group. If the ends of the group are open, the center of the group must be a segment center -- not segment or wire junction -- and the transmission line can be connected only to this segment. If the group is grounded, the transmission line can be connected only to the bottom segment. These criteria apply to typical Yagi elements made from telescoping tubing, one of the most demanding cases where the correction is needed. The correction won't be applied to a gamma match, another sensitive application, so attempting to model gamma matches isn't recommended if very accurate results are required. A bright notice will appear on the EZNEC screen during calculation when the stepped-diameter correction is being used for one or more groups of wires. You can see exactly what the substitutions are from the Wires Window by selecting Other/Show Stepped Dia Correction. (See Using The Stepped Diameter Correction Display.) The correction can be disabled from the Options Menu if desired, but this isn't recommended. In situations where wires of different diameters are connected but EZNEC's stepped-diameter correction doesn't apply, a technique can be used to minimize the error. This is to use the minimum number of segments possible, and do not use segment length tapering. (Exception: wires very near ground. See Elevated Radial Systems. The accuracy of NEC-2 is worst in the presence of stepped diameters when the segment length/diameter ratio is small. Especially when confronted with a large difference in diameters, the best accuracy will be obtained if you use the automatic segmentation feature in the Wires Window, and select (M)in. recommended. The accuracy is still not likely to be good enough for accurate modeling of parasitic elements if the built-in correction can't be applied. The inaccuracy of NEC-2 in the presence of large steps in diameter typically shows up as an incorrect reactance. If you design an antenna with parasitic elements having connected wires with largely differing diameters, EZNEC will give an accurate idea of the antenna performance. However, it will show the

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Building The Model performance occurring at not quite the correct frequency. When you actually build the antenna, you can expect the predicted performance, but may need to adjust parasitic element lengths slightly to achieve that performance at the desired frequency. For example, if EZNEC shows your "X-beam" to have a gain of 6 dBi, front/back ratio of 20 dB, and feedpoint SWR of 1.5:1 at 14 MHz, you might find when you build it that the front/back ratio is much worse than predicted at 14 MHz but is very good at 14.5. In this case, you would need to lengthen the parasitic element until you get the best front/back ratio at 14 MHz. The beam will then have very nearly 6 dBi of gain and 1.5:1 SWR at 14 MHz. Using the Stepped Diameter Correction Display The stepped diameter correction display shows you exactly what substitutions EZNEC has made to correct for connected wires of different diameter. One of its most important uses is to make sure that all the elements of a Yagi or similar antenna are being corrected. The stepped diameter correction display is shown by first opening the Wires Window, then choosing Show Stepped Dia Correction from the Other menu. One of two indications will be shown for each wire. If coordinates and diameter are shown for the wire, that wire is being corrected, and the coordinates and diameter are those of the wire being substituted by EZNEC. Notice that the diameter of all substituted wires in an element are the same, and that the element length has been modified slightly. These are the consequence of the substitution process, and will give accurate results. The other possible indication is a message, spread out over several columns, briefly telling why the "group" (of connected wires) hasn't been corrected. All the elements in a Yagi, for example, should be corrected. So if any elements show as not being corrected, you should return to the ordinary Wires Window display by selecting Show Stepped Dia Correction from the Other menu (to turn it off), fixing the problem, and checking again until all wires are being corrected.

Some Special Cases

Acute Angles NEC has some difficulty in accurately modeling multiple wires joining at a very acute angle, such as with a "fan" antenna, the difficulty being greater with NEC-2 than with NEC-4. The problem has a different cause than the MININEC problem of "cutting corners", and quads are modeled very well by EZNEC without special attention. However, when modeling very acutely-intersecting wires, evaluate the results carefully, particularly if a source or load is at or near the junction. It has been reported that EZNEC's segment length tapering feature (originally developed for MININEC-based ELNEC) improves the accuracy in this situation, provided that the wires all have similar diameters. Segment length tapering is likely to degrade the accuracy with wires of greatly different diameter. (Exception: wires very near ground. See Elevated Radial Systems. Another method which has been reported to work is to put a separate source on each wire, rather than a single one near their junction.

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EZNEC User Manual One problem with wires intersecting at an acute angle is that it's often difficult to avoid the problem of the center of one segment lying within another wire. This problem is most likely when segment length is short near the junction. See the Other Wire Considerations and Geometry Check topics for additional information. Buried Wires NEC-2 is not able to model buried wires or conductors, so all conductors must be above ground unless using EZNEC Pro/4 with an NEC-4 calculating engine selected. The remainder of this section applies only to EZNEC Pro/4 when using an NEC4 calculating engine. For information about simulating buried wires with other EZNEC program types, see Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials and Connecting to High Accuracy Ground. There are only a few restrictions on modeling buried wires, as follow: 1. The Real, High Accuracy (NEC Sommerfeld) ground model must be used. 2. Horizontal wires should be at least several wire diameters below the surface. 3. Wires can penetrate the ground (z = 0) only at a segment junction. It's recommended that penetration be done at a wire end. That is, have the above-ground wire end at z = 0, and make the portion below ground be a separate wire, connecting to the above-ground wire at z = 0. This way, the connection won't move, and the requirement will be satisfied, if you change the wire lengths or number of segments. 4. The velocity factor under ground is often a fraction of the velocity factor in free space. Consequently, many more segments are required for the most accurate results. EZNEC Pro/4's Segmentation Check takes this into account, and shows warnings or cautions if segments are too short. On the other hand, the loss associated with ground often permits coarser segmentation than general guidelines indicate. This is one of those cases where some experimentation, trying different numbers of segments to see where accuracy begins suffering, is required if the segment count needs to be minimized. Closely Spaced Wires When modeling parallel or nearly parallel wires which are closely spaced, it can be very important to align the segment junctions. That is, they should be directly across from each other. This is particularly true if the segment length is greater than the line spacing. As the segment length gets shorter compared to the wire spacing, this requirement becomes less important. When segment junctions are misaligned but need to be aligned, results can change dramatically as segmentation is changed. The easiest way to assure that aligned parallel wires have aligned segment junctions is to give the wires identical lengths and numbers of segments. If the wires are staggered or different lengths, break them into more wires. Make the portions of the wires which are directly across from each other into separate wires of equal length and number of segments. An example of this technique is

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Building The Model shown below, where the long wire of a J-pole antenna was broken into two wires. Wire 4 is made the same length and given the same number of segments as parallel wire 6. The upper wire is segmented to make its segment length approximately equal to the segment length on wire 4. (This is a close up view some of the long wire, and its number, aren't shown.)

If it's necessary to test whether alignment is necessary in a particular situation, change the segmentation of one of the wires so that the segment junction alignment changes, and note the change in results. If the change is significant, segment alignment is important. In all cases, wire spacing should be at least several wire diameters. Crossed Dipoles To model two dipoles fed at a common point (sometimes called "crossed dipoles" -- see figure below), feed by inserting a wire between the pairs of dipole halves and place the source on the wire. The wire length should be a minimum of 0.02 wavelength, and have three segments. (See Source Placement Precautions.)

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Elevated Radial Systems A number of people have showed an interest in modeling systems of radial wires placed at very low heights above ground. A system of very low wires can be used to simulate the performance of buried radials. Experiments were done comparing various modeling codes, resulting in the following guidelines: 1. The minimum recommended height for modeling ground radial systems is 0.0001 wavelength, or the diameter of the vertical wire, whichever is greater. 2. No special techniques are required if the radials are at a height of at least 0.001 wavelength and at least the diameter of the vertical wire. Ordinary segmentation can be used. Even stepped diameters don't require special attention with the NEC-2 engine in this situation. This height is recommended for simulating buried radials with NEC 2, or radials placed on the surface of the ground. 3. If the radials are between 0.001 and 0.0001 wavelength high, segment length tapering should be used. The minimum segment length should be made equal to the height of the radial system. The default maximum is adequate. In the Minimum Segment Length box, enter the height of the radial system above ground. When placed on such a short wire, the source must be surrounded by equal-length segments. After tapering, combine the source wire and the one above into a single wire with 3 segments, then move the source to the center of this wire. If, for example, the original vertical wire was wire 1, with end 1 at the bottom (as in example file ElevRad1.ez), first taper all wires. Then select any coordinate of end 2 of wire 1 and enter 'W2E2' to make its coordinates the same as end 2 of wire 2. Change the number of segments of wire 1 to 3. Then delete wire 2. Finally, move the source to the center of wire 1. The result should look like ElevRad2.ez. I don't know of any good experimental measurements of the sky-wave field strength from verticals with elevated radial systems. There are a few groundwave measurements. NEC-2 and NEC-4 both show ground-wave field strengths 56

Building The Model for elevated systems which are stronger than some measurements seem to indicate, particularly at frequencies of 3 MHz and below, so there may be some doubt about the accuracy of the signal strengths reported by EZNEC for elevated radial systems. Feedlines and Baluns The radiation properties of a coaxial feedline can be modeled by connecting a wire of the coax shield's diameter to the point on the antenna where the shield connects. The wire is then routed (using additional wires to simulate bends) to ground along the path taken by the actual feedline. The ground path from the transmitter/receiver should be included, with wires of appropriate size. This can be done whether or not an EZNEC transmission line model is used to model the inside of the feedline. (See the Using Transmission Lines chapter for more information about using transmission line models. The Modeling Coaxial Cable topic also has additional information.) The job of a "current balun" or "choke balun" is to insert an impedance in the path formed by the outside of the shield. To model a balun, insert a load in series with the "coax" wire (the wire simulating the outside of the coax) at the point where a balun would be placed. A good balun will have an impedance of the order of 500-1000 ohms, and may be resistive, reactive, or a combination depending on construction. Accurate modeling requires knowledge of the balun impedance at the frequency of interest. The balun reduces the current in the "coax" wire, which means that the current on the outside of the actual coax feedline is reduced. It sometimes is necessary to insert more than one balun (quarter-wavelength spacing is typical) to reduce feedline outside current to a low level. Coaxial feedlines connected to "unbalanced" antennas like ground plane antennas aren't immune to induction of current, either, as you can confirm with EZNEC. Linear Loaded Antennas EZNEC Pro/4 gives accurate results for these antennas when using the NEC-4 calculating engines, so the following doesn't apply to EZNEC Pro/4 with an NEC4 engine. "Linear loaded" antennas (generally Yagis) are physically shortened by attaching to the elements wires which are parallel to, and spaced close to, the elements. EZNEC will not give accurate results for this type of antenna unless all the wires of a given element are the same diameter. This is due to NEC-2's inaccuracies when dealing with connected wires of different diameters and the fact that even small parasitic element errors have a major effect on the performance of a beam antenna. The stepped diameter correction used by EZNEC is not accurate for typical linear loaded elements and will not be applied to them. Log Periodic Antennas An integral part of log periodic antennas is the transmission line connecting the elements. This must be included in the model, since no valid assumptions can be made about the relative voltages and currents at the element centers. Transmission line segments between elements can be included as either wire

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EZNEC User Manual models or as transmission line models. If wire models are used, it can be difficult or impossible to place the source in a way that fulfills all the requirements for source placement (on a wire of at least 0.02 wavelength and three or more segments) as described in Source Placement Precautions. Results should be tested by changing the number of source wire segments, source wire diameter, and other parameters near the source to see if the answer remains relatively stable. The Average Gain feature should also be checked, and it can be used to correct the indicated gain to some extent. See the LogPer.ez example file and associated Antenna Notes file for more information. Here's a tip for reducing the number of segments required to model a log periodic antenna. Set the frequency to the lowest frequency of interest, then use automatic segmentation to segment the model. Note the number of segments in the longest element. Then resegment the other elements to each have the same number of segments as the longest element. Alternatively, you can use the highest frequency and the shortest element to determine the number of segments the result should be about the same in either case. The principle being used here is that at a given frequency, only a few elements have significant current. The segmentation of the other elements is less important, since they contribute little to the overall field. Using the method of using the same number of segments on each element assures proper segmentation of the active elements without using an unnecessarily overlarge number of segments on the other elements. Multiband Antennas EZNEC is well suited for modeling multiband antennas. Keep in mind the segment length, however. Remember that as you increase the frequency the segment length increases in terms of wavelength. In general, you should double the number of segments each time you double the frequency. A bare minimum number of segments for a square loop is about four per quarter wavelength. This means four segments per side at the frequency at which the loop is a full wavelength in circumference, eight per side at twice the frequency, etc. Run Segmentation Check from time to time if you have doubts about the segment length. Some commercial multiband antennas have a transformer at the feedpoint. This will typically be so far from ideal in its operation over multiple bands that EZNEC's ideal transformer object won't adequately imitate its characteristics. Refer to the transformer chapter for additional information. Phased Arrays Issues involved with phased arrays are discussed in the section also named Phased Arrays in the chapters about sources. Small Loops NEC-2 is unable to accurately model small loop antennas. If this is attempted, a zero or negative feedpoint impedance and accompanying error message may result. NEC-4 is more tolerant, but problems might still be encountered with very

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Building The Model small loops. Double precision versions of both engines permit smaller loops than the standard or single precision versions. Tests with a square loop in free space, one segment per wire, showed reasonably accurate results with loops down to the following minimum circumferences: NEC-2: 0.05 wavelength NEC-2D: 0.0005 wavelength (Available in EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4 only) NEC-4: 0.001 wavelength (Available in EZNEC Pro/4 only) NEC-4D: 10-7 wavelength (Available in EZNEC Pro/4 only) These should be used as guidelines only, as accuracy can depend on a number of factors. Stacked Yagis Stacked Yagis or other antennas can be modeled easily with EZNEC by using the Stack feature. A step-by-step example follows. In this example, we'll stack two of the Yagis of the example file 20m5elya.ez. In the Control Center, locate the Open action button and click it. This will open a file selection dialog box. Select 20m5elya.ez and click Open. Click here if you have trouble. The bar at the top of the Control Center information window should now read "Five-element Yagi" -- this is the title of the antenna description stored in file 20m5elya.ez. In the Control Center information window, click Units and change the units to Feet for convenience. Click the View Ant action button to open the View Antenna Window, and the Wires line in the Control Center information window to open the Wires Window. In the Wires Window, open the Wire menu and select Stack. This opens the Stack dialog box. Note that all wires, number 1 to 55, have been entered into the first two boxes. Those are the desired wires for this example. If you had wanted to stack only some of the wires in the description, you can enter the range of wires here. You can also select the wires in the Wires Window before opening the Stack dialog box, in which case the top two boxes won't appear. The third box indicates where the new wires will appear in the Wires Window wire list. 56 indicates that the new wires will be placed at the end of the list. Let's put the second Yagi 40 feet above the original. Enter 40 in the Stacking distance box, and click Ok. That's all there is to it! This completes the stacking process. If desired, you can change the height of both Yagis by choosing Change Height By in the Wires Window Other menu, making sure that the range of wires to change is 1 110. In the Control Center you can add a ground, choose a new title, and save the description.

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EZNEC User Manual Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials The effect of radials and other buried ground systems is widely misunderstood. In a typical quarter wavelength high vertical antenna, the ground has two distinct and somewhat independent effects. One is that the current flowing into the base of the antenna is matched by an equal current flowing from the ground to the other feedline conductor. This current flows through the ground and incurs loss in the process. The primary purpose of a buried ground system is to reduce this loss by increasing the conductivity of the ground near the antenna. The effect of a poor ground system is to reduce the antenna efficiency. This reduces the strength of the radiated field, but doesn't change the antenna pattern. The second effect is less widely appreciated but is often of much greater importance. The elevation pattern of any antenna is created by a combination of a field travelling directly from the antenna to a point in space above the horizon, and the field reaching the same point after being reflected from the ground. The relative strength and phase of these two fields are what make the lobes and nulls of the vertical pattern. As it turns out, vertically polarized waves are affected differently by the ground reflection than horizontally polarized waves. While horizontally polarized waves reflect nearly perfectly from even relatively poor ground (except at high angles), vertically polarized waves do not, and are affected most when reflecting at a low angle. The net effect is that the pattern of a vertically polarized antenna is profoundly modified by the ground reflection. With real ground, there is very significant loss of the low angle field. This can be illustrated by running the Vert1.ez example model, saving the 2D trace of the elevation pattern, changing the ground type to Perfect, and running again. Adding the previously saved trace to the one created with Perfect ground shows this effect graphically. Note that Vert1 uses the MININEC-type ground model which includes no conductive loss (the first effect described above), only the ground reflection effects. The ground reflections which cause the low-angle pattern reflections take place farther from the antenna than most common radial ground systems extend, so ground radial systems have little or no effect on the ground reflection phenomenon. Please keep these two effects in mind while reading the following discussion. Buried radials can be directly modeled only with EZNEC Pro/4 using an NEC-4 calculating engine (see Buried Wires). With EZNEC, EZNEC+, and EZNEC Pro/2 they have to be simulated. There are three ways to simulate buried radials. One is to use the NEC radial model. This isn't generally a good approach, because it only modifies the effect of the ground conductivity on the pattern due to ground reflection (the second effect described above), and not the conduction loss. The NEC radial model can't be used to assess antenna efficiency, and as mentioned above, radials of reasonable length have little effect on the ground reflection. And the NEC radial model tends to give an erroneous estimation of the effect of the radial field on ground reflection due to the simplistic way it evaluates reflections. The second approach is to model buried radials by substituting radials just above the ground surface. This does a moderately good job of predicting the ground system efficiency as well as whatever pattern modification (typically minor) results from the radial system. With this approach, the High Accuracy Real

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Building The Model ground type must be used. See Connecting to High Accuracy Ground for more information. The third approach is to use MININEC-type ground, which models the ground reflection but not the conductive loss, and simply add a resistive load at the feedpoint to simulate the radial system loss resistance. The NEC radial model can be used in addition if desired. Approximations for the amount of resistance for a given number of radials can be found in Chapter 8 of The ARRL Antenna Book. (This reference gives total resistance for a quarter wave vertical, so subtract 36 from the values shown to use as the ground system resistance.) These are of course approximate. Direct measurement is better yet. If you have an antenna analyzer or similar way to measure your antenna's feedpoint resistance, follow this procedure: 1. Measure the antenna's feedpoint resistance. If you can only measure impedance, the resistance will be the impedance at resonance. 2. Add a load to the model at the feedpoint and adjust its value until the feedpoint resistance matches the value you measured. Wire Grid Modeling EZNEC Pro programs include a feature to automate the process of creating flat, rectangular wire grids. Even if you're creating wire grids manually, you should read the information in the Wire Grid Creation section which also describes use of the EZNEC Pro feature. This section gives general guidelines for wire spacing and diameter. Before beginning a wire grid model, you should estimate the number of segments which will be required. The approximate number required, based on 0.1 wavelength spacing, is 220 * A, where A is the area in square wavelengths. Some compromises might have to be made to avoid exceeding the standard program's segment limit. You can see that the number of segments required for a given physical size of object depends on the wavelength at which the analysis will be done. A car, for example, can be modeled as a pretty simple wire frame at HF. But even just a roof will strain or exceed the ability of the standard EZNEC program at UHF. Be sure to take advantage of EZNEC's Group Modify features for creating your wire grid. You'll find that with a little practice, wire grid creation can go pretty quickly. You can also re-use wire grids by taking advantage of the Combine feature and the ability to rescale a model. Rescaling of a whole model can most easily be done by changing the frequency with the Rescaling option selected. Don't forget to save your description before you take each step, in case a mistake is made. A group modify error can be very time consuming to recover from if you haven't made a backup copy! Always remember that wires must contact and connect only at their ends, so you shouldn't cross wires in the grid or elsewhere.

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EZNEC User Manual Yagi Antennas The following remarks apply only to EZNEC, EZNEC+, and EZNEC Pro/2, and to EZNEC Pro/4 only if the NEC-2 engine is chosen. NEC-4 is relatively free of the NEC-2 problem with stepped wire diameters, so this does not apply to EZNEC Pro/4 using an NEC-4 calculating engine. Yagi antennas with full size (near half wavelength) elements can be accurately modeled with EZNEC. When made from telescoping tubing, or other materials where the element doesn't have a constant diameter over its whole length, EZNEC corrects for NEC-2's stepped wire diameter problem. However, it can't do this correction for elements which aren't nearly a half wavelength long (i.e. elements which contain loading coils or traps, or which are "linearly loaded"). So it can accurately model shortened Yagis only if their element diameters are constant. The overall performance of these antennas can still be determined, but there will be a frequency shift in the results from the actual frequency where that performance will occur. When modeling a Yagi with near half wavelength elements, it's important to follow the rules outlined in Stepped Diameter Correction Overview to allow EZNEC to apply the correction. It's easy to make an error which disables the correction for a given element, so EZNEC provides a method to make sure the correction is being applied as it should. This is the stepped diameter correction display, and its use is described in Using The Stepped Diameter Correction Display. You should consult this display each time you design or modify a Yagi model to make sure all elements are being corrected. Information about modeling stacked Yagis can be found in the Stacked Yagis section.

Insertion Objects
About Insertion Objects
Insertion objects are sources, loads, transmission lines, transformers, L networks, and (EZNEC Pro only) Y parameter networks. These are objects which are inserted into wires or virtual segments. All insertion objects have some important common properties, which are: 1. Insertion objects have one or two ports (often referred to as the ends of transmission line objects). Sources, loads, and transmission line stubs have a single port which is inserted into a wire or (except for series connected loads) a virtual segment. The others have two ports, which must be connected to two separate real or virtual segments. The two ports of the transformer object correspond to the two windings, of an L network the "input" and "output", and the ends of a transmission line object. Each port has two terminals. 2. An insertion object effectively cuts the wire into which it's inserted, placing itself (or its port) in the wire. The current into one terminal of a port always exactly equals the current out of the other terminal of the same port; therefore, insertion objects do not radiate or electromagnetically couple to wires or other objects. 62

Building The Model 3. When multiple insertion objects are placed on the same segment, all are connected in parallel, except conventional (series connected) loads, which are placed in series with other objects on the same segment. 4. The polarity of a port -- that is, in which direction the "+" and "-" terminals are connected -- is determined by which terminal is closest to end 1 of the wire. This varies some depending on the object, and you'll find more information in some of the individual object topics. However, the two ports of all two port insertion objects are always phased the same relative to the end 1 - end 2 directions of the wires into which they're inserted. Insertion object windows (e.g., Sources Window, L Networks Window, etc.) also have a number of common features. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments and Using Insertion Object Windows for more information. If at least one port of an insertion object is placed on a wire, the object is shown in the View Antenna Display. See Using The View Antenna Display for a description of the symbols used.

Placing Insertion Objects On Segments

All insertion objects have to be placed on real or virtual segments. (All insertion objects with the single exception of the series connected (conventional) load can be placed on a virtual segment.) For insertion objects with two ports, the two ports must be connected to different real or virtual segments. There will be two sets of input specifications for two port insertion objects, so do the following steps for each of the two ports. To place an insertion object port on a wire The insertion object port location is specified by wire number and location on the wire. In the appropriate object input window (e.g., Sources Window, Transformers Window), enter the wire number and the percentage of the way from end 1. For example, to place a source on end 2, enter 100 for the percentage from end 1. A shortcut is available for end or center placement. In either of the columns in the Specified Pos. group, you can enter W#E# where the two #s represent the wire and end numbers, for example W3E2 to place it at end 2 of wire 3. To place a source at the center of the wire, you can enter W#C. EZNEC places the wire as close as it can to the specified position, and tells you the placement location in the Actual Pos. columns. To place an insertion object on a virtual segment In the wire number column of the object input window grid, enter the letter V followed by a number of your choice between 1 and 999, for example V23. Other insertion objects connected to this virtual segment will be placed in parallel with it. The percent from end 1 column isn't used for virtual segment connections. Tip: If you want to place an insertion object in the center of a wire, give the wire an odd number of segments.

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EZNEC User Manual

Using Insertion Objects Windows

The following operations are common to all insertion object windows (e.g. objects Window, Transmission Lines Window, etc.): Placing Objects on Segments See Placing Insertion Objects On Segments. Selecting Objects Deleting, copying, and moving objects require first selecting which ones are to be operated on. In addition, objects can be selected before starting Group Modify. To select an object, click on the button on the left side of the appropriate row. The selected object will be highlighted. To select additional objects, hold <Ctrl> down when clicking the button. To select a group of objects, select the first object, then hold <Shift> while clicking the last object in the group. Deleting Objects The current object, or selected objects, can be deleted by pressing the <Delete> key. Alternatively, a sequential group of objects can be deleted by selecting object/Delete and specifying which to delete. Copying and Moving Objects To copy or move objects in the list, first select the objects as described above. Then select <object>/Copy or <object>/Move <object>(s) in List where <object> is the name of the object (e.g., Source, L Network, etc.). You'll be asked for the location in the list for them to be put. You can also select <object>/Copy or <object>/Move< object>(s) in List before selecting objects, in which case you'll be asked for a range of object numbers to copy or move. Modifying Objects Objects can be modified individually, or if desired, a group of objects can be modified at the same time using the Group Modify feature. The procedure is the same for both cases, except that to modify a group of objects, Group Modify must first be activated. Basic modification of one parameter is done simply by entering the new value in the cell, then pressing <Enter> or clicking on a cell in another grid row.

Using Sources
About Sources
Sources are insertion objects which represent places where power is applied to an antenna. Every EZNEC model must contain at least one source unless (EZNEC Pro only) plane wave excitation is being used. NEC is notoriously sensitive to source placement, and careless placement can lead to subtle errors in calculation results. Please read the following section carefully so you'll avoid these problems. Like other insertion objects, sources are connected in an imaginary break in a wire. They are connected in parallel with all other insertion objects in the same segment except for series connected (conventional) loads. Technically, a source is distributed over the entire segment at which it's connected; you can envision it 64

Building The Model as being inserted at the center of the segment. The positive terminal of the source always points to end 2 of the wire, so a source with zero phase angle will produce current which flows from end 1 to end 2 of the wire. These connections are dictated by the structure of NEC. The restriction of source placement to segment centers prevents placing a source at a wire junction. Junction placement is sometimes desirable, for example in a vee type antenna. EZNEC includes special source types to allow you effectively place sources at wire junctions when required. If you want to keep the total power into the antenna constant, you can select Power Level from the Control Center Options menu and specify the desired power. When this option is used, the specified source voltages and/or currents of multiple sources will be maintained in the specified ratio, but their absolute values will be adjusted by EZNEC to furnish the specified total power to the antenna. If a single source is used, its value will be adjusted as necessary to provide the specified power. This feature is useful when absolute values of field strength (near or far field), voltages, currents, or power loss need to be known for a given power input. There is no way to control the power sent to an individual source if the model contains more than one source, other than manually adjusting the source voltage or current until the desired power is obtained. I'm not aware of any application for which this would be necessary or desirable. A source is shown in the View Antenna display as an empty hollow circle. Detailed information about specifying sources is in the Using The Sources Window topic. Using sources as ammeters or voltmeters A zero volt voltage source can be used as an ideal current meter to measure the current at any point in a wire, and a zero ampere current source can be used to measure the voltage across a small gap. A zero volt voltage source is effectively a short circuit so can be placed in a wire without disturbing normal operation. A zero ampere current source is an open circuit, so it will create a gap at the insertion point. For example, the voltage across an insulator can be measured by making the wire continuous and placing the zero ampere current source in the wire at the insulator location. The current or voltage being measured appears in the Source Data display.

Source Types
Four conventional source types are available with EZNEC: voltage, current, split voltage, and split current. (NEC has additional types which aren't implemented.) In addition, plane wave excitation is available in EZNEC pro programs. When you specify a "split" source, EZNEC actually creates two sources, and places them on adjacent segments closest to the position you specified. Split sources are shown in the View Antenna display as two sources, but appear everywhere else as a single source. Split sources are included so you can place sources at wire junctions, such as on an inverted vee antenna. See Placing Sources At Wire Junctions for more information about using split sources, and Placing Sources On Segments for more information about using conventional sources.

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EZNEC User Manual If the antenna contains only one source (a split source is counted as one source), it makes no difference whether a current source or voltage source is used, unless you have a need to know the field strength when a specific voltage or current is applied to the antenna. However, the choice can make a profound difference if multiple sources are used. Voltage sources will always maintain the specified voltages, and therefore the specified ratio of voltages, regardless of the impedances they encounter. Similarly, current sources maintain the specified currents and current ratio. One of the most common applications for multiple sources is in modeling phased arrays. Most arrays are designed to work with a specified current ratio (because the fields produced by the elements are proportional to their currents), so current sources are generally used in this application. See Using Multiple Sources and Phased Arrays for more information about using multiple sources, and the Plane Wave Excitation chapter for information about using plane wave excitation.

Using The Sources Window

Open the Sources Window by clicking on the Control Center Sources line or the button to its left. Note: In EZNEC Pro programs, both conventional source and plane wave excitation are specified using this window. To change from plane wave excitation to conventional sources in EZNEC Pro, open the Other menu in the Sources Window. The following applies to conventional sources only -- the Plane Wave Excitation chapter covers use of that feature. Specifying the Source Position Like other insertion objects, all loads have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. Special considerations for sources are described in Placing Sources on Segments and Placing Sources At Wire Junctions. Specifying the Amplitude and Phase When a single source is used, the amplitude and phase will make no difference to the pattern, gain, or impedance. Only the source and load voltage, current, and power, and absolute field strength (in V/m or A/m) will change. If a power level has been specified, even these won't change as you change the source amplitude and phase. Amplitude and phase are most important when multiple sources are used, in which case their relative values are what count. See example files Cardioid.ez and 4Square.ez which illustrate the use of multiple sources. Using sources as voltmeters or ammeters A zero volt voltage source can be used as an ideal current meter to measure the current at any point in a wire. A zero ampere current source can be used to measure the voltage across a small gap. For example, the voltage across an insulator can be measured by making the wire continuous and placing the zero ampere current source at the insulator location. It will effectively create a gap at that point. The current or voltage being measured can be seen in the Source Data display. Specifying the Source Type

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Building The Model Move the cursor to the right-most column. Click on the arrow at the right of the cell to open the pull-down list. Choose the desired source type from the list, or enter the appropriate letter or letters in the cell. See Source Types for more information. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving Sources See Using Insertion Objects Windows.

Plane Wave Excitation

Plane Wave Overview (EZNEC Pro only) EZNEC Pro allows excitation of the model with a single fixed plane wave source as well as with conventional voltage and/or current sources. The plane wave source cannot be used in combination with conventional sources. The plane wave source generates a plane wave from a specified direction at an apparently infinite distance. The user specifies the direction of the source and the polarization and magnitude of the wave. The wave induces currents in the model's wires. The program reports the fields which result from those currents, with results being exactly the same as if those currents had been created by conventional voltage and/or current sources. However, note that in general the current distribution on the wires is different when the antenna is excited by an impinging plane wave than when excited by voltage and/or current sources. This feature is useful in determining the scattering cross section of a model structure, or in direct determination of feed point voltage or current of a receiving antenna for a given field strength. For example, open circuit antenna voltage resulting from an incident plane wave is easily determined by placing a high resistance load at the point of interest and clicking Load Dat to see the resulting voltage. A zero ohm load can be placed to conveniently monitor short circuit current at a specific segment, or the Currents button can be used to see the currents at all segments. To find the maximum available power which an antenna can extract from a wave, first excite the antenna with a conventional voltage or current source and find the source impedance by clicking Src Dat. Then place a load having the complex conjugate of that impedance in place of the source, and change to plane wave excitation. Load Dat will report the resulting maximum power. To find the "effective length" of a receiving antenna in meters, divide the open circuit voltage as described above by the incident plane wave amplitude in V/m. Note: Be sure to read Using Plane Wave With a Ground Plane if using plane wave excitation with a ground plane . Specifying Plane Wave Excitation Plane wave excitation is available in EZNEC Pro programs only. To specify plane wave excitation, open the Sources Window by clicking on the Sources line in the Control Center. If conventional sources are shown (the default), open the Other menu in the Sources Window and choose Change Source Type. The Sources Window grid then changes to allow specification of the plane wave source. Most of the parameters are self-explanatory. Pol Ang is the orientation of

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EZNEC User Manual the electric field when the source is linearly polarized, and the orientation of the major axis when circularly polarized. The angle represents the rotation counterclockwise of the E field from downward-oriented, in the plane normal to the direction to the source, with rotation direction defined by looking from the distant source toward the origin. The axial ratio choice is available and used only when circular polarization is specified. Note that the amplitude is in volts RMS per meter, rather than peak volts per meter as used in NEC. The polarization type dictates only the polarization of the source. The choice of polarization types to display in outputs is made the same as for conventional sources, via the Desc Options choice in the Control Center. It's important to realize that when a ground plane is present, the amplitude and polarization of the plane wave striking the antenna model might be different from the specified plane wave, that is, the one emanating from a distant source. Be sure to read Plane Wave Excitation With a Ground Plane if a ground plane is present. Plane Wave Excitation With a Ground Plane Because the plane wave apparently emanates from a source which is an infinite distance from the origin, the plane wave interacts with the ground between its point of origin and the antenna. Consequently, the magnitude and polarization of the plane wave striking the antenna are generally different than the specified plane wave magnitude and polarization. That is, the specified values define the plane wave before striking the ground en route to the antenna, which is likely to be different from the wave at the antenna. As one simple example, a vertically polarized plane wave arriving horizontally over a perfect ground will have an amplitude of exactly twice the specified value at ground level. The same wave arriving over a ground of finite conductivity will have zero amplitude at ground level. An intuitive feel for the effect can be gained by looking at the far field radiation pattern of a conventionally excited antenna placed over ground, in the direction of the plane wave source. If the field is, for example, zero in that direction, the field from a plane wave coming from that direction will also be zero. Unfortunately, there is no direct way for EZNEC Pro -- or NEC-2 or -4 -- to directly report the field strength of the wave after ground reflection. It can, however, be deduced by means of an electrically short model test antenna. This difficulty doesn't occur in free space analysis, where the field at the antenna is always as specified for the plane wave source. In Interpreting the Results, it's explained that the field strength can be presented as dB relative to the field produced by a free space object of one square wavelength cross section, or dBsw. When over a ground plane, the field produced by an object with one square wavelength free space scattering cross section will generally be quite different from 0 dBsw. This is because of the effect of the ground on the field scattered from the object. It's exactly the same problem as determining the gain of an antenna relative to a dipole when the antenna is over ground -- in free space, you can simply subtract 2.15 dB from the reported gain in dBi to find the gain relative to a dipole. However, over ground, the only way the comparison can be made is to model a dipole at the same height as the

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Building The Model antenna and compare its gain to that of the antenna. Likewise, to find the scattering cross section of an object over ground, it's necessary to compare the field strength (in dBsw or V/m) to that of a similarly placed object of known scattering cross section. Interpreting Plane Wave Results The same tabular and graphical outputs are available with plane wave excitation as with standard voltage/current voltage source excitation, with a few differences. First, note that the Options menu Power Level specification makes no difference when using plane wave excitation, since there can be no specific total power associated with the plane wave. For the same reason, Average Power isn't shown when plane wave excitation is chosen. In the Control Center Options menu, Far Field Table Units, you can see that the non-ground wave far field values will be reported in either "mV/m X dist" or "dBsw". The first of these is the product of the field strength and distance from the origin. The field strength at any distance is simply the reported value divided by the distance from the origin in meters provided that the observation location is in the far field and that the distance is large compared to any antenna dimension. The field is of course caused by scattering, or the current induced on the antenna conductors by the incident field. Reported values don't include the incident field from the plane wave source. The "dBsw" notation you'll see in the 2D Plot Window data box and in the Far Field Table means dB relative to one square wavelength scattering cross section for an object in free space. An object in free space having a scattering cross section of one square wavelength in a given direction will produce a field of 0 dBsw, and objects with greater and lesser cross sections will produce correspondingly greater or lesser fields. (Caution! This isn't true when over a ground plane. See Plane Wave Excitation With a Ground Plane regarding use of plane wave excitation and a ground plane.) Because the scattering cross section is an area, the dB is calculated using the same rule as for power, e.g., approximately 3 dBsw will result from a scattering cross section of two square wavelengths in free space. If you're familiar with NEC-2 or -4, the values reported as dBsw by EZNEC Pro are the same as those shown as dB or dBi by NEC when plane wave excitation is used. (Be sure to remember, though, that the plane wave amplitude is peak value in NEC and RMS in EZNEC Pro.) Note that the polarization of the scattered field is often different from that of the incident wave. The polarization of the incident wave is that of the plane wave source when in free space, but not necessarily so over a ground plane. The choice of polarization types to display in outputs is made the same as for conventional sources, via the Desc Options choice in the Control Center.

Source Placement
Source Placement Precautions NEC is very sensitive to source placement, and subtle errors can result if sources are placed incorrectly. Whenever possible, you should try to follow these rules:

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EZNEC User Manual 1. The source shouldn't be placed on a wire which is shorter than about 0.02 wavelength, particularly if adjacent wires connect at an angle. 2. The segments adjacent to the source segment should be the same length and diameter as the source segment. If placing it on a short wire, it's good practice to give the wire three segments to insure this condition. 3. Segments beyond the adjacent segments shouldn't be drastically different in length and diameter from the source segment and segments adjacent to the source segment. 4. Sources shouldn't be put on a wire which is part of a small loop. 5. It's usually better to use a split source at wire junctions than to insert a short wire containing the source. Rules 1 and 2 can be broken when a short wire is used only for connecting a source to a transmission line. In this case, a very short one-segment wire is generally adequate. It's often not possible to follow all these rules and still accurately model the antenna, so compromises sometimes have to be made. One of the most powerful tools for evaluating source placement is EZNEC's Average Gain feature. Whenever a 3D plot is calculated, EZNEC calculates the "average gain" by integrating the total radiation pattern power and dividing it by the power furnished by the sources. This is reported at the bottom of the Control Center form. Source placement problems are often indicated when the average gain value of a lossless model is significantly different from one. (See the numbered list below for how to set loss to zero.) Source placement can then be modified to bring the average gain as close as possible to one in the lossless model, after which the lossy objects can be restored to normal. Note (EZNEC Pro/4 only): Average Gain can't be used to evaluate source placement if the model includes buried wires. To use Average Gain to test source placement: 1. Save the current description (optional - you can use the undo feature to restore the original model if you prefer) 2. In the Control Center, choose Plot Type/3 Dimensional. 3. If any Real ground type is specified, change the Ground Type to Perfect. 4. If any loads, L networks, or (EZNEC Pro only) Y parameter networks are specified, set their resistances to zero, or delete them. 5. Set all transmission line loss to zero. 6. In the Control Center, set the Wire Loss to Zero. 7. Do a far field plot. Note the average gain reported at the bottom of the Control Center form. If you see "Model contains loss" to the right of the average gain, it means that all losses have not been removed, so you should review the steps above and remove the remaining loss. The average gain won't be meaningful for this purpose if there is any loss in the model, indicated by the "Model contains loss". If the 3D pattern has very narrow lobes, it might be necessary to reduce the step size for greater accuracy. However, 5 degrees is generally adequate. The field strength (and gain) error is approximately equal to the deviation of the average gain from one (zero dB). That is, if the reported average gain is

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Building The Model +2 dB, the gain and field strength reported by EZNEC is about 2 dB greater than reality. Source placement should be modified to make the average gain as close to one (zero dB) as possible. If full correction can't be made, the average gain in dB should be subtracted from the field strength results. This correction method might be considerably in error if the model contains multiple sources, but should be reasonably accurate for a single source. 8. Note the modifications you made to improve the source placement. If modifications were extensive, it's probably easiest to restore the loads, wire loss, and ground type to the lossless model. If minor, it might be easier to open the saved original file and apply the source placement modifications to it. Even though sources appear in the View Antenna display to be placed in the center of a segment, the source is actually distributed over the entire segment. If source placement is critical (for example, in a base-fed half-wave vertical or center-fed full-wavelength dipole if impedance is important), the length of the segment containing the source can become important. The shorter the source segment is made, the more closely it imitates one connected at a single point. A simple test can show if this is important. Divide the wire containing the source into a reasonable number of segments, remembering to follow the rules at the top of this section. Run the program and note the results which are important to you (such as gain, or impedance). Move the source over one segment and repeat. If the results change more than you're willing to accept, you'll need to minimize the length of the source segment. One way to do this is to use segment length tapering. Placing Sources On Segments Like other insertion objects, all sources have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. EZNEC's split sources mimic single sources placed at a wire or segment junction, but they're really made from two conventional sources placed on the segments adjacent to the chosen junction, as shown in the View Antenna display. Connecting a source to a transmission line requires that a wire be created for both the source and transmission line to connect to. No more than one source can be placed on a given segment. Use standard (non-split) sources whenever possible, and use split sources only when it's necessary to put a source at a wire junction. Placing Sources At Wire Junctions Conventional EZNEC sources have to be placed on a segment, so simulating a source at a wire junction requires special techniques. The preferred method is to use EZNEC's split sources, which are intended for just this purpose. When you specify a split source, EZNEC actually creates two sources, and places them on adjacent segments closest to the position you specified. Split sources are shown in the View Antenna display as two sources, but appear everywhere else as a single source. Split sources are positioned just

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EZNEC User Manual like conventional sources, except that the position chosen by EZNEC will be the closest segment junction or wire end rather than the closest segment center to the position you specify. When using split sources, make sure that any load placed on the segment containing one source has a corresponding load on the segment containing the other, and avoid putting transmission lines on segments with split sources. Split sources can't be placed at a multiple-wire junction, and shouldn't be placed where the segment length or wire diameter is different for one source than the other. Split sources also can't be placed on an open wire end, because one of the actual sources making up the split source would be off the wire altogether. The N4PCLoop.ez and BYVee.ez example files illustrate the use of split sources. Another way to put a source at a wire junction is to insert an additional short wire at the junction, and place the source on it. This technique would be used for multiple dipoles with a common feedpoint, for example. But care has to be taken if this method is used. Be sure to review Source Placement Precautions before doing this. Sometimes it's helpful to taper the segment lengths away from the junction, using EZNEC's Segment Length Tapering feature. Connecting Sources to Ground A common question is how to connect one end of a source to ground. The answer is to connect a wire to ground (by giving one end a zero z coordinate) and place the source in the bottom wire segment. Example description file Vert1.ez illustrates this method. Wires should only be connected to Perfect or Real, MININEC-type grounds. See Connecting Wires to Ground for more information.

Multiple Sources
Using Multiple Sources You have to take some precautions when using multiple sources in an antenna to avoid currents which are 180 degrees from what you intended. In phased arrays of parallel wires, make sure that end 1 of the wires are all facing the same direction (for example, all wire end 1's of a vertical array connected to ground). Reversing a wire will reverse the effective polarity of all sources in that wire because positive current from a source is always directed toward end 2, and positive current is defined a current flowing toward end 2. An ambiguity can arise when placing a split source at a wire junction because the polarity can depend on which wire the source "belongs" to and which way this wire is facing. A split source placed on a junction of two wires "belongs" to the wire specified as its desired position. Therefore, it will be placed with the positive terminal facing end 2 of the specified wire. Ambiguity can be avoided by making the wires face the same direction by connecting them end 1 to end 2. Whenever you use multiple sources in any antenna other than simple, parallel wires, it's highly recommended that you look at the currents in the wires and make sure they're really flowing in the direction you thought. See Interpreting The Results.

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Building The Model Phased Arrays EZNEC allows you to model phased array feed systems provided that they're made exclusively of transmission lines and networks, and provided that the transmission lines don't interact with the antenna as wires. (EZNEC doesn't model coupling to transmission line objects.) Example description files CardTL.ez and 4SqTL.ez are examples of this. To investigate various possible patterns, instead of modeling transmission lines, place a current source at each element's feedpoint and vary the element currents by changing the source magnitudes and phases. A very valuable capability of EZNEC is to tell you what the element feedpoint impedances are when an array is correctly fed. This information is required to design a feed system to produce the desired current ratio. To determine the impedances, insert current sources at the feedpoints, with the currents being in correct ratio. Clicking the Control Center Src Dat (Source Data) action button will tell you the feedpoint impedances. 4Square.ez and Cardioid.ez are examples of phased arrays fed with multiple current sources.

Using Loads
About Loads
Loads are insertion objects which represent a lumped impedance that can be inserted into a wire. Like sources, these are easy to place with EZNEC, and appear connected across an imaginary gap in the wire. Like sources, loads are actually distributed along the entire segment, but conceptually can be regarded as being at the segment center. Loads are characterized by type, configuration, and external connection. Load impedances can be specified as one of three types: as an impedance consisting of fixed resistance and reactance (R + jX type), as an RLC combination (RLC type), or as a quotient of Laplace transform polynomials (Laplace type). These are explained in more detail in the following section. The RLC type gives you three different choices or configurations for interconnection of the resistance, capacitance, and inductance. There are two ways of connecting loads when sharing a segment with other insertion objects, series and parallel connection. This is explained in detail in the Load Connections topic. Loads are entered and modified via the Loads Window. Operation varies some with the load type chosen, and detailed information about specifying each type of load is given in Using the Loads Window chapter. Load placement is identical to placement of sources, as explained in Placing Sources On Segments. In critical applications, the same restrictions should be applied to loads as to sources regarding placement. See Source Placement Precautions. I don't know of any way to assess load placement problems with the Average Gain feature as is done with sources, so the only way to spot problems is to modify placement and observe how much the result changes. Like all other insertion objects, EZNEC loads do not radiate, except that the segment the load is placed on does radiate like any other segment.

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EZNEC User Manual Series connected loads are shown in the View Antenna display as empty hollow squares. Parallel connected loads are shown as empty hollow diamonds.

Load Types
Three different load types are available, R + jX (resistance and reactance), RLC, and Laplace. Each has its advantages, as outlined below. Note that all loads in a model must be the same type, so a compromise sometimes has to be made in choosing which type to use. R + jX This load type is the fastest and simplest to use. You just specify the resistance and reactance. Because the impedance of an R + jX load doesn't change with frequency while a real load (if it contains reactive components) does, the R + jX load type is most useful for frequency independent loads (i.e., pure resistances) or for analysis at a single frequency or a narrow range of frequencies. RLC This load type is most convenient if you know the values of equivalent R, L, and C of the load you're trying to model. Not all components have to be present, so this type can also be used for modeling any combination of the three, including a single R, L, or C. A powerful feature of this model type is that the resistance can be made to vary with frequency to simulate skin effect loss (such as an inductor exhibits) or insulation loss. Each load's resistance can be set independently, so you can make some vary and some not if you wish. You enter RLC loads directly as values of R, L, and C for this load type, rather than as resistance and reactance. The impedance of the combination varies realistically with frequency. Three configurations of RLC type loads are available: series, parallel, and "trap" (series RL with parallel C). The "trap" model is useful for modeling inductors as well as traps or other parallel resonant circuits. Laplace This load type can be used only by people who understand how to calculate the Laplace polynomial quotient which represents a circuit. Explanation of this is beyond the scope of this manual, and interested readers should consult a text on circuit analysis for more information. The advantage of this load type, for those who are able to use it, is that relatively complex combinations of components (that is, R, L, and C) can be modeled. The impedance of a Laplace load varies with frequency, although the resistance can't be made to vary with frequency as in the RLC load type. More detailed information about specifying the various load types can be found in Using The Loads Window chapter.

Load Connections
There are two ways of connecting loads when sharing a segment with other insertion objects, series and parallel external connection. As the names imply, series connected loads are placed in series with other insertion objects sharing the same segment. This connection might be used for such things as a series loading coil or a resistance representing ground loss at the base of a vertical antenna. Parallel connected loads are used when a lumped impedance has to be connected in parallel with another insertion object. A typical use for these would

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Building The Model be to represent a hairpin matching wire connected in parallel with a source or transmission line at an antenna feedpoint. The choice of connection type is made with the other load characteristics. Choice of connection for each load is made in the rightmost column of the Loads Window, labeled Ext Conn. Enter S or select Ser in the drop-down list for series connection, or enter P or select Par in the drop-down list for parallel connection. Series connected loads are shown in the View Antenna display as empty hollow squares. Parallel connected loads are shown as empty hollow diamonds. The internal model of the parallel connected load is more complex than a conventional load, so conventional loads are recommended except where the parallel connection is needed. Parallel connected loads can be placed on virtual segments; series connected loads cannot. There should be no significant difference in results when using one connection type or another unless some other object is connected to the same segment. The phase angles of load voltages and currents reported in the Load Data display might be 180 degrees different, however, due to different definitions of polarity for the two object types. For a detailed explanation of the reason for this, see Parallel Connected Loads Polarity in the Reference section.

Placing Loads At Wire Junctions

Like a source, a load is distributed over a segment, so conceptually can be regarded as being placed at a segment center. Direct placement on a segment or wire junction isn't possible, but it can be simulated with two loads. To simulate a load at a wire junction, split it into two equal loads of half the value and place each one on the adjacent segment. When EZNEC spots identical loads on segments adjacent to a wire junction, it shows voltages, currents, impedances, and losses of the combination as well as the individual loads, in the Load Data output.

Loading Coils
Loading coils frequently have a significant amount of loss which should be included in the model. Measurement is the best way of determining the loss, but even a guess may be adequate. Air-wound inductors typically have Q's in the range of 200-400 or so. This means that you can estimate the equivalent series R as about 1/200 to 1/400 the reactance. If using this range of values impacts your result, you might want to make a measurement or better estimate of the Q.

Traps
A trap has a primary resonance at only one frequency, but still represents a significant impedance at other frequencies and on other bands. So a trap model has to be reasonably accurate over the entire range of antenna operating frequencies. (Or at least over the range being modeled.) The only way to accurately model a trap is either by measuring its impedance at each frequency of interest, or by knowing the equivalent L, C, and R components, and how R varies with frequency. These in turn must be measured unless you can talk the 75

EZNEC User Manual manufacturer out of this information (or have constructed the trap yourself out of known components). Traps frequently will cause a couple of dB loss at one frequency or another, so failure to include loss resistance will lead to overly optimistic results. The trap RLC model, as its name implies, is particularly useful for modeling traps.

Using The Loads Windows

Load Types And The Loads Window The Loads Window is where impedances are placed on the wires in the model. Open the Loads Window by clicking on the Control Center Loads line or the button to its left. Like other insertion objects, all loads have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. Loads can be specified in three different ways, as R + j X, RLC, and Laplace types. The types can't be mixed, so all loads have to be of the same type. The appearance and operation of the Loads Window depends on which load type you've selected. The load type is saved with the description file, so when you first open the Loads Window (from the Control Center), it will reflect the type of load specified for the current description. You can change the load type at any time from the Loads Window by selecting Change Load Type from the Other menu. NOTE: When you change the load type, all existing loads are converted to the new type if possible. Most conversions are not reversible, so if you change back to the original load type, loads are likely to be different than the originals. For example, if you specify a parallel RLC type load and change to the R + j X load type, the impedance of the load will be calculated and entered as the R + j X impedance. If you change back to the RLC load type, the R + j X impedance will be converted to a series RL or RC circuit. Changes can, of course, be completely reversed with the undo feature. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving Transformers See Using Insertion Objects Windows. The R + j X Loads Window R + j X type loads are expressed as a series combination of resistance (R) and reactance (X). The impedance of R + j X loads does not change with frequency. The load number column and specified and actual position columns function the same as for the Sources Window. The impedance of each load is entered as resistance (R) and reactance (X) in the appropriate columns. The value of R cannot be negative. See Load Types for information about other types of loads, and changing the load type, and Load Connections for information about specifying the connection type.

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Building The Model The RLC Loads Window RLC loads are defined as a combination of R, L, and C components. They can be connected in any of three different configurations: series, parallel, or as a "trap" configuration, as shown below. R can optionally be made frequency dependent.

Values of R, L, and C are entered in the appropriate columns. EZNEC will calculate and use the impedance of the RLC combination as required. See Load Types for information about other types of loads, and changing the load type. Config Column The rightmost column is used to select the type of RLC circuit, Series, Parallel, or Trap. This selection can be made by entering "S" or "Ser" for Series type, "P" or "Par" for Parallel type, or "T" or "Trap" for Trap type. Or you can click the cell to activate the drop-down list arrow, click the arrow to open the list, then make the selection. R, L, C Columns Series Configuration RLC Loads The R, L, and C are connected in series. Any of the three components can be replaced by a short circuit by entering "0" (the number zero), "S", or "Short" as the value, or by leaving the grid cell empty. Note that there is no way to specify a zero capacitance (open circuit) in a Series type RLC load; an entry of zero will be interpreted as a short circuit. The resistance of typical wire and tubing increases as the square root of frequency, so the resistance can be made to vary in this way for the Series RLC type. See "R Freq Column", below. Parallel Configuration RLC Loads The R, L, and C are connected in parallel. Any of the three components can be replaced by an open circuit by entering "0" (the number zero), "O" (the letter O), or "Open" as the value, or by leaving the grid cell empty. Note that there is no

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EZNEC User Manual way to specify a zero resistance or inductance (short circuit) in a Parallel type RLC load; an entry of zero will be interpreted as an open circuit. The parallel model is frequently used for relatively high impedance loads, where dielectric loss often dominates. Consequently, the frequency dependence of R is that of typical dielectrics; that is, it decreases in inverse proportion to frequency. See "R Freq Column", below. Trap Configuration RLC Loads This load type can be used to represent objects other than traps. For example, it can be used to model an inductor, accounting for the frequency-dependent conductor resistance and shunt capacitance. It was called a Trap type simply because this is one of the common applications. The Trap type RLC load consists of a resistance R and inductance L in series. The series combination is in parallel with a capacitance. The series RL circuit is a reasonable model of a real inductor, and the shunt capacitance can represent stray inductor capacitance, a physical capacitor, or a combination of the two. The frequency dependence of R is the same as for the Series type RLC load. In this load type, entry of zero for R or L results in that element being replaced with a short circuit. Entry of zero for C results in replacement with an open circuit. As for the other RLC load types, the short circuit can also be created by entering "S" or "Short", and the open with "O" or "Open". R Freq Column (all configurations) The "R Freq" column is the frequency at which the resistance has the value specified in the R column. If any value other than zero is specified as the R Frequency, the resistance will vary with frequency as described above. (Series resistance Series and Trap types -- changes in proportion to the square root of frequency. Parallel resistance Parallel type changes in inverse proportion to the frequency.) Enter zero in this column to keep the resistance fixed with frequency. The current frequency can be conveniently entered by clicking the cell to activate the drop-down list arrow, clicking the arrow, then clicking the highlighted frequency value which appears. Ext Conn Column (all configurations) See Load Connections for information about choosing the load connection. The Laplace Loads Window Laplace type loads are impedances which are defined as Laplace coefficients. This load type is most useful for representing complex combinations which can't be represented by other load types. Any combination of R, L, and C up to fifth order can be represented with Laplace type loads. Because Laplace type loads represent R, L, and C components rather than fixed impedances, the impedance varies with frequency as appropriate for the components comprising the load. However, R cannot be made to vary with frequency as with RLC type loads. Do not use this load type unless you are familiar with the use of Laplace transforms, the explanation of which is beyond the scope of this manual. Impedances are entered as Laplace coefficients, with zero to fifth order from left to right and numerator on the top and denominator beneath. At least one denominator coefficient must be non-zero.

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Building The Model See Load Types for information about other types of loads, and changing the load type. See Load Connections for information on choosing the external connection type in the Ext Conn column.

Using Transmission Lines

About Transmission Lines
There are important differences between the NEC transmission line objects used by EZNEC and real-life transmission lines, so there are several things you have to be aware of in order to use them effectively. The first characteristic is shared by all other two port insertion objects. The only parts of the transmission line object which exist as far as the program is concerned are the ends. Imagine the model as being two sets of portable terminals which can be placed in any two segments. The current and voltage at one set of terminals relative to the other is just the same as though there were a transmission line connected between them. But the transmission line can be any length you specify, including longer or shorter than the physical distance between the "terminals". Although the terminals are accessible to connect to the antenna wires, the transmission line itself is "somewhere else". So, unlike real transmission lines, EZNEC transmission line objects don't interact with the antenna fields. That is, the currents in the model's two conductors are always equal and opposite, so the line doesn't radiate or have current induced by coupling. In many real-life cases, a transmission line does interact with the antenna fields, and becomes a radiating part of the antenna. This can be caused by coupling to the antenna due to non-symmetrical placement of the feedline, or by presenting the feedline with an unbalanced source or load. EZNEC transmission line objects are suitable for modeling symmetrically-placed balanced lines such as a log-periodic feed distribution line or W8JK phasing line. They aren't suitable for modeling, for example, a quarter-wavelength phasing stub extending outward from a collinear antenna, since the stub wires in a real collinear antenna have unbalanced currents and will radiate. Coaxial lines laid on the ground, such as in a vertical phased array feed system, may carry current on the outside just like a ground radial wire. In many cases this can be ignored and the EZNEC Pro model used. A coaxial cable with field interaction (that is, with current flowing on the outside of the shield) can be modeled with a combination of a wire and transmission line object as described in Modeling Coaxial Cable. A two-wire line which interacts with the antenna's fields has to be modeled as wires. The second thing to realize about EZNEC's transmission line objects is that all ends which aren't specified as a shorted or open stub must be connected to wires or virtual segments. If you want to connect a source directly to a transmission line (that is, connect the two terminals of a source in parallel with the two terminals of one end of a transmission line), the easiest way is to specify the same virtual segment for both as the "wire number". The disadvantage to this method is that you don't have any visual representation of the transmission line in the View Antenna display. An alternate method is to create a short, one segment

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EZNEC User Manual wire (short so it doesn't interact appreciably with the antenna field) not too far from the antenna and connect both source and transmission line to it. Then you'll see the transmission line in the View Antenna display. Remember, the physical distance between the ends of the transmission line in your model don't have to be the same as the line length -- it can be either greater or less -- unless you specify Actual Distance for the transmission line length. Third, when a transmission line is connected to the same segment as another insertion object, it's important to be aware of the way they're connected together. A transmission line is connected in parallel with any other insertion object except a series connected load, in the same segment. Finally, you should be aware of the limitations of the transmission line loss model, detailed in the Transmission Line Loss topic. Connection is sensitive to wire direction. If two vertical elements are defined with one having end 1 grounded and the other end 2 grounded, transmission lines connected to their grounded ends from the same point would result in reversed signals to the two antennas. Imagine each end of a transmission line having two terminals, "1" and "2". A normally connected line will always be connected so that terminal "1" is closest to end 1 and "2" closest to end 2 of each wire, regardless of the physical orientation of the wires. Each transmission line can be reverse connected if desired, which reverses this connection, just like giving a physical line a half twist. Two examples of phased array antennas using transmission line feed are included as example description files CardTL.ez and 4SqTL.ez. Transmission lines are defined in the Transmission Lines Window. Except for stub ends, all transmission line ends (ports) have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. There's no way to connect a transmission line end at a wire junction; the best you can do is to insert a short wire between the wires and place the transmission line end on it. Follow the same procedure and cautions as described at the end of the Placing Sources At Wire Junctions section. A transmission line stub can be created by declaring one end to be open or short circuited. Remember, though, that it's not capable of radiating, so this stub model can be used only in those situations where a real stub wouldn't radiate. More detail about use of the Transmission Lines Window and its features can be found in the Using The Transmission Lines Window topic.

Using The Transmission Lines Window

EZNEC Pro uses NEC transmission line models. There are several very important differences between these and real-life transmission lines, which are discussed in About Transmission Lines. If you aren't familiar with the use and limitations of NEC transmission line models, please acquaint yourself with these differences before using them. Transmission lines have two ends unless they're specified to be an open or short circuited stub. Stubs have only one end. Transmission end positions are specified in the same way as for other insertion objects. Like all others, both ends (ports) of all transmission lines have to be

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Building The Model placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. Specifying Connections Like other insertion objects, all transmission line ends (ports) except stub ends have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details Specifying a stub A stub is specified by declaring one end to be either open or short circuited. You can simply enter O' or S' in the Wire # column, or you can click the arrow on the right side of the cell and select open or short circuit from the pull-down list. Specifying Length Transmission line length can be specified in three different ways: physical length, electrical length, and physical distance between ends. If you specify physical length in current length units, the model acts like a line with that physical length. If specified in degrees (electrical length), the line acts like a line of that electrical length. Note: The electrical length of a line specified in degrees doesn't change with frequency like a real line would. This type of length specification is recommended only for single-frequency analysis. Any of these three specifications can easily be made by right-clicking the cell in the Length column, choosing the specification type, and entering a value if required. Described below are shortcuts for the three methods. Physical Length To specify physical length, simply enter the length in current units, or right-click the Length column. The physical length of the model doesn't have to bear any relationship to the distance between its ends. See About Transmission Lines for further explanation. Electrical Length Enter the length followed by d' for degrees' in the Length column. Actual Distance Enter a' in the Length column. This will make the line length the straight-line distance between the ends. This choice isn't available if one end is shorted or open, that is, the transmission line is a stub. If Actual Distance is specified and one or both ends are connected to virtual segments, an error message will appear when you attempt to do calculations. Specifying Characteristic Impedance (Z0) In the Z0 column, you can either enter the characteristic impedance in ohms, or you can right-click the cell to open a dialog box with more options. The dialog box lets you choose from a list of common cable types, or enter the wire diameter and spacing of parallel wires. If you use the parallel wire entry, EZNEC will assume air insulation unless you give a velocity factor. If you enter a velocity factor, EZNEC will infer an effective dielectric constant and calculate the impedance based on this dielectric constant. So the parallel wire entry can be used for ladder line, twinlead, or other dielectric-insulated lines as long as you know the velocity factor. The results of its calculations are shown at the lower left of the dialog box. Specifying Velocity Factor

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EZNEC User Manual To specify velocity factor, enter a positive number no greater than one in the VF column. Alternatively, you can right-click the cell to open the same dialog box as described above. Specifying Reverse or Normal Connection Connection orientation is selected in the Rev/Norm column. Normal connection means that the same conductor of both ends will face the same wire end number. That is, if one line conductor is labeled 1 and the other 2, conductor 1 will connect on both wires toward the wires' end 1 and conductor 2 toward the wires' end 2. Specifying a reverse connection reverses the connection to one of the wires, reversing the phase of the voltage and current from the transmission line. Specifying Loss Transmission line loss is entered as loss in dB per 100 ft or 100 m depending on the description Units setting. If you want to enter the loss in dB/100 m when the choice is dB/100 ft, simply change the Units to Feet or Inches, enter the loss, then change back. Similarly, change to a metric Units value to allow loss entry in dB/100 m. The Loss Freq is the frequency at which the specified loss will be applied to the transmission line. At frequencies above or below this, the loss will be adjusted to mimic the approximate change in attenuation with frequency of a real transmission line over the HF - UHF frequency range. If the Loss Freq is set to zero, the specified loss will be applied at all frequencies. Be sure to read Transmission Line Loss to learn about some of the limitations of this model. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving Transmission Lines See Using Insertion Objects Windows.

Transmission Line Loss

Loss can be added to the transmission line models if desired, in the Transmission Lines Window. Loss is specified in dB/100 ft if model Units are Feet or Inches, or in dB/100 m if Units are Meters or Millimeters. If Units are Wavelengths, dB/100 ft will be used only if Inches is chosen for diameter units. The 100 ft or 100 m figure refers to the physical length of the transmission line. If the alternate specification is desired, the Units can be temporarily changed, the loss entry made, then the Units changed back. A second option is the "loss frequency", entered in the "Loss Freq" column. This value is used as follows: -- If the Loss Freq = 0, the specified loss in dB/100 ft or dB/100 m will be applied at all frequencies. -- If the Loss Freq is any other value, the specified loss will be applied to the transmission line at the specified frequency. At other frequencies, dB loss proportional to the square root of the frequency will by applied. For example, if the loss is specified as 1.0 dB/100 m and the loss frequency is specified as 10 MHz, the line loss used by EZNEC will be 1.0 dB/100 m at 10 MHz, 1.414 dB/100 m at 20 MHz, 2.0 dB at 40 MHz, 0.707 dB/100 m at 5 MHz, and so forth. This is

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Building The Model evaluated each time a calculation is made, including at each frequency of a frequency sweep calculation. Important Notes The loss of real cables, particularly coaxial cables, is determined by many factors. Besides the obvious conductor and dielectric losses, conductor plating, braided shield roughness, roughness of a stranded center conductor, and other effects can contribute noticeably to the total loss. These vary in complex ways with frequency. So a single loss specification is less than adequate for a completely accurate calculation of cable characteristics. However, these multiple factors are often unknown, so EZNEC uses an approximation which is reasonably good over a wide frequency range. The single transmission line loss specification in dB/100 ft or m is used to calculate a complex characteristic impedance and complex propagation constant for the line. EZNEC bases these calculations on an idealized transmission line model which has only resistive conductor (skin effect) loss and no dielectric loss. This approximation is reasonably good throughout the HF and UHF range for most common transmission line types, but not at the lower end of MF and below, or at microwave frequencies and above. Outside the MF through UHF range, the assumption that loss is proportional to the square root of frequency becomes invalid, and at microwave frequencies and above, the calculation of characteristic impedance also becomes inaccurate. The inaccuracy of the square root of frequency assumption can be minimized by only specifying a loss frequency which is close to the analysis frequency. The error of the characteristic impedance calculation can be minimized only by having relatively low loss cables in the model, and ones which are reasonably well matched to their loads. Users of the professional programs (EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4) can use a Y parameter network to accurately represent any transmission line at a single frequency, providing that the cable characteristics (complex characteristic impedance and complex propagation constant) are known. Before becoming too concerned about the accuracy of the loss model, try changing the specified loss and see how much this changes the overall result. If the overall result doesn't change much with specified loss, then the accuracy of the loss model isn't critical.

Modeling Coaxial Cable

A non-radiating coaxial cable is electrically identical to a non-radiating two-wire line, so an ordinary transmission line model can be used for modeling a nonradiating coaxial line. A radiating coaxial cable can be modeled quite well with a combination of transmission line model and a wire. The transmission line model represents the inside of the coax, and the wire represents the outside of the shield. The wire is the diameter of the shield, and connected where the shield of the actual cable is. It should follow the same physical path as the real coaxial cable. One of the example files, DipTL.ez, shows how this is done. (See its Antenna Notes file for more information.) If the coax cable doesn't radiate, the

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EZNEC User Manual current on the additional wire will be zero, and the additional wire contributes nothing to the analysis so can be removed. There's no way to use the transmission line model to accurately model a radiating two-wire transmission line (one with common mode current present). If it's necessary to do this, the line will have to be modeled as two parallel wires. See Closely Spaced Wires for precautions.

Using Transformers
Transformers
Transformers are insertion objects which are specified via the Transformers Window, opened by clicking the Transformers line in the Control Center. The ideal transformer model object is intended to simulate real transformers or impedance transforming networks. Like any other model, however, they have a number of limitations and peculiarities, and come with some cautions. The chief limitation is probably the fact that real transformers often don't behave like ideal ones, so be sure to carefully read note 1 below. As a two-port network, a transformer shares much in common with the transmission line model. Each port (or "winding") must be connected to a wire or virtual segment, which it effectively cuts at the insertion point. Wires to which it connects can be any physical distance apart. Like transmission lines, transformers are connected in parallel with a source, transmission line, network, parallel connected load, or other transformer connected to the same segment. They're in series with series connected (conventional) loads connected to the same segment. At each port, the current into one terminal exactly equals the current coming out of the other, so there is no common mode current or radiation. The "turns ratio" is the square root of the ratio of specified port impedances, which should be chosen to be in the ballpark of the impedances to which they're connected. For example, in an application transforming about 50 to 200 ohms, don't specify 0.5 and 2, or 5000 and 20000 ohms for the transformer impedances. See item 2 below for the reason. Here are some further notes and cautions: 1. Remember that real transformers are far from ideal. Real transformers seldom maintain the specified transformation ratio over a very wide frequency or impedance range. In addition, they commonly add a substantial amount of series and shunt impedance except within a fairly narrow frequency and impedance range. In particular, transformers or baluns used for multi-band antennas typically depart dramatically from ideal behavior. So don't expect the model transformers to act anything like a real transformer over a wide frequency range. 2. The models are not quite ideal. Because of the way they're implemented, the transformer models actually have a small but usually insignificant resistance in series with each winding. The value of this resistance is based on the specified port impedances, such that if the specified impedances are in the ballpark of the impedances to which the ports are connected, the resistance will be insignificant. There's quite a bit of leeway

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Building The Model here, however, so you don't have to be precise about it. Please note: The specified impedances aren't winding impedances, and they aren't the values of the series resistances. They should be chosen as explained. 3. The method used to create these models doesn't lend itself to making a model of a "current balun" (common mode choke). A conventionally connected transformer model will, however, act as an ideal current balun, with a transformation ratio of your choice. An example of the use of a transformer model is in the A Lap Around Track 5 topic in the Test Drive tutorial.

Using The Transformers Window

Open the Transformers Window by clicking on the Control Center Transformers line or the button to its left. Like other insertion objects, both ports of all transformers have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. In addition to connection location, you have to specify port impedances and a choice of normal and reverse connection. Specifying Impedances The ratio of the two specified impedances will be the square of the "turns ratio". For example, a transformer specified as having a port 1 impedance of 50 ohms and port 2 impedance of 200 ohms will provide an impedance transformation of 1:4, or a voltage step up of 1:2, from port 1 to port 2. Although specified impedances of 1 and 4 ohms will provide the same transformation as 50 and 200, you should specify impedances which are in the general ballpark of the impedances actually seen by the transformer. The reason for this is explained in the Transformers topic. This isn't highly critical. Specifying Normal/Reverse Connection The Normal/Reverse connection column allows you to invert the transformer connection, effectively reversing the two terminals of one port. This is useful not only for effecting an intentional phase reversal, but also to force the polarity to be the same when the ends of connected wires are physically reversed. For example, suppose you wanted to connect a transformer between the base of two grounded vertical wires such that the voltage and current were the same at both ends with respect to ground. If end 1 of one wire was the ground end and end 2 of the other wire its ground end, you'd have to choose the reverse transformer connection to get the desired result. This is because like any other insertion object, the polarity of the connection is determined by the end 1 - end 2 direction of the wire rather than some physical direction. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving Transformers See Using Insertion Objects Windows.

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Using L Networks
L Networks
L networks are a powerful type of insertion object which can be used to model impedance matching networks, phase shift networks, attenuation pads, and many other network functions. They can be cascaded to create tee, pi, and more complex types of ladder networks. Unique features of the EZNEC L Network are: The two internal branches of the network can consist of more complex combinations of series, parallel, or "trap" connected components. Components making up the branches can be specified as inductances, capacitances, and resistances so that their impedances change with frequency like real components. Resistances can be made frequency dependent to mimic conductor or insulation loss. Please refer to the Insertion Objects topic for some important characteristics of L networks. L networks have two ports and contain two branches, a series branch and a shunt branch. The shunt branch is always connected across port 2:

Each branch contains the equivalent of an EZNEC load of either the RLC or R + jX type. (The Laplace load type isn't available for L networks.) Like loads, all branches of all L networks have to be the same type, although they don't have to be the same as the type chosen for EZNEC loads. Like loads, the components of an RLC branch can be connected in a series, parallel, or "trap" configuration which simulates a capacitor in parallel with a lossy inductor. The following diagram summarizes the combinations:

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Building The Model

Like EZNEC loads, specifying a value of zero for a parallel connected RLC component means "component missing" rather than a literal value of zero For example a zero value in a series configuration means a short circuit in place of that component; a zero value in a parallel configuration means an open circuit. L networks can be connected in tandem to make pi, tee, or ladder networks. This is made easier with the virtual segment feature. Extreme differences between the impedances of the two branches should be avoided when using a single or mixed precision calculating engine. See L Network Limitations for more information. Example files using an L network are 4Square L Network Feed ARRL Example.ez, Cardioid L Network Feed ARRL Example.ez, and 4Square L Network Feed With Z Matching.ez. Step-by-step development of the latter two is given in the A Lap Around Track 5 topic of the Test Drive tutorial.

Using the L Networks Window

Open the L Networks Window by clicking on the Control Center L Networks line or the button to its left. Each L network occupies two lines in the input grid. The upper line contains port 1 wire connections and series branch components; the lower line is port 2 wire connections and shunt branch components. Specifying Connections Like other insertion objects, both ports of all L networks have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. Specifying Type, Configuration, and Values Each L network branch contains the equivalent of an EZNEC load, so specification of the components in the branch is done in the same way as for loads. The R + jX Loads Window and The RLC Loads Window topics describe the process for the chosen branch type. See L Networks Overview for a detailed description of the L network object.

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EZNEC User Manual Extreme differences between the impedances of the two branches should be avoided when using a single or mixed precision calculating engine. See L Network Limitations for more information. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving L Networks See Using Insertion Objects Windows.

Using Y Parameter Networks

Y Parameter Networks (EZNEC Pro only)
Y Parameter Networks are insertion objects which can be used to simulate most two port networks. The network's admittance characteristics are defined as y parameters. These admittances don't change with frequency, so the model must be changed for each frequency if the network is intended to represent one which includes real reactive components. This feature, intended for engineering-level users, is the direct equivalent of the NEC network model. Connection rules are the same as for other insertion objects. Full discussion of y parameter network techniques is beyond the scope of this manual; it's assumed that the user is familiar with the use of these networks. Very briefly, the Y Parameter Network object is a two port network defined by y parameters y11, y12, and y22. The y parameter networks are reciprocal, so y21 = y12. Standard rules and definitions for two port networks and y parameters apply. Currents are defined as positive flowing into the positive port terminals, and i1 = v1 * y11 + v2 * y12 i2 = v1 * y12 + v2 * y22 from which it can be seen that y11 is the admittance looking into port 1 with port 2 short circuited (v2 = 0), and y22 the admittance looking into port 2 with port 1 short circuited (v1 = 0). Y12 is the short-circuit current at port 2 divided by the voltage at port 1, or the short-circuit current at port 1 divided by the voltage at port 2. Transmission lines, transformers, and L networks cover most of the common uses for networks and are simpler to use. In addition, L networks allow use of realistic components with frequency-varying impedances. But more complex networks can be devised if desired by using this feature. Remember that the y network impedances don't change with frequency, so in networks which aren't purely resistive, the y parameters will usually have to be redefined for each analysis frequency.

Using the Y Parameter Networks Window

Open the Y Parameter Networks Window by clicking on the Control Center Y Parameter Networks line or the button to its left. Specifying Connections

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Building The Model Like other insertion objects, both ports of all Y parameter networks have to be placed on real or virtual segments. See Placing Insertion Objects on Segments for details. Specifying Y11, Y12, and Y22 The real and imaginary parts of each impedance are entered in the appropriate cells in the grid. Y11 is the admittance looking into port 1 with port 2 short circuited, Y22 the admittance looking into port 2 with port 1 short circuited, and Y12 is the short-circuit current at port 2 divided by the voltage at port 1, or the short-circuit current at port 1 divided by the voltage at port 2. See Y Parameter Networks for additional information. Selecting, Adding, Deleting, Copying, Modifying, and Moving Y Parameter Networks See Using Insertion Objects Windows.

Modeling Ground
About Ground Models
Ground has a profound effect on the antenna pattern, and sometimes on its efficiency and feedpoint impedance. EZNEC provides several choices for modeling these effects. The three basic ground types, selected via the Control Center Information Window Ground Type line, are Free Space, Perfect, and Real. Free Space is no ground at all. Perfect is a perfectly conducting ground plane which is completely flat, and infinite in extent. The Real ground type is further subdivided into several models, discussed in Real Ground Types. Real ground is also flat and infinite in extent, although one downward step is permitted (see Using Two Ground Media). EZNEC Pro/4, when using an NEC-4 calculating engine, is able to model buried wires. All other EZNEC program types are not. Horizontal wires should not be placed exactly on the ground, but should be at least 1/1000 wavelength above (and in the case of EZNEC Pro/4, also below) the ground. See Elevated Radial Systems for more information about low horizontal wires. Free Space Free space analysis is computationally the fastest. It's useful for comparing antennas when the end operating environment isn't known, or for comparing the pattern of a model antenna with published free-space patterns of other antennas. When antennas have similar vertical patterns in the main direction of interest, the gain of the antennas when mounted over ground at the same height will differ by about the same amount as the free-space gain. A dipole and a Yagi of a few elements are in this category, so the free-space gain of a Yagi compared to that of a dipole is very nearly the same as the gain difference when both antennas are mounted at the same height. This isn't true, however, for antennas with different polarizations, such as a ground plane and dipole, or for antennas with quite different vertical patterns, such as a dipole and W8JK antenna. Free space analysis is also useful when working with a line-of-sight antenna having a downward-tilting pattern. When any ground is specified, EZNEC will

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EZNEC User Manual always report zero signal level at any elevation angle below the horizon. So either free space or near field analysis has to be used to determine how much signal is being directed downward. Perfect Perfect ground is useful to simulate the highly conductive ground seen in some antenna test chambers and ranges. It's can also be used for comparing results with textbook patterns which make the assumption of perfect ground. I've often used it to educate people about the effect of finite ground conductivity on antenna patterns by comparing perfect ground results with real ground results. Yet another use is when evaluating source placement with the Average Gain feature. To use Average Gain for evaluating source placement errors, loss must be reduced to zero. Ground loss can be reduced to zero by temporarily changing the ground type to Perfect. Wires can be connected directly to perfect ground, and the connections will have zero resistance. The one thing you shouldn't use the perfect ground type for is simulating real Earth ground. Real The Real ground types are used for simulating actual Earth ground. Unfortunately, neither of the models is faultless -- otherwise there would be only one Real ground model type instead of two. It's important to know which to use in a given circumstance, so please carefully study the sections about Real ground types and Limitations of Real Ground Models.

Real Ground Types

EZNEC provides two different models for simulating "real" as opposed to perfect -- ground. Neither does the job perfectly, and one is generally the best for a given situation. It's important to know which ground model to use and what the limitations of each are. The two Real ground models are MININEC-type and High Accuracy. The choice is made via the Control Center Information Window Ground Type line. Ground characteristics are defined in the Media Window, which is opened by clicking the Ground Descrip line or button in the Control Center. The Real ground models share these common characteristics: Both are perfectly flat and infinite in extent. Both are homogeneous to an infinite depth. Both have user-defined conductivity and relative permittivity (dielectric constant). Both allow a maximum of two media, each with its own characteristics. The second medium can be at a lower level than the first if desired. The ground model consists of one or two media, which are separated by a radial or linear boundary. If the radial boundary is chosen, the first medium is a disk, with the second medium occupying the remainder of the (infinite) ground plane. If the boundary is linear, the first medium occupies the ground to the -x side of a line parallel with the y axis, the remainder of the ground being the second medium. The "boundary" is the radius of the disk (radial type) or the x value of the dividing line (linear type).

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Building The Model When a new Real ground is created, the initial values for its conductivity and dielectric constant are determined by the values entered in the Control Center Options menu Default Ground Const selection. EZNEC, EZNEC+, and EZNEC Pro/2 are not able to model buried wires. EZNEC Pro/4 is able to model buried wires only when using the High Accuracy ground model and an NEC-4 calculating engine. The unique characteristics and uses of each Real ground type are outlined below. MININEC-type Like the High Accuracy real ground model, the MININEC-type model takes ground conductivity and dielectric constant (relative permittivity) into consideration when it calculates the pattern and gain. However, it considers the ground to be perfect when calculating the impedances and currents. The net effect is that a connection to MININEC-type ground has zero resistance (unlike the High Accuracy ground model), so there's no ground conduction loss, but the effect of ground on the pattern is included. The MININEC-type ground results in faster calculation than High Accuracy ground, and is satisfactory if the antenna doesn't contain any horizontal wires which are lower than about 0.2 wavelength, or higher if the wire is much longer than a half wavelength or so. The MININEC-type ground is preferable when modeling grounded wires, such as verticals. When using MININEC-type ground, a load must be added to grounded wires at the grounded segment to simulate ground system loss. Do not use this ground type if the model contains horizontal wires lower than about 0.2 wavelength. The minimum height increases for horizontal wires longer than about a half wavelength. [EZNEC Pro/4 only]: Standard NEC-4 doesn't have the provision for this type of ground, so it can't be used with an external NEC-4 calculating engine. The EZCalc4/4D engine has been modified to include MININEC-type ground. This ground type can't be used with buried wires in EZNEC Pro/4. Near field analysis is disabled when MININEC-type ground is selected. Tests have shown that, because of the fundamental way NEC does calculations, near field analysis with MININEC-type ground can produce significantly erroneous results, particularly in the vicinity of a wire which is connected to ground. This is really a contrived situation anyway, because the only way to achieve a ground connection for a real antenna comparable to the MININEC-type ground model is to install a radial system. This will alter the ground conductivity and local fields, so the MININEC-type ground model isn't really representative of conditions near a grounded wire in any case. Use some other ground type for near field analysis. High Accuracy The High Accuracy (NEC Sommerfeld) ground is required for antennas with low horizontal wires, and is recommended for use unless a direct, zero-ohm connection to ground is required. The minimum permissible height for horizontal

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EZNEC User Manual wires depends on several factors, but results should be good down to at least 0.005 wavelength, or about 6 inches -- 15 cm -- at 10 MHz., or several wire diameters, whichever is higher. When High Accuracy ground is used, a Sommerfeld-Norton interpolation table is calculated. Although this calculation is quite fast with modern computers, the resulting table is saved on the disk. If future runs require a table with similar values, an already-calculated table is read and used instead of repeating the calculations. The key parameter which determines whether an existing table is close enough is the ground's complex permittivity (which is a function of the frequency and the ground conductivity and permittivity). If a table is found for a magnitude within a user-specified tolerance of the required magnitude, it will be used. You can change this tolerance, if desired, from the Control Center Options menu. A tolerance value of a percent or so is adequate where horizontal wires aren't extremely close to the ground. In situations requiring high accuracy, or where there are low horizontal wires, a much smaller tolerance, perhaps 0.05%, is recommended. Direct connection of wires to High Accuracy type ground shouldn't be made. See Connecting Wires To Ground. The High Accuracy ground type should be used any time the model contains low horizontal wires, and is required for modeling buried wires with EZNEC Pro/4.

Limitations of Real Ground Models

EZNEC's Real ground model might not be representative of some real ground situations. At lower frequencies, current penetration becomes deep, with skin depth being on the order of several meters at the lower end of the HF range. Real ground is likely to be stratified, with widely varying conductivity and dielectric constant within this depth range. Because NEC, therefore EZNEC, assumes a perfectly homogeneous ground of infinite depth, the model may not accurately reflect the antenna's actual environment. While NEC is believed to be accurate in its evaluation of the model, it cannot accurately predict antenna performance if the model does not adequately represent the real situation. Consequently, EZNEC results for antennas with very low horizontal wires or [EZNEC Pro/4 only] with buried wires, particularly at lower frequencies, may be of limited usefulness in predicting actual antenna system performance. EZNEC is not able to model ground as being composed of other than a single homogeneous material of infinite depth. EZNEC, EZNEC+, and EZNEC Pro/2 are not able to model buried wires. Another factor limiting the ability to predict antenna performance when ground is a major factor is that actual ground conductivity appears to vary with frequency, an effect not modeled by EZNEC. Consequently, conductivity values for frequencies other than the frequency of use might not be accurate. It's also important to be aware of your limited ability to make realistic connections to ground, as outlined in Real Ground Types. See Vertical Antennas and Buried Radials for more about the limitations of Real ground models. [EZNEC Pro/4 only]: The Real, High-accuracy (Sommerfeld) ground model will produce erroneous results if the ground conductivity is specified to be much

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Building The Model greater than that of salt water (about 5 S/m) and an NEC-4 calculating engine is being used. This is a limitation of NEC-4. NEC-2 is more tolerant of high conductivities.

Using The Media Window

This window is available when Real ground type is selected, and is opened by clicking on the Ground Descrip line or selection button in the Control Center. The ground constants entered in this menu are used somewhat differently for two purposes. When Real/High Accuracy ground is chosen, the constants of the first medium are used during determination of antenna impedance and currents. The constants of both media are used during pattern calculation, by modifying the strength and phase of the field reflected from the ground. (Exception: Only the first medium is used when ground wave (EZNEC Pro only) or near field analysis is being done.) Ground constants are not used if Free Space or Perfect ground is specified, and are used only for pattern calculation if Real/MININEC-type ground is being used. Real/MININEC-type analysis assumes a perfect ground during impedance and current calculations. See Real Ground Types for more information. Selecting the Conductivity and Dielectric Constant The conductivity in Siemens/meter and the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) can be entered directly in the corresponding columns if desired. Right-clicking either of these columns opens a dialog box giving you a choice of a wide variety of typical ground types. The selection of ground conductivity makes little difference for horizontal wires of moderate height, but it can be very important for vertically polarized antennas. When a medium is first created, its initial conductivity and dielectric constant values are determined by the Control Center Options menu selection Default Ground Const. Adding A Second Medium To add a second medium, click Add in the Medium menu, or simply enter the values in the add row at the bottom of the grid. Empty cells or newly created media will use the conductivity and dielectric constant values specified by the Control Center Options menu selection Default Ground Const. Please review Using Two Ground Media before using a second medium. Completing the Specification Enter the second medium height and boundary in the remaining two columns. These values are fixed and can't be altered for the first medium. To change the boundary type between the media, select Boundary Type in the Medium menu. Adding an NEC Radial Model See The NEC Radial Model.

Using Two Ground Media

The ground may be broken into two "media", each having its own conductivity and dielectric constant (relative permittivity). The second medium can be at a different height, but must be at the same level or below the first medium. The media can be arranged in parallel slices or concentric rings. One use of two media would be to model an antenna on a lake surrounded by land. A very

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EZNEC User Manual important thing to understand is that the second medium is used only for far field pattern calculations, and is ignored for all other purposes. Be careful when using two media, and keep the following in mind: 1. Even if you place the antenna over the second medium, EZNEC will always use the ground constants and height (z = 0) of the first medium for calculation of the impedances and currents. 2. The second medium is used only for far field calculations. Near Field and Ground Wave calculations assume that the first medium is of infinite extent, and ignores the second medium. 3. The effect of the second medium is taken into account only in a very simplified way. The vertical pattern is generated by tracing "rays" direct from the antenna and reflected from the ground. When a second medium is used, the ground reflection "ray" is determined by whichever medium it strikes the top of. The "ray" does not penetrate either medium, and diffraction or similar effects aren't considered. Because of this, a highly conductive inner medium and normally conductive outer medium is not a good model of a ground radial system, and shouldn't be used for this purpose. 4. Buried wires in EZNEC Pro/4 will always be treated as though they're immersed wholly in the first medium. When a second ground medium is first created, its conductivity and dielectric constant are set to the default values determined by the Control Center Options menu Default Ground Const selection.

Connecting Wires to Ground

A Wire end is connected to ground by specifying a zero z-coordinate. EZNEC Pro considers a wire end to be connected to ground if it is within 1/1000 of a segment length of ground. A good general practice is to space unconnected vertical or sloping wires at least several wire diameters above ground. A wire with both ends within 1/1000 segment length of ground is not permitted and will produce an error message. If you connect a wire to ground when using the High Accuracy real ground type, the program makes the connection with an unpredictable series resistance. EZNEC will warn you when this situation occurs. Use the MININEC-type ground when modeling antennas with vertical, grounded wires if the ground system itself isn't part of the model. Note that the MININEC ground model isn't available when using an external (user-supplied) NEC-4 calculating engine with EZNEC Pro/4. Sometimes it's necessary to both make a ground connection and use High Accuracy ground. A technique for doing this is described in Connecting to High Accuracy Ground.

Connecting to High Accuracy Ground

Sometimes it's necessary to make a ground connection and use High Accuracy ground. An example of this situation is in modeling a Beverage antenna, where a connection is needed for the termination resistor. Another example is an inverted L antenna where the horizontal portion is lower than about 0.2 wavelength. In

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Building The Model these situations, the best approach is to approximate a buried radial system by creating horizontal radials just above the ground, and make the "ground" connection to the radials. [EZNEC Pro/4 only: The best approach for this program is to directly model the actual (usually buried) ground system and make the "ground" connection to it, and disregard the remainder of this topic.] A height of between about 1/100 and 1/1000 of a wavelength is suitable, but in any case no less than several wire diameters. If a low impedance connection is required, make the radials about a quarter wavelength or odd multiples long, and avoid lengths approaching a half wavelength or multiples. These aren't free space wavelengths, however, but wavelengths for a wire at the radial height. A half wavelength for a wire very close to the ground will be less than in free space, though. You can determine the wavelength by modeling a dipole at the height of the radials and adjusting its length until it's resonant. Be sure you're seeing the lowest (series) resonance, which for very low wires will occur with a dipole length somewhat less than a free space half wavelength. The best radial length will be about half the resonant dipole length. Radials can be easily constructed using EZNEC's automated radial creation feature. Above ground radials will show resonant effects more sharply than buried radials, but will provide a reasonable approximation of a buried radial system.

The NEC Radial Model

If you would like to use the NEC buried ground radial model, please first read this section very carefully. It deals only with the NEC ground radial model available in the Media Window (Other menu), not the "Create Radials" feature in the Wires Window, or radials modeled as wires. The NEC buried ground radial model is similar to the model used in ELNEC and MININEC. It is not actually a model of buried wires, and it does not model the effect of ground radials on antenna impedance, current, loss, or efficiency. It does approximately model the effect of ground radials on the pattern, an effect which is generally slight, unless ground radials are very long. (See Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials for more information.) The effect of the NEC buried ground radial model on feedpoint impedance is different than the effect of a real radial system on a real antenna. The presence of any NEC radials at all, even one very short radial, will change the NECcalculated ground connection resistance to zero, but only at the point (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0). Experiments have shown this to not always be true when using the NEC-2 engine and wires connecting to ground at a sloping angle. The resistance of connections to ground at other points will have an unpredictable resistance, as they do without the radials. This means that the model radials won't accurately predict the input impedance of a grounded wire such as a vertical antenna. The NEC buried ground radial model is used only for calculation of ground reflection coefficients for the far field patterns. Even for this limited use, the buried radial model isn't accurate unless there are many radials and the radial field. Accuracy is also poor when the radial field diameter is only a fraction of a wavelength and/or the antenna is relatively close to the radial field. For typical

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EZNEC User Manual vertical antenna radial fields, a model with radial wires suspended just above the ground (or below the ground with EZNEC Pro/4) results in much greater accuracy than using the NEC radial model. The conductivity of the radials is "peanut-buttered" over the entire ground area that the radials cover (varying with distance from the origin), and the result is simply paralleled with the ground conductivity in the region where the radials are placed. Four radials simply look like thinner "peanut butter" than 120 do. Once again, the NEC model radials do not represent a true picture of the effect of real ground radials. Other methods are generally preferred, as outlined in Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials. Ground radials can be modeled with reasonable accuracy using EZNEC Pro/4 with an NEC-4 calculating engine, so the use of the radial model isn't generally recommended if this option is available. Before it can be used with the standard or EZNEC+ program types, the NEC buried radial model feature must be enabled by means of an addition to the EZNEC.INI file. To make this modification, open the Control Center Utility menu and select Edit .INI File. In the [Special Options] section, add the following line: NECRadials = On Save the file and close it, then end EZNEC. Wait a few seconds for the disk cache to dump, then restart EZNEC. NEC radials (and the Other menu selection in the Media Window) will now be enabled. This addition to the EZNEC.INI file isn't required with EZNEC Pro. Once this feature is enabled, radials can be entered and modified via the Other menu in the Media Window. This selection will be unavailable (grayed out) unless all the following conditions are met: 1. Except for EZNEC Pro, the feature must be enabled with the added EZNEC.INI line described above. 2. Ground type must be Real, MININEC-type. 3. There must be two media. 4. The media boundary type must be radial, not linear. (When the boundary is radial, the upper heading of the rightmost Media Window column is "R Coordinate", not "X Coordinate". You can change it via the Media menu. 5. [EZNEC Pro only]: Ground Wave analysis must be turned off. When all these conditions are met, the choice will be available, and you can select the number and diameter of the radials. The radial length is always the diameter of the first medium, so to change the length you change the boundary of the second medium. If desired, you can enter the wire diameter as wire gauge (AWG) by typing '#--' where "--" represents the wire gauge. Gauges of wires larger than #0 (i.e., #00) are not permitted. After the entry is complete and the dialog box closed, the number of radials will appear in the Control Center Information Window as part of the Ground Descrip entry.

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Interpreting The Results

Currents
The currents at each segment can be displayed with the View Antenna feature or seen in tabular form by clicking the Control Center Currents action button. The currents give important information about antenna operation. In addition, they're invaluable in assessing whether the antenna is working as intended and in spotting conditions where EZNEC is being used beyond its capabilities. Note that the View Antenna display is intended as a visual aid. Although the overall display is correct, it has been smoothed so that details about the current along a single segment or at the junction of two segments may not be precise. If you need this level of detail, refer to the tabular data. One thing to look for is symmetry. If the antenna is symmetrical, the currents should be also. If not, some error has been made in wire definition, source placement, or some other area. For example, the current from the vertical part of a ground plane antenna should split evenly among the radials if the radials are the same length and evenly spaced. Make it a habit to look for these symmetries and you'll spot problems before bad results lead you astray. Another thing to look for is abrupt and unexplained current changes (instead of a smooth change from one segment to the next). This usually is due to not having enough segments but might be due to some other factor causing EZNEC to be operating beyond its limits. Sudden current reversals may be no cause for concern as they might be due to the way the wires have been defined. Positive current flow always is defined as being from end 1 to end 2, so if two end 1's or two end 2's are connected together, a 180-degree shift in current direction will be indicated at the junction of the wires (provided View Antenna phase information is on or you're looking at the currents in tabular form). The current actually is continuous as it should be, but the definition of direction changes from one wire to the other. There's nothing wrong with connecting wires in this fashion but don't be confused by the currents EZNEC shows as a result. Watch for this also when using multiple sources -- see Using Multiple Sources. Current phase information can be included on the View Antenna display, but it frequently conceals important information about what's happening to the magnitude of the currents. See The View Antenna Display for more information about this feature. The importance of currents is underscored by the fact that the field generated by a wire is proportional to the current flowing on it. If one element of a multielement antenna shows a small current relative to the others, it's not contributing much to the overall field. It might, however, be generating just enough to deepen a null in the pattern. If your model contains several nearby wires, towers, and other objects, a look at the currents on them will quickly tell you whether they're having a significant effect on your antenna's performance. If the current on an object is small relative to the current on your antenna, you generally can remove it from the model without much impact on the result (unless deep nulls are

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EZNEC User Manual important; even small fields can have a significant effect on nulls). Shorter conductors require more current than long ones to have the same effect. If using plane wave excitation, see Interpreting Plane Wave Results for additional information.

Load Data
Load data are shown by clicking the Load Dat action button in the Control Center. The voltage across, current through, impedance of, and power loss of each load is shown. In addition, the total load loss is shown in watts and dB. The loss figures are invaluable in determining the loss caused by traps, loading coils, and the like. You can also determine the voltage across the load or current through it under actual operating conditions by entering, via the Power Level selection in the Control Center Options menu, the power to the antenna. If two identical loads appear on identical adjacent segments, EZNEC will also show you the data for the two loads together. This is so you can simulate a load placed at a wire junction by splitting it in half and putting it on adjacent segments as described in Placing Loads At Wire Junctions. Series and parallel connected loads might show a 180 degree phase difference in voltage and current. See Parallel Connected Loads Polarity for an explanation.

Source Data
The impedance, SWR, voltage, and current at each source can be viewed or printed by clicking the Src Dat action button in the Control Center. In addition, a graph of the SWR vs. frequency can be displayed by clicking the SWR action button. If EZNEC reports a very low value of resistance at any source, be careful -- this might indicate operation beyond EZNEC's limits. If two elements are closely spaced and fed out of phase (W8JK-type antennas), the low resistance is real but the real antenna might not work like EZNEC predicts unless you've included wire loss (a Control Center choice). Losses become important when the resistance is low, so be sure wire loss is included if a low resistance is indicated. Negative resistances sometimes are reported for multi-element arrays. These actually can occur but are subject to the same cautions as low positive resistances. (The SWR for these sources will be reported as "undefined", and shown on the graph as infinite.) A negative source resistance where only one source is used is positive indication of operation of EZNEC beyond its capabilities. Very small loops, particularly ones containing a source, are often the cause of this condition. The SWR shown is the SWR which would be present on a feedline connected in place of the source. Values are given for 50 ohm and user-specified feedline impedances. (The user-specified impedance is selected with choice Alt SWR Z0 the Control Center Information Window.) The SWR is directly calculated from the source impedance. If a source is connected to a transmission line model and you want to know the SWR on the transmission line, the SWR reference impedance must match the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. Negative Input Resistance

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Interpreting The Results Occasionally a negative resistance might be shown at one or more sources. If a single source is being used, this is a positive indication of a numerical error, since it represents an antenna which is producing, rather than accepting power. The most common cause is a source placed in a very small loop. (See Small Loops.) Another likely possibility is a disallowed geometry condition, such as overlapping, overlying, or crossing wires. When multiple sources are used, a negative input resistance can be a valid result. This actually occurs in some arrays, and represents an element which is delivering power back to the feed system. It gets this power from the other elements via mutual coupling. The 4Square example description illustrates this characteristic. There's more information in the Antenna Notes file for this example. [EZNEC Pro only]: The Source Data display isn't available when plane wave excitation is being used.

Far Field Table

The Far Field Table is accessed by clicking the FF Tab action button in the Control Center. It shows the field strength at each azimuth and/or elevation angle. If you've selected a 3D plot type, you'll be asked which data to display and how it's to be organized. The Far Field Table data can be shown in several different formats, as selected via the Control Center Options menu Far Field Table Units selection. They are: dBi or dBref Shows the same data as the 2D plot. Values are relative to the reference value set by the Control Center Ref Level choice, or in dBi if the reference level is zero. mV/m for 1 kW at 1 mile Gives the field strength in mV/m at one mile, assuming a supplied power of 1 kW. Any setting of the Control Center Options/Power Level is ignored. mV/m for 1 kW at 1 km Same as above, but at a distance of 1 km. EZNEC pro only: Ground wave analysis choices dBi or dBref Same as for ordinary far field. mV/m Absolute value of the field at the distance and height specified in the Control Center Information Window. You'll generally want to set the power level, via the Control Center Options menu Power Level selection, before using this option. See the Options section of the Control Center Menus chapter in the Reference section for more details. In EZNEC+ and the EZNEC pro programs, you can also choose whether to show linear or circular components. This is done with the Control Center Desc Options selection, Plot/Fields tabs. [EZNEC Pro only]: If using plane wave excitation, see Interpreting Plane Wave Results for additional information.

Near Field Table

Unlike far fields, the near fields can be pointed in any direction. They are broken into three components, in the X, Y, and Z directions. A total is also shown. The total is generally all that will be used unless you have an interest in the 99

EZNEC User Manual orientation of the E or H field. EZNEC also reports, near the top of the list, the largest field that was found. Be careful that none of the steps falls inside a wire; if it does, the results for that step won't be meaningful, and it could be reported as the maximum value. Near field analysis uses only the first ground medium. If two ground media are defined, the second will be ignored. Because the ratio of E (electric) to H (magnetic) near field depends on the antenna type and the distance from it, the two fields must be analyzed separately. Note that "Near Field" analysis actually reports the total field, so it's valid at any distance, including far from the antenna. It can also be used in the standard EZNEC program for evaluating the ground wave. For more information, see Near Field Analysis in the Reference section. Remember that many factors affect the results from a modeling program. EZNEC should not, under any circumstances, be used to determine whether the energy or field strength from an antenna presents a hazard or unsafe condition. This applies to all results, including both Far Field and Near Field. [EZNEC Pro only]: If using plane wave excitation, see Interpreting Plane Wave Results for additional information.

Far Field Patterns

Three choices of far field plot are available, (2D) Azimuth, (2D) Elevation, and Three Dimensional (3D), although only azimuth is available if the ground wave component is included (EZNEC Pro only). Any elevation angle can be chosen for azimuth plots, and any azimuth angle for elevation plots. 2D plot range can be restricted if desired. The step size can be chosen; a too-coarse step size results in a jagged pattern, and a very fine step size may produce more data than needed or desired. Both the observation distance and height above ground can be freely chosen when the ground wave component is included (EZNEC Pro only). EZNEC includes a visualization aid for orienting the pattern relative to the antenna, in the View Antenna display, where the 2D pattern plot or a "slice" of the 3D plot can be superimposed on the representation of the antenna. More information about these features can be found in The 2D Display and The 3D Display sections of the Reference chapter. Because the far field sky wave from a horizontally polarized source is zero at a zero elevation angle for any ground type, and a vertically polarized source produces zero sky wave for any finite-conductivity ground, attempts to calculate a 2D pattern without the ground wave component under these conditions will result in an error message. The 2D Data box (activated via the 2D Display View/Show Data selection) shows a summary of key pattern characteristics, such as beamwidth and front/back ratio. EZNEC offers an alternate azimuth coordinate choice, "compass bearing". This presents azimuth angles in degrees clockwise from the +y axis (straight up on the 2D plot), to correspond to compass bearing. The choice is made in the Control Center Options Menu as Angle Convention. No change to any plot

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Interpreting The Results orientation occurs when changing between standard and bearing representations; only reported angles change. Various options for far field display can be selected in the Control Center window and the Control Center Desc Options selection. [EZNEC Pro only]: If using plane wave excitation, see Interpreting Plane Wave Results for additional information.

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Reference
Features
Alternative 2D Plot Grid
The alternative 2D plot grid, new in v. 5.0, is selected in the main window Options menu via the 2D Plot Grid Style selection, V 5 choice. The Classic choice provides the style used in previous versions of EZNEC for those who prefer it. When the V 5 style plot is chosen, you can also set the linear plot scale range which applies if Linear dB is selected via the Options menu 2D Plot Scale selection. The linear plot scale range setting is done via the Control Center (main window) Desc Options/Plot/2D Misc choice. Like all choices made in the main Control Center window, the choice of linear plot scale range is saved with the model, so it can be set to a value appropriate to the plot of the particular model's 2D pattern.

Antenna Notes
Antenna Notes are a way to include notes with your antenna description. An Antenna Notes file is an ordinary ASCII text file which has the same name as the associated antenna description file, but with a .txt extension in place of the description file .ez extension. The Antenna Notes file is kept in the same directory as the description files. Antenna Notes files can be edited with any text editor, or from within EZNEC. To create, view, or edit an Antenna Notes file for the current description, select Edit Current Antenna Notes from the Control Center File menu. This opens the file in the EZNEC Editor. When you're finished, select File/Save within the Editor, then close it. When you save an antenna description, you might see a dialog box asking you what to do with the corresponding Antenna Notes file. Both the Antenna Notes file associated with the current description, and the one associated with the saved file name are shown, to help you decide. This dialog box won't appear if the text in the two files is identical or if you're saving the file with the same name as when it was opened. EZNEC Pro only: You can also use Antenna Notes with NEC format files. Operation is similar to operation with .ez files, except that you'll see a temporary file name when you open the EZNEC Editor. With NEC format files, Antenna Notes are saved as a series of CM (comment) "cards". When you open the Antenna Notes for editing, EZNEC copies the CM card comments to a text file and opens that instead. Because there is no separate permanent Antenna Notes file, changes you make aren't permanent until they're written into the NEC format file. This isn't done until you save the description. So be sure to save the description file after you edit the Antenna Notes.

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Reference

Automatic Segmentation
Automatic wire segmentation is available in the Wires Window (Wire/Auto Seg) and in the Segmentation Check display (Segmentation menu, enabled only if one or more wires produces a warning). Two choices are offered, Conservative and Minimum Recommended. The Conservative choice is best for general use. If computation time becomes too long or the total number of segments becomes excessive, the Minimum Recommended choice can be used. In any case, don't blindly depend on the automatic segmentation to always choose the optimum number of segments. There are many occasions, such as several described in the chapter "Some Special Cases" in "Modeling The Antenna Structure" which require more segments. In some other cases, such as placement of a source or load on a short wire or when dealing with closely spaced parallel wires, the segment length or alignment is important. Automatic segmentation won't recognize these special circumstances, so it will be up to you to determine how many segments are required. Probably the best use of automatic segmentation is as a first segmentation of a new antenna description, as an initial setting. Segmentation Check has a related feature called Fix Segs which is described in the Segmentation Check topic.

Average Gain
Average Gain is a valuable tool in detecting situations where EZNEC's calculating engine is having difficulty, particularly in situations involving source placement. A second use for Average Gain is to evaluate the amount of loss incurred by wire resistance or the reaction of the field with a finitely-conducting ("Real") ground. The Average gain is the total power in the far field (determined by integrating the far field in all directions) divided by the power delivered to the antenna by the sources. It's shown at the bottom of the Control Center after a 3D far field plot has been run. It is not computed for Azimuth or Elevation plot types. EZNEC's NEC calculating engine is very particular about the length of segments containing sources, and nearby segments. When placement isn't to its liking, an error in the form of inaccurate gain and impedance will frequently occur. Without an independent means of evaluating gain, this error can go undetected. A solution to the problem is to calculate the Average Gain. Average Gain is meaningful for assessing the validity of results only when no loss mechanisms (wire loss, resistive loads, or "real" ground) are present in the model. When the Average Gain is one (with no loss present), the program is producing correct results. If it deviates significantly from this value, results are in error, and source placement should be altered if possible. Every effort should be made to correct the problem. But if this isn't possible, the pattern and gain figures can be corrected by dividing them by the Average Gain (or by subtracting the Average Gain in dB from them). The procedure for using Average Gain to evaluate source placement is detailed in the Source Placement Precautions section. To use Average Gain to assess wire or ground loss, you should first confirm that the Average Gain is near unity when all loss has been removed from the model. 103

EZNEC User Manual When lossy factors have been restored, the Average Gain indicates the loss incurred by these factors, so comparison of the loss and no-loss Average Gains can be used to evaluate efficiency. The Source Placement Precautions section details how to set losses to zero. The message Model Contains Loss appears at the bottom of the Control Center adjacent to the Average Gain if loss is present in the model, to alert you to the fact that the Average Gain should not be expected to be equal or nearly equal to one (zero dB). If it's not possible to reduce the Average Gain to nearly unity (zero dB), the gain can be corrected with fair accuracy by subtracting the Average Gain in dB from the reported field strength in dBi. For example, if the reported gain is 2 dBi and the Average Gain is 3 dB, the actual gain is 2 - 3 = -1 dBi. If there is only one source, the feedpoint resistance can also be corrected by multiplying the reported feedpoint resistance by the plain numerical (not dB) Average Gain. Unfortunately, the reactance error isn't predictable so can't be corrected by this method, and the feedpoint resistance correction won't work if there are multiple sources.

Combining Antenna Descriptions

Antenna descriptions can be combined into a single model. One typical use would be to separately analyze Yagi antennas for different bands, then combine them to study interactions. Or parasitic structures might be modeled separately then combined in various combinations in a single model. To add an existing antenna description to the current model, choose Add Description from the Control Center File menu. Note: Saved descriptions must always contain at least one source. So if you want to save a model of a parasitic structure (that is, one which doesn't have a source), you have to add a source to it. This source can be deleted after combining it with an existing description which does have a source. Combining and importing are sometimes confused. If you want to add wires whose coordinates are in an ASCII file, or want to replace your current model with wires from an ASCII file, see Importing Wire Coordinates.

EZNEC Editor
The EZNEC Editor is basically a copy of the Windows Notepad application. It's used as a convenient way to edit text files from within EZNEC. Controls, menus, and operation are very similar to Notepad, although occasionally you'll see a difference. The EZNEC editor is automatically opened to display a number of EZNEC files and outputs. A few words about fonts -- When used for displaying tabular outputs like Currents, Source Data, Far Field Table, and so forth, the EZNEC Editor restricts your choices to fixed-width fonts such as FixedSys and Courier New. This permits the columnar data in these files to be properly aligned. Some fonts, such as FixedSys, are screen fonts only and can't be printed. If this happens, either Windows or EZNEC will substitute another font during printing. If Windows substitutes a variable-width printer font for a fixed-width screen font, the columns in certain outputs won't line up properly. If this happens, select a printable fixed-

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Reference width font. The Editor will remember the last fixed width font you chose, and will continue to use it in the future until you change it again. You can use the EZNEC Editor to view or edit any file, not just EZNEC files, by selecting View File or Edit File from the Control Center File menu. The only difference between these two is that if you open a file with the View File selection, you won't be allowed to save it under the same name. That is, it protects the original file from being changed by the editing process.

Frequency Sweep
EZNEC's frequency sweep capability can be a very valuable tool in evaluating antenna performance over a range of frequencies. However, operation is somewhat different in the frequency sweep mode, so it's important to understand the operation in order to get the most from this feature. Note that the frequency "sweep" is actually discrete steps. These can be evenly spaced or, if read from a file, any frequencies in any order. In non-frequency sweep operation, EZNEC calculates antenna impedances, currents, and pattern, and keeps the current and pattern information. When changes are made to the antenna, only necessary recalculations are done. For example, when the plot elevation angle is changed, only the pattern is recalculated. This is not the case with frequency sweep. It's not practical to keep all the information for all frequencies, so final calculation results are written into an ASCII file after each frequency step. Data present in arrays are erased and EZNEC is reset before beginning calculations at the next frequency. Therefore, calculation results from a frequency sweep are available only in the form of the file containing the data and, optionally, a trace for each frequency. The exception to this is that data from the last frequency in the sequence can be viewed. The frequency sweep can be run only when the Control Center Plot Type selection is Azimuth or Elevation. It can't be run when 3D plot type is selected. Two or three outputs are available from the frequency sweep: MicroSmith or winSMITH files and data output are always available for selection; 2D far-field plots (traces) are available only when far-field analysis (EZNEC Pro: with or without ground wave) is chosen for frequency sweep. You can choose to have EZNEC save any combination of these. Additional impedance and SWR data are always saved, in a separate file, regardless of the outputs you choose to keep. These data are used for the SWR Graph, and reside in a comma-delimited ASCII file named LastZ.txt in the EZNEC program directory. This file remains after the program ends and may be used for other purposes as desired. Note: MicroSmith and winSMITH limit the number of frequency steps they will accept. See MicroSmith or winSMITH for more information. Following is a detailed description of the features in the Frequency Sweep Setup dialog, which is opened via the Control Center Setups menu, Frequency Sweep selection. Frequency Sweep Off/On Turns frequency sweep off and on. Frequency Selection

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EZNEC User Manual Selects frequencies to be used for the sweep. Frequencies can be specified in one of two ways. If specified as start, stop, and step frequencies, the frequency steps will be evenly spaced, extending from the start frequency to the stop frequency. If a frequency sweep input file is specified, frequencies are read in order from the file, and there are no restrictions on spacing or order. Start, Stop, and Step Frequency (MHz) Specifies the range of frequencies to sweep, and the step size. Read Frequencies From File If this is checked, Start, Stop, and Step Frequency entries will be disabled, and a file name is required. The file must contain a list of frequencies to be used in the sweep. See "Frequency Sweep Input File" for details about the file format. If unchecked, File Name, Select, and Edit File are disabled. File Name Shows the name of the input file you've chosen, if Read Frequencies From File is checked. You can not enter a file name in the text box; the file must be chosen by using the dialog box opened with Select. Select Opens a dialog box to allow you to choose an input file. Edit File Opens the file shown in the File Name box for editing in the EZNEC Editor. If no file name has been selected, opens a dialog box allowing you to choose one. Field Field To Calculate Selects whether EZNEC will run a far field or near field analysis for the frequency sweep. If Near Field is chosen, pattern plot output and pattern analysis data are not available, and field strength table data will be near field. Output Selects what data will be calculated and saved during the frequency sweep. There are three general categories of output, listed below. For each category, the output file name is specified by clicking the Select button, and the choice is shown in the corresponding text window. Pattern Plots If this is checked, 2D pattern plots will be saved, and shown when the frequency sweep is completed. This selection is disabled if Near Field is chosen as the Field To Calculate. Select this option when you want to see or save 2D plots for all the sweep frequencies. These plot (trace) files aren't automatically erased when the sweep ends, so they can be treated later like any other trace files. It's recommended that you use a name like "temp" for files you won't want to view at a later date, and use this same name each time you want to see frequency sweep plots but don't need to keep them. The extension .P# is added to the file name you specify, with # being 1 for the first frequency, 2 for the second, etc. These are EZNEC OpenPF binary plot files, and are not readable without specialized software. To save far-field plot data in readable, ASCII form, check Data File and Field Strength Table. MicroSmith or winSMITH Files If this choice is selected, MicroSmith or winSMITH input files will be saved in the directory specified in Control Center Options menu, Folders/MicroSmith or winSMITH Files selection. The choice of program is made with the Control Center Options menu,

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Reference Smith Chart Program selection. Extensions expected by the Smith Chart program will be added by EZNEC to the specified name. Note: winSMITH v. 2.00 allows no more than 15 frequency steps, so EZNEC won't write more than this number into a winSMITH file. MicroSmith v. 2.000B and earlier permit no more than 8 frequency steps in a .DAT file (for frequency dependent loads), while later versions allow 100. EZNEC can be set to limit the number of MicroSmith .DAT file steps to either 8 or 100. See the MaxMSFreqs option in Special Options for information about how to set this limit. Data File Saves selected data in ASCII format in a text file. The choices of data which can be saved, in the dialog Data File Contents section, are listed below. Field Strength Table Saves a table of field strength values for each frequency, either far field or near field, as determined by the Field To Calculate choice. The format of the data is the same as for the single frequency tabular far field (FF Tab) or near field (NF Tab) display. The locations in space where near field strength is calculated are defined in the Near Field Setup dialog. Source Data (Incl. SWR) Saves source data (impedance, voltage, current, power, and SWR), in the same format as for the single frequency Source Data (Src Dat) display. Load Data Saves load data (impedance, voltage, current, and power) in the same format as for the single frequency Load Data (Load Dat) display. Currents Saves wire currents in the same format as for the single frequency Currents display. Pattern Analysis Saves information about the plot such as maximum value, angle at which the maximum occurs, front/back or front/side ratio, etc., essentially the same information that is presented in the 2D Display Data Window. This choice is disabled when Near Field is selected as the Field To Calculate. Although any extension can be specified for the file name by first choosing "All files" in the "Files of type" window of the file name selection dialog box, it's recommended that you let EZNEC add a ".txt" extension by leaving "Text files" as the "Files of type" choice. This cues Windows to the fact that the result is a plain ASCII text file.

Geometry Check
This powerful feature, which runs automatically before each calculation, checks the model for errors such as wires crossing at other than a wire end or segment junction, wires occupying the same space or overlapping, or wires coming too close to each other. Calculation isn't allowed to proceed if geometry errors are found. Wire crossings and connection at segment junctions are permitted by NEC, and although not generally recommended for EZNEC operation (due to disconnection occurring when segmentation is changed), no errors will occur if wires cross at a segment

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EZNEC User Manual junction. However, NEC files created by external programs and imported into EZNEC Pro often contain segment junction connections. By default, the Geometry Check will show a warning if wires cross at segment junctions. If you commonly use files originally intended for NEC use which contain wires crossing at segment junctions, you can suppress these messages via the EZNEC Geometry Check selection in the Control Center Options menu. There's also an option in the new Desc Options dialog (opened by clicking Desc Options in the white pane of the main window), General tab, to allow calculations to proceed if the only errors found are that a segment center is within another wire (see below). This choice is saved with the description, since the condition sometimes causes serious calculation errors and sometimes not, but it's sometimes hard to avoid. The selection affects both the EZNEC Geometry Check and, in EZNEC Pro/4, SEGCHK if enabled. For users familiar with NEC-4, the Geometry Check tests for the same kinds of errors as NEC-4's SEGCHK. However, it's faster and a bit more conservative than SEGCHK, and it catches some geometry errors which SEGCHK doesn't. And it's present in all EZNEC program types, and runs regardless of the calculating engine chosen. EZNEC Pro/4 users have a Pre-Calc Geometry Check selection in the Control Center Options menu, to choose between the EZNEC and NEC-4 checks, or both, when running an NEC-4 calculating engine. I suggest keeping the EZNEC Geometry Check enabled, unless you have some special need to use the NEC-4 check. If you ever do see an error which SEGCHK catches that EZNEC's Geometry Check doesn't, I'd like very much to hear about it. "Center of wire x end segment within wire y" is a message which brings frequent requests for explanation, so a detailed description of its cause has been included here. It occurs when two wires are connected at an angle. Suppose, for example, that one wire (let's call it wire y) has a diameter of two inches, and another wire (wire x) is connected to it at a right angle, as shown in the diagram below. If the segments of wire x are shorter than two inches, the center of the end segment of wire x will be inside wire y. The message will appear with longer wire x segments and/or smaller wire y diameter if the angle between the wires is acute. Sometimes this condition causes serious computation errors, and sometimes not. If possible, it should be avoided by decreasing the diameter of wire y, lengthening the segments of wire x, or both. The Geometry Check report of this condition can be overridden for the current model, allowing calculation to proceed, via the Desc Options selection, General tab, in the Control Center (main window). Use caution if choosing to override. An Average Gain check should be run, although a good value isn't a guarantee that results will be valid.

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Ground Wave Analysis

This feature is available only in EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4. Ground wave analysis is similar to far field analysis in that it uses approximations valid only in the far field, but differs in that it includes the ground wave, and reports the absolute field at a specified distance rather than a relative one at an arbitrary distance. Ground wave analysis is enabled via the Gnd Wave Dist (ground wave distance) Control Center selection. When Ground Wave analysis is enabled, the Elevation Angle or Azimuth Angle selection changes to Observation Height, which you can also specify. Note that if an observation height greater than zero is chosen, the ground wave distance is the horizontal distance from the origin to the observation point, i.e., the projection of the actual distance on the XY plane. The actual distance from the origin to the observation point is the square root of the sum of the squares of the ground wave distance and the observation height. If ground wave analysis is enabled, Plot Type is restricted to Azimuth. Results can be presented as a dBi plot, or in a table of dBi or absolute electric field values, the choice being selected with the Control Center Options menu Far Field Table Units selection. Ground wave analysis may be done with any ground type except

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EZNEC User Manual free space. Note: If more than one medium is defined with Real ground, the analysis will be done using only the constants of the first medium as though it extends to infinity; the second medium, if present, will be ignored.

Group Modify
Modifying A Group of Wires, Sources, Loads, or Transmission Lines The Group Modify feature is common to all the Input Grid Windows except the Media Window. It's a powerful feature for modifying a number of items at once. Many of the normal editing features and shortcuts apply when Group Modify is activated. Group Modify is activated by selecting Group Modify from the Wire, Source, Load, or Transmission Line menu and specifying the range of item numbers to be modified. Alternatively, the items can be selected before making the menu selection. While Group Modify is active, the selection is frozen, and items can't be added to or removed from the selected group. Any changes made to any of the items is applied to all items in the selected group. Most changes which can be done on individual items, including shortcuts, can be done on a group of items using Group Modify. To turn Group Modify off, select Wire, Source, Load, or Transmission Line/Group Modify again.

Near Field Analysis

As of this writing, EZNEC and similar programs are accepted by the FCC and some counterpart bodies in other countries as permissible for calculating compliance with RF exposure requirements. However, EZNEC results should never be used in any judgements regarding human safety. Please carefully read the Legal Disclaimer for further information. Near field analysis, as it applies to EZNEC, is something of a misnomer, because the complete field is actually calculated and reported. So near field analysis results apply equally well in the far field. EZNEC presents near field data only in tabular, not graphical, form. Near field analysis is run by clicking the NF Tab button in the Control Center. (Note: This feature is disabled when MININEC-type ground is selected. For more information, see "MININEC-type" in the Real Ground Types topic.) The points in space where EZNEC will calculate the field strength are specified in the Near Field Setup dialog, chosen in the Control Center Setups menu, Near Field selection. The entries in the dialog are described below. Start, Stop, Step Columns These are the locations in space, relative to the origin, where EZNEC will calculate the field strength values. EZNEC begins at the Start location, and steps by increments in the Step column until the Stop location is reached. X, Y, and Z or Dist, Zen Ang, and Az Ang rows The titles of the rows depend on the Coordinate System selection. For Cartesian coordinates, the rows represent the x, y, and z distances from the origin in current units. For spherical coordinates, they represent the radial distance from the origin in current units, the

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Reference zenith angle (angle downward from the z axis) in degrees, and the azimuth angle (angle counterclockwise from the x axis) in degrees. Field Either the E (electric) or H (magnetic) field can be calculated. As distance from the antenna increases, the ratio E/H approaches 120 pi, so at sufficient distances, calculation of only one field is adequate because the other is then known. This isn't true, however, when close to the antenna. Coordinate System -- Stepping can be done either in Cartesian (x, y, z) or spherical coordinates, but results are always shown in Cartesian coordinates. See X, Y, and Z or Dist, Zen Ang, and Az Ang rows, above, for explanations of the spherical coordinates. Total Steps This shows the total number of locations at which the field will be calculated. You can update this window by pressing <Enter> when the cursor is in any of the position entry boxes.

Writing IONCAP/VOACAP Files (EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only)

EZNEC+ and EZNEC Pro can write type 13 input files for IONCAP, VOACAP, and related programs. This file contains field strength data for each degree of azimuth and elevation in a defined format. The files generated by EZNEC are directly readable by IONCAP type programs. To generate an IONCAP/VOACAP file, first you must have a model with some type of ground specified; this feature isn't available with free space models. In the Control Center, set the Plot Type to 3 Dimensional and the Step Size to 1 degree. Then calculate a 3D far field pattern by clicking FF Plot or FF Tab. After the calculation is finished, there are three places where you can initiate the file writing action. If you chose the plot option, open the File menu in the 3D Plot Window, and select Write IONCAP/VOACAP File. If you chose the table option, you can click the Write IONCAP/VOACAP File button at the lower left of the formatting dialog box which opens when the calculation is complete, or you can choose a format and use the option to write the IONCAP/VOACAP file in the File menu of the tabular data display. After clicking any of these, you'll be prompted for a file name. You can, of course, navigate to another directory before saving. See Options, below, for how to change the default directory for saving IONCAP/VOACAP files. Depending on the options you've set (see below), you might have a choice for the orientation of the data in the file. After making your selection, click Ok to write the file. Consistent with IONCAP/VOACAP standards, the azimuth angles in the files represent a clockwise progression from the zero degree entry, regardless of whether you've chosen a conventional CCW angle or compass bearing display for your other EZNEC outputs. There are two choices for the zero reference, explained below. Options Default directory (folder) You can change the directory which appears in the file saving dialog box, either for just the current EZNEC session or permanently, via the Control Center

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EZNEC User Manual Options menu Folders selection. You should set this to the location where your IONCAP type program expects antenna files to be. Zero degree reference Basic IONCAP/VOACAP programs expect the data for zero degrees azimuth to correspond to the antenna pattern maximum. However, some variations prefer or accept an absolute azimuth angle. So EZNEC allows you three choices: 1. Zero degree data in the plot always represent the gain in the direction of "North", or zero compass bearing -- up on the 2D display; in the direction of the +Y axis. 2. Zero degree data in the plot always represent the gain in the direction of the pattern maximum (defined by EZNEC as the azimuth direction at which the pattern gain is at its highest for all azimuth and elevation angles). 3. EZNEC will prompt you for a choice between the above two whenever the pattern maximum is not at zero degrees azimuth. Increasing angles in the file represent field strength at increasing compass bearings, i.e., in a clockwise direction, regardless of the zero angle choice. You make your choice in the Control Center Options menu, IONCAP/VOACAP Zero Angle choice. Be sure to open the Options menu again and choose Save As Default if you want the choice to persist after the current EZNEC session.

Rescaling
An antenna can easily be rescaled for a new frequency by clicking the Frequency line or button in the Control Center Information Window, then checking the Rescale box. The items which will be rescaled are wire end coordinates, wire diameter if not specified as wire gauge, wire insulation diameter, second medium height, second medium boundary, ground wave distance and observation height (EZNEC Pro only), and transmission line lengths if not specified in degrees. (Transmission line Z0 isn't modified even if it was initially entered as wire diameter and spacing.) The above items will be modified even if Wavelengths is the chosen unit of measure. Note that results might not be exactly the same after rescaling, for several reasons. One is that not all items are rescaled. For example, if you defined some wire diameters as wire gauge, they won't be scaled, so the final antenna won't have exactly the same proportionality as the original. Another factor is ground and wire conductivity. Neither of these is scaled, yet the resistance of both changes with frequency as a consequence of the difference in skin depth. So a scaled antenna will generally perform very closely to, but not exactly like, the same antenna before scaling.

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Reference Rescaling of any wire or group of wires, optionally including wire diameter and insulation thickness, can be done via the Scale Wires feature in the Wires Window.

Segment Length Tapering

Note: The process of making an element from telescoping tubing is called tapering by some authors, and corrections for NEC-2's inaccuracy in modeling these is sometimes called taper correction. EZNEC uses the term segment length tapering or segment tapering to refer to the process of stepping, or tapering, segment lengths, rather than diameters. (The process of correcting NEC-2 for steps in wire diameter is called stepped diameter correction.) Multiple wires joining at an acute angle sometimes require shorter segments than single straight wires or wires joining in a line, particularly when a source or load is near the junction. This is seen with antennas such as multiple dipoles connected to a common feedpoint. Another case is with very low elevated radial systems. The straightforward solution in this situation is to increase the number of segments. However, doing so increases computation time. The technique described here provides high accuracy with a smaller total number of segments. Instead of making the entire wires out of short segments, the segments can be made short near the junction, gradually increasing, or tapering, to a greater length away from the junction. EZNEC automates this process but it's useful to know how the procedure works so you can optimize it for your particular purpose. The basic procedure is to replace the original wire with several wires of different lengths. The new wire closest to the junction is made very short and with one segment. The second wire is made twice the length of the first, also with one segment. This process is continued until the segment length becomes long enough (say, 1/20 wavelength), and the remainder of the original wire is made up of a multiple-segment wire of approximately this segment length. In the automated process, you can choose the minimum and maximum segment lengths or use the default values of 1/400 and 1/25 wavelength. This technique shouldn't generally be used if connecting wires have different diameters, unless perhaps when using an NEC-4 engine with EZNEC Pro/4. See Stepped Diameter Correction Overview. Segment length tapering isn't available (the menu choice will be grayed out) if more than one wire is selected or if you're in Group Modify mode. To length taper segments: 1. Save your antenna description. Segment length tapering is permanent and can't be undone. 2. In the Wires Window, select Taper Segs in the Wire menu. This opens a dialog box. 3. Select the wire you want to taper, and which end of the wire is to be the end with the shortest segment length. The default maximum and minimum segment lengths are suitable for most purposes, but you can modify these values if desired.

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EZNEC User Manual 4. The number of segments and wires which will be created by the process are shown in the dialog box. If this is ok, click Ok and the specified wire will be tapered. The new collection of wires will be shown in the Wires Window with a distinctive color, so you can easily keep track of which wires you've tapered. Tip: To create a group of tapered radial wires, create a single wire, then use EZNEC's radial creation feature to make the remaining radials with it as a prototype.

Segmentation Check
Segmentation Check detects some common violations of NEC modeling guidelines, namely segments which are too long or short, or segment length/diameter ratio out of bounds. Unless automatic operation is disabled via the Control Center Options menu, Segmentation Check is run whenever the program is started, a new description is opened, the frequency is changed, or wires are imported from an ASCII file. It can be run at any time from the Control Center Outputs menu. There are two sets of guidelines, conservative and minimum recommended. In general, you should keep your antenna within the minimum recommended guidelines, and observe the conservative guidelines if the antenna is narrow band or critical. Always be aware, however, that even this doesn't guarantee a sufficient number of segments. See Segmentation for more information. Segmentation Check output is shown with the EZNEC Editor, so you can save or print the data if desired. If any errors are found, an additional menu, Segmentation, is shown in the Editor. This allows you to have EZNEC automatically adjust the number of wire segments to conform to the NEC guidelines. The choices in this menu are as follows: Fix Segs Adjusts the number of segments only on wires which violate guidelines. Auto Seg Adjusts the number of segments on all wires to the minimum number required to meet guidelines. Each of these selections has two additional choices, allowing you to adjust to conservative or minimum recommended guidelines (explained above). Caution: Segmentation Check does not find all possible description errors, only the ones listed above. EZNEC Pro only: Wire grids created using the EZNEC Pro wire grid creation feature (Wires Window) with default spacing will show violation of conservative guidelines. This is normal. EZNEC Pro/4 only: The velocity factor is taken into account when evaluating the segmentation of buried wires. This often generates warnings when segments are quite short. (To see the velocity factor being used, click Ground Info in the Control Center Utilities menu.) Ground loss is usually so high that coarse segmentation is adequate, so you shouldn't be overly concerned about messages warning of too-short segments on buried wires.

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Stepped Diameter Correction

A method used by EZNEC to correct for an NEC-2 inaccuracy when modeling connected wires of different diameters. Its applies only under a limited number of conditions, most notably full-sized Yagis made from telescoping tubing. Stepped diameter correction isn't necessary for EZNEC Pro/4 using an NEC-4 calculating engine. See Stepped Diameter Correction Overview for more detailed information.

SWR Graph
The SWR sweep is run by first clicking the SWR action button in the Control Center. If a sweep has recently been run and the model not changed since, you'll be asked whether to view the existing data. If you choose No, or if there's no existing valid data, you'll see a dialog box which allows you to enter the start, stop, and step (increment) frequencies for the sweep. These values are shared by the Frequency Sweep function. Alternatively, you can have EZNEC read a list of frequencies from an ASCII text file. The requirements for this file are detailed in the Frequency Sweep Input File section. After entering your selections, click Run to begin the sweep. At the conclusion of the sweep, the SWR Display will open, showing the results. Use of this display is covered in the Using The SWR Display section of the Reference chapter. After the sweep is finished, a file named Lastz.txt is present in the EZNEC program directory. This file contains impedance results from the sweep, and persists after the program ends. The data in this file can be used for analysis by other applications if desired.

TraceView
TraceView mode is a way to look at, compare, or print previously saved traces (far field pattern plots) without having to run far-field calculations. TraceView mode is also capable of displaying some plot files in the OpenPF standard format generated by programs other than the EZNEC family, but this operation isn't guaranteed. TraceView can also be used to translate plot files to .PF format from the .ENT format of ELNEC and EZNEC v. 1. Starting TraceView EZNEC can be put into the TraceView mode at any time by selecting TraceView from the Control Center View menu. Alternatively, EZNEC can be started in the TraceView mode by entering <path>\EZW /TV in the Windows Start/Run text box, where <path> is the EZNEC program path. If you use TraceView frequently, you might want to set up a desktop shortcut to start EZNEC in TraceView mode. Running TraceView When TraceView first starts, you'll be prompted for a primary trace file. This can be any current-version 2D or 3D EZNEC plot (trace) file having the extension .PF or .P#, or files from ELNEC and EZNEC v. 1 having extensions .ENT or .F#, which you've previously saved. If you haven't saved any plots from previous EZNEC calculations, there won't be any to view with TraceView, and TraceView 115

EZNEC User Manual can't be used. The chosen plot can be viewed in the same manner as a regular EZNEC plot. Additional traces can be added to the 2D plot or "slice", but only the primary trace field strength values can be shown in tabular form. The primary trace also determines the initial value of the plot outer ring if automatic scaling is chosen, and characteristics shown in the Control Center are those of the primary trace. Menu selections and operation are the same in TraceView as for the standard mode, except that many menu items are missing (because TraceView is for viewing only), and the Open selection prompts you for a primary trace file rather than a description file. You can select a new primary trace at any time with the Open button or File menu item. If the primary trace file is in ELNEC or EZNEC v. 1 format (.ENT or .F# extension), it can be saved as a .PF file by selecting Save Trace As in the 2D display File menu. This choice won't be available if the primary trace file is already in .PF format. Ending TraceView You can end TraceView by ending EZNEC, or you can change to the normal mode by clicking TraceView in the Control Center View menu.

Undo/Redo
EZNEC v. 5.0 has unlimited undo/redo capability. This applies to all choices saved with the antenna description, but not to program-level changes like the selections in the main window Options menu. Undo/redo is done via the Edit menu in the Control Center and other windows, which can be used interchangeably. The maximum disk space used by undo/redo is generally modest by current standards, but it can be limited if desired, via the Control Center Options menu Undo Disk Space selection. Undo is reset when a new description is opened. If the previous description has been changed, you'll see a prompt asking you if you want to save it before proceeding. This prompt can be turned off via Control Center Options menu selection Messages On/Off.

Virtual Segments
NEC requires that all insertion objects be connected to (inserted in) a wire segment. There are many occasions where you want to connect two insertion objects, for example a source and one end of a transmission line, in parallel but not to any wire in the model. For this purpose, EZNEC provides virtual segments. In the normal insertion object specification for wire number, simply enter the letter "V" followed by a number you wish to assign to the virtual segment, for example, "V10". Specify the same virtual segment number for any other insertion objects you want to connect in parallel with it. This will result in the objects being connected in parallel. Any type of insertion object can be connected to a virtual segment except split sources or series-connected (conventional) loads. Unlike all other insertion objects, series-connected loads are connected in series, rather than parallel, with other objects on the same

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Reference segment. The parallel-connected load is provided for use whenever a load is to be connected in parallel with other objects on a real or virtual segment. Virtual segment numbers can be any integer from 1 to 999 and don't have to be used in order or follow any other sequence or pattern. A list of the virtual segments and the insertion objects connected to them can be seen by opening the View Antenna Display, then selecting Show Virtual Seg Conn in the View menu. See Virtual Segment Connection Display for more information. When a model containing virtual segments is saved and opened with an older EZNEC program version, the virtual segments are converted to real segments on a distant wire. Likewise, they appear as real segments on a distant wire when the model is saved in NEC format (EZNEC Pro programs only).

The Control Center

Control Center Introduction
The Control Center is as its name implies the center and beginning point for all EZNEC operations. It appears when EZNEC first starts, and remains present until the program ends. It contains several distinct areas, shown below:

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EZNEC User Manual Information Window This window shows information about a number of important parameters of the antenna being modeled. Any of the information in this window which can be changed is saved with the antenna description in the antenna description file. Selection Buttons These buttons allow you to change the item shown on the corresponding line. Buttons which don't have a >' mark, or which have a dim mark, can't be changed. Selections can also be chosen by clicking anywhere on the corresponding line in the Information Window. Most selections will open a dialog box or input grid. These functions are detailed in the Selections section. Note that the Title line above the Information Window is also one of the available selections. Action Buttons These buttons start various common actions, such as opening the View Antenna display or starting a pattern calculation. The function of each button is detailed in the Control Center Action Buttons section. Menus The menus contain a wide variety of items, most of which are program related. An exception is the selections in the Plot menu, which are saved with the antenna description. Each selection in each menu is described in the Control Center Menus section.

The Control Center Menus

Control Center Menus Introduction It's important to note the unique function of the Plot, Setups, and Options menus. The Plot and Setups menus are unlike the other Control Center menus in that choices made in these menu are saved with the antenna description file, just like the Information Window items. They will be restored each time you open that description file. The Options menu contains items which apply to all antenna descriptions until EZNEC is ended, at which time your choices are discarded unless you've selected Save As Default. Whenever you choose Save As Default, the last selection in the Options menu, all Options menu selections are permanently saved, and will be restored each time you start EZNEC. Each selection of each of the menus is detailed in the sections which follow. File Open Description Allows you to select an existing antenna description (model). [EZNEC Pro only]: To open an NEC format file, include the extension .NEC with the file name. Save Description As Allows you to save the current antenna description (model) as a file. [EZNEC Pro only]: To save a file in NEC format, include the extension .NEC with the file name. Add Description Allows you to select an antenna description (model) to add to the current model. See Combining Antenna Descriptions for more information. Restore Default Folder EZNEC remembers the last folder you used for opening or saving a description, so the next time you open or save a description, the last folder you used is listed as the initial choice. This selection resets the

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Reference initial choice to the description file folder specified in the Folders section of the Options menu. Import Wires From ASCII File This choice allows you to select an ASCII file containing wire coordinates, which will be imported into EZNEC. See Importing Wire Coordinates for more information, and Wire Coordinate File for the file format. Add to Existing Wires The wires in the ASCII file will be added to the current model. Replace Existing Wires The wires in the ASCII file will replace the wires in the current model. Edit Current Antenna Notes Opens the antenna notes file for the current model in the EZNEC Editor. Edit Antenna Notes Allows you to select an antenna notes file to edit. View File Prompts you for the name of a (text) file to view with the EZNEC Editor. Although you can modify the text in the editor, you won't be allowed to save the file under the same name, so the original file content is protected from modification. This is intended to be used for viewing EZNEC-related files such as frequency sweep output, ASCII wire coordinate files, etc., but it can be used for viewing any text file. Edit File Same as View File, above, except that the original file content isn't protected, and you're allowed to save a modified text under the same file name. Exit Without Saving EZNEC normally saves the current description in a file named Last.EZ, which it loads the next time it starts. However, if you select this choice, the current description won't be saved. This is useful if the current description is defective, thereby preventing EZNEC from saving it, or if you've done a quick experiment but want EZNEC to start up the next time with the same description it started up with for the current session. Ends EZNEC. Exit Normal way to end EZNEC. Saves the current description in Last.EZ and ends the program. Does the same thing as clicking the close box in the upper right corner of the Control Center. Edit Undo, Redo Allows you to undo changes made to the description since it was opened, and to redo any changes that were undone. Options All selections in this section remain effective until the program ends. They can be made permanent (that is, they become the new default values) by clicking Save As Default at the bottom of the list. Angle Convention EZNEC allows you to represent azimuth angles in either of two ways. Changing from one way to the other has no effect on the model, antenna view, or the graphics plots. The only effect is in the angles reported in various tables and data outputs. Compass Bearing Zero is in the direction of the +y axis (at the top of the 2D azimuth plot display). Angles increase as you go clockwise from zero.

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EZNEC User Manual CCW From X Axis Zero is in the direction of the +x axis (to the right of the 2D azimuth plot display). Angles increase as you go counterclockwise from zero. This is the convention commonly used in mathematics and physics. AutoComplete/AutoSuggest Note: This selection doesn't appear on Windows 95, 98, or NT systems, since these systems don't have the AutoComplete or AutoSuggest features. In the file selection dialog boxes, two automatic features can come into play on some Windows operating systems when certain Internet Explorer options have been chosen. One of these, AutoSuggest, appears as a drop-down list of files beginning with the same letters as any you have entered in the file name text box. The other, AutoComplete, automatically enters in the text box one of the selections from the list. Unfortunately, there's no way to limit the suggestions or autocompletion to files with extensions appropriate for the purpose at hand. So there's no way to guarantee that either the suggested or autocompleted file names are acceptable. AutoComplete, in particular, can be a nuisance if it selects a file name having an unacceptable extension. These features can be turned off (and on) in the Windows Internet Explorer Tools menu, and the settings there apply to all Windows applications. (Please refer to your Windows or Internet Explorer documentation for details.) The AutoComplete/AutoSuggest option in the EZNEC Options menu allows you to choose separate settings for AutoComplete and AutoSuggest to be used by EZNEC. As with all other Options menu items, these settings apply only until you end EZNEC unless you select Save As Default in the Options Menu after making your other selections. Calculating Engine (EZNEC+ and EZNEC Pro only) Allows you to choose the engine used for calculations. The calculating engine choice is shown just above the FF Plot button in the Control Center. EZCalc (NEC-2) Internal NEC-2 calculating engine. This is a mixedprecision engine, doing some calculations in single precision and some in double. In most cases, its accuracy is equal to double-precision EZCalcD, and it's somewhat faster. For all program types except EZNEC Pro/4, it's the best choice for general purpose use. In EZNEC Pro/4, this engine would normally be selected only if comparisons are to be made between NEC-2 and NEC-4 results. EZCalcD (NEC-2D) (EZNEC+ and EZNEC Pro only) Internal doubleprecision NEC-2 calculating engine. In most cases, its results will be the same as EZCalc. However, it will maintain accuracy in extreme cases such as very small loops, beyond the point at which EZCalc will begin to have difficulty. A difference between EZCalc and EZCalcD results generally indicates that EZCalc, and perhaps also EZCalcD, is encountering numerical difficulties. EZCalcD requires about twice the memory and disk storage that EZCalc does. This isn't a concern with modern machines and moderate sized models, but with the very large models possible with EZNEC Pro, this factor should be considered.

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Reference EZCalc4 (NEC-4) (EZNEC Pro/4 only) Internal single-precision NEC-4 calculating engine. This is recommended for general purpose calculations with EZNEC Pro/4. EZCalc4D (NEC-4D) (EZNEC Pro/4 only) Internal double-precision NEC-4 calculating engine. This option requires twice the memory and temporary disk storage as the EZCalc4 option, and is slightly slower. It will give more accurate results in some situations, such as when very small loops or unusual geometry are involved. External NEC-4 Allows selection of an external NEC-4 program to be used for EZNEC Pro/4 calculations. Some EZNEC/4 features, such as MININEC-type ground and the ability to stop calculations before completion, are not available. Use of this selection is required only in unusual circumstances. See Using An External NEC-4 Engine. Default Ground Const Allows you to enter values of ground medium conductivity and dielectric constant which will be used when you create a new ground medium. You might want to set these to reflect the properties of your local ground. Folders Allows you to specify the default locations of various files used by EZNEC. To select a folder, double-click your choice. The folder name and path will appear under the white window, and the folder icon will show that the folder is open. Remember that your choice will be effective only until the program ends unless you re-open the Options menu and select Save As Default at the bottom of the Options menu selection list. Each of the following dialog boxes includes a Default Folder button. This will return the selection back to the folder which has been saved as the default value. It's useful when you've selected a folder for temporary use and want to return to the normal default location. Description (.EZ) and Plot Files Default location of the description files and 2D and 3D plot files. Ground Data Files Location of the ground data files used for the Real, High-Accuracy ground model. IONCAP/VOACAP Files - Default location of the IONCAP/VOACAP files. You should set this to the directory expected by your IONCAP type program. WinSMITH or MicroSmith Files Location of the winSMITH or MicroSmith input files which EZNEC writes when doing a frequency sweep. This would normally be the folder where your winSmith or MicroSmith program resides. Whether the title of this selection is WinSmith Files or MicroSmith Files depends on the setting of the Smith Chart Program selection in the Options menu. Output Files Location of the frequency sweep output file and other files generated by EZNEC (except the ones having their own folder options). Temporary Files A number of temporary files are written by EZNEC at various times, then erased during program execution or when EZNEC ends. Some of these files can get quite large if your model contains a large number of segments. The initial setting for this choice is the

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EZNEC User Manual temporary directory used by Windows, but you can set it for another directory if desired, or another drive if disk space is a problem with the default drive. This selection has an additional button, System Temp Folder, to allow easy selection of the folder used by Windows for temporary files. This folder, which is the initial default used by EZNEC, is otherwise sometimes hard to find using the normal navigation tree. Ground File Tolerance When EZNEC does an analysis with Real, Highaccuracy ground, it checks to see if the necessary ground data have already been calculated and saved as a ground data file. Each file corresponds to a particular combination of frequency and ground conductivity and dielectric constant, so a file might already exist for a combination which is just slightly different than the current conditions. If the difference is small, the file data can be used with a negligible degradation of accuracy, and the time required to recalculate the data is saved. The initial default value of one percent is adequate for most use. If you're doing many-stepped frequency sweeps, or other operations which cause frequent ground file calculation (indicated in the Calculation Progress Window at the beginning of calculations), and you have a slow machine, you might want to set the tolerance to a higher value. If you're trying to resolve very small differences in patterns, particularly involving vertically polarized antennas where the ground characteristics are more important, you might want to set the tolerance to a smaller value, perhaps 0.1%. For extremely sensitive calculations, a setting of zero will force EZNEC to recalculate the data unless conditions match to within about five decimal places. Messages On/Off Allows you to suppress the "Description has changed" message when you open a new description, and the tooltips that appear when you pause the cursor over some controls. Segmentation Check This determines when the Segmentation Check utility will be run. Auto Automatically runs when a new description is opened, wires are imported from an ASCII file, or the frequency is changed. Manual Runs only when selected from the Control Center Outputs menu. Plot Printing Printed Plot Line Width Allows you to adjust the width of the lines in the printed plots. This affects only the Plot section of the Graphics Windows, and only when printed. It has no effect on the screen display. When the width is set to a value greater than one, lines normally shown broken (separate 2D polarizations; and View Antenna axes when offset from the origin, and current polarization markers) will be printed as solid. Broken lines can be forced to be printed with a width of one, however, causing them to be printed as broken, by means of the PrintedOffsetAxisWidth Special Option. Printed Plot Data Font Selects the font to be used for printing the Data section of the Graphics Windows. It has no effect on the screen display or on the Plot section of the printed output.

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Reference Power Level If the Absolute V, I sources box is checked, voltage and current sources will have the values declared in the Sources Window. The total power applied to the antenna will then be determined by a combination of these values and the feedpoint impedances. If you uncheck the box and enter a non-zero value for the power level, all sources will be adjusted in proportion to result in the specified power being applied to the antenna. The specified power will be the total power from all sources, and it won't vary with antenna impedance. The values shown in the Sources Window will represent relative, not absolute voltage and current values. The actual voltages and currents can be seen in the Source Data display. This is a powerful and useful feature for a number of applications. Smith Chart Program When EZNEC does a frequency sweep, it writes files which can be directly used by MicroSmith or winSMITH. This selection allows you to choose which format EZNEC uses. Note: Both programs limit the maximum number of frequency steps which will be accepted. See MicroSmith or winSMITH for more information. Stepped Diameter Correction Determines when Stepped Diameter Correction will be used. EZNEC, EZNEC+, and EZNEC Pro/2 only: On (recommended) EZNEC will use Stepped Diameter Correction when possible. Off EZNEC will not use Stepped Diameter Correction. This setting may lead to inaccurate results for some types of antennas, most notably Yagis having elements made from telescoping tubing. EZNEC Pro/4 only: NEC-2: On, NEC-4: Off (rec.) Enables Stepped Diameter Correction when using the NEC-2 calculating engine only. Because the NEC-4 engines (internal or external) are relatively free from the stepped diameter problem, Stepped Diameter Correction is disabled when one of these engines is selected. Always off Stepped Diameter Correction is always disabled. This setting may lead to inaccurate results for some types of antennas, most notably Yagis having elements made from telescoping tubing. Always on Stepped Diameter Correction is always on. This would not generally be chosen unless it was desired to see its effect in NEC-4. Undo Disk Space Allows you to limit the amount of space used for the Undo feature. Storage requirements are very modest, so this can normally be set to Unlimited. EZNEC Geometry Check NEC allows wires to cross at segment junctions. While it's discouraged for EZNEC models (primarily because the connection will be broken if segmentation is changed), no error will occur if this situation exists. Some models originally designed to run under NEC-2 or 4 have numerous segment junction crossings. This menu selection allows you to prevent warnings of this situation from appearing in the Geometry Check output. Pre-Calc Geometry Check (EZNEC Pro/4 only) Allows you to choose whether EZNEC runs its own geometry check, uses the NEC-4 SEGCHK check, or both. EZNEC's check catches some errors which SEGCHK misses, and it's faster, so

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EZNEC User Manual this selection should normally be left in the default condition (EZNEC geometry check) unless there's some special reason to change it. Far Field Table Units Selects the units used in the Far Field Table. These have no effect on any other outputs or displays. EZNEC, EZNEC+ only: dBi or dBref Shows field strength in dBi or, if a non-zero dB reference is chosen (see below), in dB relative to that reference. mV/m for 1 kW at 1 mile Shows the field strength in mV/m at a distance of one mile, for an applied power of 1 kW. Note: When this option is selected, the Power Level selection (above) is not used for the Far Field Table. mV/m for 1 kW at 1 km Shows the field strength in mV/m at a distance of one km, for an applied power of 1 kW. Note: When this option is selected, the Power Level selection (above) is not used for the Far Field Table. EZNEC Pro/2, EZNEC Pro/4 only: The units which are displayed depend on whether ground wave analysis is being done. With ground wave analysis off, the choices have the same effect as those above. The choices for units with ground wave analysis are: mV/m Output in mV/m at the distance specified as the Control Center Gnd Wave Dist. If the power level has been specified using the Power Level selection (above), this power is used; if not, the power resulting from the absolute source voltages and currents is used. dBi or dBref Same as the corresponding non-ground wave choice. Near Field Table Format Selects whether near field phase information is to be shown. The narrow format output doesn't include phase information, and may produce a more easily readable output when viewed or when printed to a portraitoriented page. This setting affects the output saved in the frequency sweep output file as well as the single frequency near field output display. 2D Plot Scale This allows you to choose between two types of scale for the 2D plot. ARRL Type This scale is the standard scale used by the ARRL and in many amateur publications. It's a logarithmic-dB scale which shows the pattern maxima with greater detail at the expense of compressing minor lobes. This scale is generally recommended for amateur use because the plots will be more easily compared to published ones. Linear dB As the name implies, this is a plain dB scale, linear with respect to dB. It extends 40 dB from the outer ring to the center of the scale. Although the outer ring value in dBi is adjustable, the range from the center to outside is not. Show Freq on 2D Plot When this option is on (checked), the frequency is shown at the lower right side of the 2D plot display. Note that the frequency won't be shown at the lower right when the results of a frequency sweep are being shown. Default 3D Step Size EZNEC 5.0's minimum step size of one degree is too fine and slow to draw when doing general purpose 3D plotting. This menu

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Reference selection allows you to set the default step size when a 3D plot type is initially chosen. View Antenna Wire Numbers Selects whether the wire numbers are shown when you first start the View Antenna display, and whether they appear centered on the wires or offset. You can change these choices in the View Antenna Display, but that setting cannot be made permanent, while this setting can. Initially On Wire numbers are on when you first start View Antenna. Initially Off Wire numbers are off when you first start View Antenna. Use this setting if you frequently work with complex models, where the wire numbers overlap and become unreadable. Initial Position Selects whether the wire numbers are initially centered over the wires or are offset. Save As Default Clicking this choice makes all the values selected in the Options menu permanent. Unless it is clicked, any changes made will be discarded when EZNEC ends. Any changes made after it is clicked will likewise be discarded at the end of the session unless it is clicked again to save the changes. Outputs Geom and Seg Check Runs both the Geometry and Segmentation checks (see below). Segmentation Check Runs the Segmentation Check, which checks the model for violation of several NEC guidelines. Geometry Check Runs the Geometry Check, which detects a number of conditions that aren't allowed, such as wires overlapping, or intersecting or crossing at other than a wire end or segment junction. Show Description Shows a summary of the antenna description as plain ASCII text in the EZNEC Editor. This includes wire coordinates, source and load locations, etc. The displayed description can be printed or saved to a file. A similar display, with only the wires coordinates, is available in the Wires Window Other menu. Setups Frequency Sweep Opens the frequency sweep setup dialog, to set up parameters for the frequency sweep. Near Field Opens the near field setup dialog, to set up parameters for near field analysis. View TraceView Puts EZNEC into TraceView mode, for viewing, printing, or comparing saved far-field pattern plots (traces) without having to do any calculations. Utilities Edit .INI File A number of special options can be enabled by entering statements in the EZNEC.INI file in the EZNEC program directory. These are

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EZNEC User Manual generally options which are seldom used, or are used only for special purposes. This selection opens the EZNEC.INI file in the EZNEC Editor for easy modification. Most changes made to the EZNEC.INI file aren't effective until EZNEC is exited and re-started. If you edit the EZNEC.INI file and want to apply the changes, save the file, exit EZNEC, allow a minute or so for the disk cache to write saved information on the disk, and re-start EZNEC. Show Calculation Time Shows the times which were taken for various calculations. No numbers will be shown until EZNEC completes a calculation. Note: When a frequency or SWR sweep is run, only the time for the last frequency calculation is shown, not the time for the entire sweep. Show Ground Info Gives detailed information about ground characteristics when Real ground type is selected. Show Memory Info Gives information about available computer memory. This report is directly from the Windows system, and might not agree with some other analysis tools. Note that it's not uncommon for the available memory (RAM) to be at or near zero; Windows routinely uses the disk as virtual memory, and frees up RAM as needed. Show Temp Dir Space This shows the approximate amount of temporary space which will be required by the calculating engine to run calculations for the current description, and the amount available. Component Version Numbers Shows the complete version numbers of each of the major components of EZNEC. Help Contents Opens this help file and shows the contents. About EZNEC Shows the program version number and copyright and trademark notice.

Information Window and Action Buttons

Control Center Selections All selections in the Control Center Information Window are part of the antenna description and are saved with the antenna description (.EZ) file. Selections made in the Setups menu are also saved with this file. Title This selection isn't marked except with a > symbol. It's the gray bar just above the white Information Window, and contains the title of the description. Clicking anywhere on this line opens a dialog box for you to enter a title for your antenna model. File Shows the name of the last file saved or opened. This is for information only and can't be changed. Frequency Shows the current frequency, or if Frequency Sweep is enabled. Click this to change the frequency or rescale your model to another frequency. Wavelength Shows the wavelength in current units. This is for information only and can't be changed. Wires Shows the number of wires and segments in the model. Clicking opens the Wires Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying the antenna structure.

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Reference Sources Shows the number of sources in the model. Clicking opens the Sources Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying sources. Loads Shows the number of loads in the model. Clicking opens the Loads Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying loads. Trans Lines Shows the number of transmission lines in the model. Clicking opens the Transmission Lines Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying transmission lines. Transformers Shows the number of transformers in the model. Clicking opens the Transformers Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying transmission lines. L Networks Shows the number of L networks in the model. Clicking opens the L Networks Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying transmission lines. Y Param Networks [EZNEC Pro only] Shows the number of Y parameter networks in the model. Clicking opens the Y Parameter Networks Window, for adding, deleting, or modifying transmission lines. Ground Type Shows the type of ground model chosen. Clicking it allows you to choose the ground type. Ground Descrip This entry appears only when one of the Real ground type models is chosen. It shows how many ground media (1 or 2) have been defined, and their conductivities and dielectric constants. Shows NEC radials if specified. Clicking opens the Media Window, for modifying ground characteristics and NEC radials. Wire Loss Shows which wire loss characteristic has been chosen. Clicking opens a dialog box allowing you to specify a wire loss characteristic. Units Shows which primary unit of length you've chosen. Clicking opens a dialog box allowing you to choose the primary units of measure. Plot Type Shows which plot type azimuth, elevation, or 3 dimensional, you've chosen. Clicking opens a dialog box allowing you to choose the plot type. EZNEC Pro only: When Ground Wave Analysis is active, this option is fixed at Azimuth, the only type allowed with ground wave analysis. Elevation Angle, Azimuth Angle or Bearing, or Observation Height This selection isn't available when 3D Plot Type is specified. When doing an azimuth plot, it shows and allows you to choose the elevation angle for the 2D azimuth plot. When doing elevation plot, it allows you to choose the azimuth angle or compass bearing. EZNEC Pro only: When Ground Wave Analysis is active, shows and allows you to choose the height of the observation point. Step Size Shows and allows you to choose the angular increment for the 2D or 3D plot. Minimum step size is 0.1 degree for 2D plots, 1 degree for 3D plots. Maximum for both is 90 degrees, although such a large value would result in an unusable coarse display. 2D step size must evenly divide into 180 degrees, and 3D step size into 90 degrees; error messages will appear if any of these conditions isn't met. Ref Level All outputs showing field strength will be relative to the value shown here. If you want, for example, to show gain relative to the gain of a dipole in free space, set this value to 2.15 dBi. (This choice is meaningful only when doing free-space analysis. As shown in the Test Drive, a dipole mounted over ground exhibits gain several dB greater than this amount.

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EZNEC User Manual Alt SWR Z0 Various displays show or output SWR assuming a 50 ohm system and a second impedance of your choice. This is where you choose the second impedance. A typical use would be an antenna fed with 50 ohm line through a 4:1 impedance step down transformer. If you set the Alt SWR Z0 to 12.5 ohms, the indicated SWR is what you would see on that 50 ohm line. Desc Options This selection allows selection of several properties which are saved with the description file. Under the General tab, you can choose to have the Geometry Check ignore the situation where the center of a segment is within another wire. This sometimes can't easily be avoided and, while it sometimes causes erroneous results, it often doesn't. See the Geometry Check topic for additional information. Under the Plot tab are a number of 2D plot choices, including polarizations to show on the 2D plot. Gnd Wave Dist [EZNEC Pro only] Shows the horizontal distance to the ground wave analysis observation point. Clicking it allows you to select the distance and to turn ground wave analysis on and off. Action Buttons Several of these actions are explained in more detail in the Interpreting The Results chapter. Open Click this to open a different antenna description file. Note: All unsaved information in the existing file will be lost. Save your existing description if you want to preserve it. [EZNEC Pro only]: To open an NEC format file, include the extension .NEC with the file name. Save As Click to save your current antenna description. [EZNEC Pro only]: To save a file in NEC format, include the extension .NEC with the file name. Currents This opens the Currents output, which shows the currents on the wires in tabular form, running a calculation if necessary. Src Dat Opens the Source Data output, which shows the voltage, current, power, impedance, and SWR at each source, running a calculation if necessary. Load Data Opens the Load Data output, which shows the voltage, current, power, and impedance of each load, running a calculation if necessary. FF Tab Opens the Far Field Table output, which shows the far field strength in tabular form, running a calculation if necessary. NF Tab Opens the Near Field Table output, which shows the near field strength in tabular form, running a calculation if necessary. SWR Opens a dialog box so you can define the sweep parameters for the SWR Graph. View Ant Opens the View Antenna display, which gives you a 3 dimensional view of the antenna. FF Plot or Freq Swp Begins a far field pattern calculation or frequency sweep.

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The Graphics Windows

Graphics Windows Overview
The 2D Plot, 3D Plot, View Antenna, and SWR displays have a number of common features, so all are grouped together here. They are collectively called the Graphics Windows. All Graphics Windows can be sized by dragging an edge or corner, or can be maximized or minimized by use of the controls in the upper right corner of the form. Minimum sizes apply to some forms, limiting the size adjustment range.

Graphics Windows Sections

The Graphics Windows are divided into sections, as shown below. Not all Graphics Windows contain all three sections. The Control Box section of the 2D Plot Display, which is shown below, is available only when the 3D Plot Display is also on. The Data and Control sections can be turned on or off via the menu File selection.

Plot or Display The Plot or Display section contains the actual graphical information being displayed. Data The Data section contains additional information about the plotted data. Control The Control section contains controls to alter the Plot display.

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Graphics Windows Menus

Menus All Graphics Windows have all or most of the following Menu selections. The selections function the same for all displays, except for exceptions noted below. File Print Plot Prints the Plot section of the window on the printer. The plot is sized to print the page; its size isn't adjustable. The line width of the Plot section can be adjusted from the Control Center Options menu. Print Plot and Data (2D, SWR only) Prints the Plot and Data sections of the window on the printer. The Data text is printed below the plot. The line width of the Plot section and the font used for the Data section can be adjusted from the Control Center Options menu. Printer Setup Opens a dialog box allowing you to choose the printer and paper type and characteristics. Add Trace (2D only) Opens a dialog box allowing you to choose a trace to add to the existing display. Information about added traces, and gain comparison to the primary trace, can be displayed in the Data Box if desired. See Using the 2D Display for more information. The colors of added traces can be selected via the 2D display Options/Colors/Recalled Traces selection, described below. Trace types which can be added are: .ENT 2D Trace files created by ELNEC and EZNEC family products prior to v. 2.0. .F# -- 2D Trace files created by ELNEC and v. 1 EZNEC family products frequency sweeps. .P# -- 2D Trace files (OpenPF format) created by v. 2 and later EZNEC family products frequency sweeps. .PF 2D trace files (OpenPF format) created by v. 2 and later EZNEC family products. .PF3 3D trace files (OpenPF format) created by v. 2 and later EZNEC family products. Remove Trace (2D only) Removes traces added via the selection above. Clicking this option opens a list of added traces. Clicking on an item in the list will remove that trace. This selection isn't available if no traces have been added. Save Trace As (2D), Save 3D Plot (3D) Use this selection to save the 2D or 3D trace. A 2D trace can be added to a later display for comparison. Either a 2D or 3D trace file can be opened in TraceView mode as a primary trace. The plot will be saved in OpenPF format with a .PF (2D) or .PF3 (3D) extension. Show Added Trace Info (2D only) Shows additional information about added traces. This selection is disabled if no traces have been added. Restore Default Folder (2D, 3D only) When you save a 2D or 3D trace or add a 2D trace, EZNEC remembers the last directory you chose and takes you there when you open the file choice dialog box. If you've navigated your way to some obscure directory and want to return to the directory where you normally store trace files, click this selection before choosing Add Trace or Save Trace As. This

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Reference selection returns the initially displayed directory to the one chosen in the Control Center Options menu Folders/Description (.EZ) and Plot Files selection. Edit Undo Allows you to undo any change you've made to the description since opening it, in reverse sequence to the order in which the change was made. A change made anywhere in the program can be undone from any window having an undo selection. Redo Allows you to redo changes which have been undone. Copy Plot Copies the Plot section of the display to the Windows Clipboard as a bitmap. This allows it to be pasted into any Windows application which can accept graphical objects. Unlike the Print Plot selection above, the plot is not redrawn to a larger scale; the plot is copied exactly as it is. If the copy is later enlarged, quality will be poor because of the limited number of pixels in the original. It's best to adjust the EZNEC plot size to the actual size desired for the copy before creating the copy. Alternatively, you can first maximize the plot by clicking the maximize button near the upper right corner of the window. For best resolution, turn off Controls and Data sections (via the View menu) if on. Then do the copy. The resulting copy will have the highest possible resolution, and many applications will be able to reduce it to the desired size while retaining high quality. Copy Plot and Data (2D, SWR only) Copies the Plot and Data sections of the display to the Windows Clipboard as a bitmap. See the above comments regarding quality. This selection isn't available if the Data section is turned off. (The Data section can be turned on via the View menu.) View Mult Trc Field (2D only) This choice is enabled only when one or more traces have been added to the basic display, and a Desc Options choice has been made to plot multiple polarizations, for example Vert, Horiz, Total. Only one polarization can be shown when the display has multiple traces. This menu selection allows choosing which of the polarizations to show. Show 2D Plot (3D only) Turns the 2D Plot Display on and off. This allows viewing and detailed analysis of any 2D "slice" of the 3D plot. Show Controls Turns the Control section of the display on and off. NOTE: This isn't available for the 2D display unless a 3D display is on, with a "slice" of the 3D plot being shown on the 2D display. Show Data (2D, SWR only) Turns the Data section of the display on and off. Show Data Lines (2D only) When on (checked), lines are added to the 2D display, showing the directions of the pattern maximum, -3 dB points, and sidelobe, as reported in the data box. This option is available only if the Show Data option is checked. Colors for these lines can be chosen in the Options menu. Show Objects (View Antenna only) Allows you to select which of various objects is displayed in the plot section of the display, such as currents, segment dots, etc. These are detailed in the View Antenna Display Objects section.

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EZNEC User Manual Options Colors Allows you to choose the colors for objects displayed in the plot section of the display. NOTE: Choices will persist only until the program ends, unless the Colors menu is re-opened and Save As Default is clicked. Also allows resetting choices to the saved default colors. NOTE: Background color choice is ignored when printing. Reset (2D, 3D, View Antenna only) Reset Cursor to Max (2D, 3D only) Resets the cursor to the point of maximum field strength. In the 3D display, this option isn't available unless highlighting is on, and the highlighted slice is also returned to the one containing the maximum field strength. Reset Position (View Antenna, 3D only) Rotates display to the default position. Reset All (View Antenna, 3D only) Resets position, and all other choices such as zoom (but except colors) to initial values.

Creating Graphics Files

EZNEC does not directly create graphics files in common formats like .bmp, .gif, or .jpeg. However, it's still easy to do. In any of the Graphics Windows, open the Edit menu, then select one of the Copy options. This will copy the current display to the Windows Clipboard. Open a graphics application such as Paint, which is furnished with Windows, and paste the Clipboard contents into it. The graphic display can then be saved to a file in any of the formats available in the graphics program. Of course, it's not necessary to save or convert the graphic display in order to insert it into a word processor or other application. It can simply be pasted there directly from the Windows Clipboard. For tips to get the best quality of saved or pasted graphic display, see the Edit section of the Graphics Windows Menus topic. Note that .pf format files saved as "trace files" are not graphics files. They are binary files which contain only numerical field strength data, and no information about how to plot or display it.

Using The View Antenna Display

The View Antenna display is one of EZNEC's most useful displays. With it you can see what the antenna looks like and see changes as they're made, look at the currents on each wire, see how the pattern is oriented relative to the antenna, and much more. You'll find it useful to leave this display open most of the time. The display window shows, to scale, what the antenna looks like. Various objects can optionally be shown on this view in addition to the antenna, as described below. The Menus The menus are detailed in Graphics Windows Menus. The Data Window The Data Window, under the display, shows the length and segment length of the most recently selected wire. It can be turned on and off via the Show Data selection in the View menu. 132

Reference The Controls The Control Window, to the left of the display, can be turned on and off via the Show Controls selection in the View menu. It has controls enabling you to zoom, center, and move the image, and zoom the displayed currents after running a calculation. Moving or zooming the display have no effect on the antenna model. They only change the way you're looking at it. Note that you can also move and zoom the display (but not the currents) with the mouse. See Mouse Operations, below. The Axes When an antenna is first viewed, the intersection of the axes represents the coordinate system origin. If you move the antenna with the controls or by clicking the Center Ant Image box in the Control Window, the axes no longer represent the absolute coordinate system. When this is true, they become broken rather than solid. The origin marker (a dot surrounded by a circle) continues to show the true position of the origin even when the display is moved or zoomed. Mouse Operations Rotating - To rotate the display, position the mouse cursor anywhere on the display window. Press and hold down the left mouse button. You can then rotate the display in two directions by moving the mouse while the left button is held down. Although the mouse cursor must be on the display window when the button is first pressed, it can be moved outside the window if necessary while the button is down. You can use the keyboard arrow keys for fine rotational positioning, but only after clicking in the display window to give it the focus. Moving To move the display, position the mouse cursor anywhere on the display window. Press and hold down the right mouse button. You can then move the display. It will move in the direction of one of the axes, the one most closely parallel to the mouse movement, so you might have to rotate the display in order to achieve movement in the direction of a particular axis. Zooming To zoom the display, position the mouse cursor anywhere on the display window. Press and hold down the both mouse buttons. This does not zoom the currents; that can be done only with the scroll bar. Selecting Wires If either the Wires Window or the View Antenna Data Window is open, the wire closest to the mouse cursor will be selected when the left mouse button is double-clicked. If the Wires Window is open, additional wires can be selected by pressing and holding the <Ctrl> key while clicking with the left mouse button. <Ctrl>-clicking a selected wire will deselect it. Double-clicking a wire will always deselect all other wires. The View Antenna display and Wires Window are coordinated. Whenever the Wires Window is on, wires selected in the Wires Window will be automatically selected in the View Antenna display, and vice-versa. The length and segment length of the most recently selected wire appear in the View Antenna Data Window. Wire Information You can see information about any wire by pausing the mouse cursor over the wire. One important use of this feature is identifying which end of the wire is

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EZNEC User Manual which among the information shown are the coordinates of the wire end closest to the cursor, and that end is identified in the display. The behavior of the popup can be altered with Special Option WireInfoDist. Displayable Objects A number of objects can be added to the basic View Antenna display. These objects can be turned on or off via the Objects selection in the View menu. Following is a description of each choice you see when you make this selection. All items are on (shown) when its corresponding box is checked. Axes Selects the axes. Currents Adds currents to the display. Current magnitude is indicated by distance of the current indicator from the corresponding wire. This is a very useful feature in determining which parts of the model are contributing to the pattern. Currents aren't shown until a calculation has been done. Current Phase Modifies the current display to show phase by rotating the current lines around the wires. This is sometimes useful in conjunction with the Current Phase Markers (particularly when looking at phased arrays), but it often only obscures the current magnitude information. Current Phase Markers Added markers which can be selected if Current Phase is on. These markers show a solid line in the direction of zero phase and a dashed line in the direction of +90 degrees. These help show the current phase when Current Phase is being shown. Segment Dots Turns segment and wire junction dots on or off. Wire Numbers These are very useful when building, modifying, and troubleshooting a model. However, with a complex unzoomed model, they become an indistinguishable mass. The setting of the wire numbers is remembered until you quit EZNEC. The state of the wire numbers when you first start EZNEC can be set with the Control Center Options menu View Antenna Wire Numbers selection. You might want to make the initial state be off if you commonly model complex antennas. The wire numbers can be centered on the wires or offset. Wire numbers can also be toggled on and off by pressing the N key when the View Antenna window is active The wire number size can be changed if desired via Special Option VAObjTextSizePct.. 2D Pattern once calculated, a 2D pattern can be added to the display. This is particularly useful in showing the orientation of the plot to the antenna. If "SemiSolid" is chosen, lines are added to give you a better idea of the real pattern shape and what it represents. The 2D plot won't appear if a 3D plot has been run and no slice is highlighted. See Using The 2D Display for more information about 2D plot orientation. 2 Port Objects Shows two port insertion objects. Object Symbols Symbols shown in the display are: Hollow circle Source Hollow Series-connected square load Hollow Parallel-connected diamond load

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Reference Square with Two port insertion letter object The letter in a two port insertion object box identifies the type of object: T Transmission line X Transformer L L network Y Y parameter network [EZNEC pro only] A two port insertion object which is connected to two wire segments is drawn as a square box between the two segments. Dashed connecting lines are drawn from the two segments to the box. Different colored lines are used to identify the ports. The colors of the connecting lines can be chosen via the Colors selection in the View menu. A two port insertion object which is connected between a wire segment and a virtual segment is shown as a square box at the wire segment. a short dashed line of the color of the port connected to the virtual segment extends to one side of the box, left for port 1 and right for port 2. At the end of the line is the virtual segment number to which the port is connected. For example, a transformer having port 1 connected to wire 1 and port 2 connected to virtual segment 4 would be shown as a box at the appropriate segment on wire 1 with a short line of the port 2 color extending to the right. "V4" would appear at the end of the line. An open or short circuited transmission line stub is identified in the same way, except with "S" for short and "O" for open in place of the virtual segment number. Insertion objects which are connected only to virtual segments do not appear in the View Antenna display, but can be found in the Virtual Segment List. Open the View menu and select Show Virtual Seg Conn. See Virtual Segment Connection Display for more information.

Using The 2D Display

The 2D Display shows the result of a far field azimuth or elevation pattern calculation, which is a "slice" of the actual full three dimensional antenna pattern. It can also be used in conjunction with the 3D Display to show an elevation or azimuth "slice" of the 3D plot. This display automatically opens when a 2D (azimuth or elevation) pattern calculation is requested with the Control Center FF Plot action button. To use the 2D plot to show a "slice" of the 3D pattern, open the 2D Display from the 3D Display View menu, or check the Show 2D Plot box in the 3D Control Window. Many of the menu items are the same as for the other graphics displays, so they're covered in a separate section Graphics Windows Menus. Be sure to look this section over, because it explains how to do such things as add traces to the display. This makes it easy to compare antennas and plots and see the results of changes.

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EZNEC User Manual The 2D plot can include Data Lines and a Cursor. Neither of these is shown if the Data Window is turned off via the View menu. Orientation An azimuth plot is always oriented as though looking down on the antenna. The top of the display is in the direction of the +Y axis, so the +X axis is to the right. When using conventional mathematical angles (Angle Convention selection "CCW From X Axis" in the Options Menu), angles increase as you go counterclockwise, zero degrees being to the right. If you've chose the "Compass Bearing" selection, zero degrees is at the top, and angles increase as you go clockwise. It's often helpful to add the 2D plot to the View Antenna display for a visual indication of the relative orientation of the antenna and plot. See Displayable Objects/2D Pattern in Using The View Antenna Display for details. An elevation plot is always viewed from ground level, looking from the direction of the chosen azimuth angle. The same plot will be shown but reversed in direction if viewed from the opposite direction (that is, an azimuth angle 180 degrees from the original). When initially viewing a 2D "slice" of a 3D pattern, EZNEC will choose the initial orientation based on the pattern maximum, so the viewing angle might not be immediately obvious. Likewise, when switching between azimuth and elevation "slices", an apparent reversal of viewing angle may occur. If you have trouble visualizing the pattern orientation, adding the 2D plot to the View Antenna display as described above is helpful. Navigation and Advanced Features EZNEC has a number of features to help you analyze 2D antenna patterns. If you've chosen to display multiple polarizations, for example Horiz, Vert, Total, via the Desc Options choice in the Control Center, you can move the cursor from one polarization trace to another simply by clicking its name in the key list at the left of the 2D plot window. The Data Window (see below) reports the field strength (as gain relative to isotropic) of that polarization component. If you add traces, you can switch the cursor to any trace by clicking the corresponding file name in the key list at the left of the 2D plot window. When this is done, and additional line of data appears in the right column of the Data Window, showing the gain of that trace relative to the primary (calculated) trace at the cursor's angle. This makes quantitative pattern comparisons simple. Data Window The Data Window shows useful information about the 2D plot: maximum gain, front/back or front/side ratio, 3 dB beamwidth, and other parameters. The items on the right side of the window show the values at the cursor, so change as the cursor is moved. The cursor is moved by clicking anywhere on the Plot Window, and the plot cursor will move to a point on the direct line between the placed clicked and the center of the plot graph. You can drag the cursor around the plot by holding the mouse button down as you move the mouse. The mouse has to be on the Plot Window when initially clicked, but can leave the window afterward if the button is held down. The cursor is always present when the Data Window is open, and never present when it's closed. The up and down keyboard arrow keys can be used to move the cursor in small steps, and the <PageUp> and <PageDown> keys to move it in larger steps. It's

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Reference first necessary for the Plot Window to have the focus. It can be given focus by clicking anywhere on it with the mouse. The Data Lines show the angles at which EZNEC has determined the maximum forward gain, -3dB points, and sidelobe occur. The "sidelobe" is the lobe with second highest gain. Data Lines can be turned on and off from the View menu, and won't appear if the Data Window isn't being shown. Control Window The Control Window is opened from the View menu. However, it's not accessible unless the 3D plot is also open, since the controls are used primarily to select slices for display. When open, the controls in the Control Window are the same as those in the 3D Control window, and the two sets of controls track. Whether to show the frequency on the plot can be chosen in the Control Center Options menu.

Using The 3D Display

The 3D Display opens automatically after running a far field pattern calculation when the Plot Type is 3 Dimensional. It shows a full pattern plot. To make the plot easier to visualize, you can highlight any azimuth or elevation "slice", and easily see its shape and where it fits into the overall pattern. The highlighted slice can optionally be shown in the 2D Display or superimposed on the View Antenna display. Many menu operations are common among all the graphics displays, so they're covered in the common section Graphics Windows Menus. Orientation The 3D plot is always oriented in the same direction as the antenna in the View Antenna display, after releasing the mouse button following a 3D Plot or View Antenna rotation. This helps in visualizing the orientation of the pattern relative to the antenna. Rotating the 3D pattern The 3D pattern is rotated in the same way as the View Antenna display, by holding down the left mouse button while you move the mouse. Highlighting a slice To take full advantage of the 3D display, turn on the Control Window from the View menu and select either Azimuth Slice or Elev Slice. The 3D plot will dim, and the highlighted slice will be shown in a distinctive color. You can select the slice and move the cursor with the scroll bars. Note that you can also drag the scroll bar slider bar. Displaying a 2D slice If you check the Control Window Show 2D Plot box, the 2D Display opens and shows the highlighted slice. If the 2D Control Window is shown, the 2D controls will track the 3D controls. This combination of 2D and 3D plot combines detailed analysis with easy visualization. If you open the View Antenna Display, you can add the 2D slice to the display via the View Antenna View menu Objects selection. It will move as you change the 3D slice.

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Using The SWR Display

The SWR Display is shown after running an SWR sweep. This in turn is started by clicking the SWR action button in the Control Center, then entering frequencies or an input file name and starting the sweep as described in the SWR Graph section. This section describes use of the resulting display. Many menu operations are common among all the graphics displays, so they're covered in the common section Graphics Windows Menus. The SWR Display shows the impedance seen by each source. The most basic is a graph of SWR vs. frequency. The SWR is not necessarily the actual SWR on a transmission line, but is the SWR which would be on a line if the line were connected between the source and antenna. Several other displays are available in the EZNEC+ and EZNEC Pro program types, described below. If you turn on the Control Window via the View menu, you'll have a choice of the SWR for two values of line characteristic impedance (SWR). One impedance is 50 ohms. The other can be changed to a value of your choice by clicking on the Alt SWR Z0 line in the Control Center Information Window. Also in the Control Window is a selector allowing you to choose the source for which to display the SWR, in the event your model has more than one source. Additional information appears in the Data Window below the plot. The Data Window is turned on or off from the View menu. In this window, you can see the impedance and reflection coefficient as well as the SWR. The cursor can be moved by clicking on the display window or by dragging with the mouse. You can also use the arrow keys, after clicking once on the display window with the mouse to make sure the display window has the focus. [EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro only]: These program types have an additional Display Type selection in the View menu. This allows selection of the data display as either SWR, reflection coefficient magnitude, return loss, or Smith Chart. When Smith chart is chosen, additional selection Data Markers is enabled. As with the standard program's SWR plot, a cursor is present when the Show Data selection is checked in the View menu, and the cursor position can be changed by clicking near the point of interest or by using the keyboard arrow keys after first clicking on the plot to make it the active window. And, like the standard SWR plot, information about the selected frequency point is shown in the data window below the plot. The vertical scale factor of the rectangular plot types is fixed, as is the Smith chart scale. The program remembers the last plot type choice, and uses that plot type the next time an SWR sweep is run. Note that the Smith chart display is a display only, and not a substitute for a Smith chart program with interactively aids in the design of matching networks.

EZNEC Pro Information

EZNEC Pro Section Note
The information in this chapter applies only to EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4.

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EZNEC Pro And NEC

This section applies only to EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4. There currently are two programs in the EZNEC Pro family: EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4. EZNEC Pro/4 can use an included enhanced NEC-2 calculating engine, a usersupplied NEC-4 calculating engine, or an enhanced NEC-4 engine supplied with EZNEC Pro/4. EZNEC Pro/2 can use only the included enhanced NEC-2 calculating engine. This is the only difference between the two programs. However, there are several significant differences between EZNEC Pro and NEC. Voltages and currents: NEC uses peak values for voltages and currents. EZNEC Pro interprets and reports values in RMS. An NEC input file having a 1.0 volt source, when read by EZNEC Pro, will result in an EZNEC Pro source of 0.707 volts. Similarly, the currents reported by EZNEC Pro will reflect RMS values. The power reported by EZNEC Pro is the same as that reported by NEC. (EZNEC Pro/4 communicates to the NEC-4 calculating engine via standard NEC input and output files. If you view the NEC input file created by EZNEC Pro/4 and the output file created by the NEC-4 calculating engine, you'll see the translation in value that takes place.) Data input: Instead of editing an ASCII file, descriptions are entered via a spreadsheet-like entry system. This allows very easy modification, and the ability to immediately see the result on the antenna structure. (Note, however, that EZNEC Pro can read and write NEC-format files, and can import wire descriptions from a simple-format ASCII file.) NEC features: Not all NEC features are implemented in EZNEC Pro. Those not implemented include symmetry, networks, patches, non-air primary medium, arcs, and catenary wires. EZNEC Pro is chiefly oriented toward the analysis of wire antennas. Files: Although EZNEC Pro can read and write NEC-format description files, some functionality may be lost if this format is used exclusively. Full features are available only with EZNEC-format (.EZ) files. The binary format of these files is available on request. Angles: EZNEC Pro uses elevation angle in place of zenith angle. Elevation angle is measured upward from the horizon (XY plane). EZNEC Pro also permits an alternate method of displaying azimuth angle. This corresponds to compass bearing, and is measured clockwise from the +y axis. The choice is made in the Control Center Options menu. Power: In NEC, all voltage sources are absolute. EZNEC Pro permits you to specify a particular power level. If this is done, all voltage and current sources will be adjusted in proportion to obtain the specified total power. This is useful for determining, for example, voltage stress on or power dissipation of loading components under actual operating conditions, or of near field strength resulting from a specific power input. The power level is specified in the Control Center Options menu. Average Gain: EZNEC Pro reports an average gain of 1.0 (0 dB) whenever the integrated total radiated power equals the power supplied from the sources,

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EZNEC User Manual whether or not ground is specified. The NEC value of average gain varies with the region specified for the radiation pattern, and equals 2 when radiated and input powers are equal and ground is specified. Networks: When a double precision calculating engine is used, EZNEC Pro sends network parameters to the NEC calculating engine as double precision data. NEC, even when compiled for double precision, has no equivalent way to input double precision data. This can cause differences between double precision EZNEC Pro and NEC results when networks have been specified, particularly when NEC networks are derived from EZNEC Pro L networks. Plane wave excitation: NEC-4 allows excitation with a plane wave source at the same time as conventional voltage sources. EZNEC Pro does not; only one type of excitation can be used at a time. EZNEC Pro also doesn't have provision for sweeping the plane wave source location. Bugs: EZNEC Pro has corrected several bugs found in NEC-2 and NEC-4. During development of the EZNEC Pro plane wave excitation feature, it was discovered that NEC-2 does not ignore the axial ratio parameter on the EX "card" as it should when a linearly polarized plane wave is specified -- any value other than zero will improperly modify the results for a linearly polarized plane wave source. In addition, NEC-4 incorrectly calculates the dB scattering cross section when the plane wave source amplitude is other than the default of 1 V/m peak, or when the polarization is elliptical and the axial ratio is other than 1. Also, the polarization sense (right or left) of an elliptically polarized plane wave source is reversed from the sense specified in the EX "card". These errors were reported and have been fixed in recent issues of NEC-4, but still exist in most copies of NEC-2 and in older copies of NEC-4. They don't occur in EZNEC Pro, so EZNEC Pro results will differ from those of many versions of NEC-2 or NEC-4 whenever the above described conditions occur.

Working With NEC Format Files

This section applies only to EZNEC pro programs. Writing files in NEC format is relatively straightforward. To save a description in an NEC format file, simply include the extension .NEC when you specify the file name. The remainder of this section deals with reading NEC format files. To import an NEC format file into EZNEC Pro, include .NEC as the extension when you specify the file name. A number of NEC features aren't implemented in EZNEC Pro, so exact translation of all files can't be done. However, many files can be directly translated, and most geometry cards, which usually constitute the majority of complex files, will be translated. NEC file "cards" are interpreted per NEC-2 standards (to be compatible with both NEC-2 and NEC-4 files) except as noted below: CE,CM The first 30 letters of the first CE or CM card becomes the title. EK When using the NEC-2 calculating engine, EZNEC Pro normally sets the extended thin wire kernel automatically depending on wire diameter;

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Reference this card will override the internal setting. It has no effect when using an NEC-4 engine. EN Terminates file translation. EX EZNEC Pro is able to read and write EX 1, 2, and 3 cards when opening and saving descriptions in NEC format. If both conventional (EX 0) and plane wave (EX 1-3) sources appear in an NEC format file, EZNEC v. 5.0 will read both types. However, unlike NEC-4, EZNEC v. 5.0 wont use both types simultaneously; you must choose which to use. When saving a description in NEC format, only the source type currently selected in EZNEC v. 5.0 will be saved to the NEC format file. This is to prevent an NEC-4 program reading the file from using both source types and producing a different result than EZNEC v. 5.0. NEC type 4 and 5 sources will be converted to type 0. The magnitudes of all sources are divided by the square root of two to convert from NEC's peak convention to EZNEC Pro's RMS convention. This is done so that powers reported by the programs will agree. FR Frequency step data will be ignored. Frequency stepping must be manually set in EZNEC Pro's Frequency Sweep Menu. GA If more than one GA card have the same tag number, sources, loads, etc. applied to that tag number will only be placed on the arc defined by the first GA card with that tag number. EZNEC Pro will assign individual wire numbers to each one-segment wire making up each arc. GD, GN All parameters are translated. If a second medium is defined on both cards, the last card read will dominate. A radial ground screen will be ignored if only one medium is defined; if two are defined and the boundary is radial, the ground screen perimeter will be set equal to the boundary between the media. Please see additional GD, GN, RP comments below. GE The I1 specification will be ignored. EZNEC Pro automatically sets the equivalent value to 0 when no ground plane is present, 1 if a ground plane is present and no wires extend below the ground, and -1 if any wires do extend below a ground plane. (Calculation for the latter case will be permitted only if EZNEC Pro/4 is being used with an NEC-4 calculating engine and Real, High-accuracy ground has been selected.) GM Only entire wires will be operated on. If a specified segment does not fall on a wire end, the whole wire containing that segment will be included in the operation. The tag increment number ITG1 is ignored, and new wires assigned numbers in accordance with EZNEC Pro's method. GN GN 0 (reflection coefficient type ground) will be converted to High Accuracy (Sommerfeld) ground type. EZNEC doesn't support reflection coefficient type ground. GR Tag increment number ITG1 is ignored, and new wires assigned numbers in accordance with EZNEC Pro's method.

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EZNEC User Manual GS The coordinates and diameters of all wires which have been read prior to encountering the GS card will be multiplied by the third parameter on the line (FSCALE). GW Tag numbers are ignored. Wires are sequentially numbered. Sources, loads, and transmission lines will, however, be placed on the proper wires. GX Tag increment number ITG1 will be ignored, and new wires assigned numbers in accordance with EZNEC Pro's method. LD LD type 1 (reset loads) isn't translated. If some loads are R+jX (type 4) and others RLC (types 0-3) or wire loss (type 5)1, the EZNEC Pro load type is set to RLC and the R+jX loads are converted to series RL or RC. The impedances of these will vary with frequency, unlike the original NEC R+jX loads. The EZNEC Pro load type will be set to R+jX only if there are no RLC or wire loss loads in the NEC file. Loads with perunit-length specifications (types 2 and 3) are calculated for the lengths of segments they're initially placed on. But if segment lengths are subsequently changed in EZNEC Pro, their values won't change. Wire loss LD cards (type 5) are converted to RL loads with a frequencyvariable R, which varies in the same manner as wire loss1. The L won't change with frequency, although this is generally a minor effect with wires. Remember, though, that these are now EZNEC Pro loads, not wire loss. Their values will be correct for the wire diameter and segment length of their initial positions, but won't change if diameter or segment length is subsequently changed. Repeated loads are placed using the same convention as NEC. 1Note: LD5 "card" translation can be inhibited if desired. See LD5Translation in the Special Options section. NE, NH Only the first NE or NH card will be read. The information contained on the card will be entered in the EZNEC Pro Near Field Setup Menu. Note: The convention for phi and theta is reversed between NEC-2 and NEC-4. EZNEC Pro uses the NEC-4 convention. A caution is shown in the translation window when these cards are encountered. NX Terminates EZNEC Pro translation. RP EZNEC Pro will ignore requests to print major, minor axis gains or do field normalization, directive gain, or gain averaging. Please see additional GD, GN, RP comments below. If no RP card is present, default values will be entered. TL Shunt loads will be ignored. XQ Any value other than 2 is interpreted as being 1, since EZNEC Pro can't do simultaneous plots. All other cards are ignored. Translation of the input file will terminate after the first EN or NX card is read. Additional GD, GN, RP comments: Due to the complex interaction of ground specifications among GD, GN, and RP cards, EZNEC Pro may not interpret the ground specification in the same way as NEC does. Be sure and check the

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Reference ground type and specification after reading an NEC file. This is especially true when using the NEC buried radial (radial ground screen) model. When EZNEC Pro is forced to interpret a card in a different way than NEC, it will add a notice to the display shown at the end of the translation. EZNEC Pro disregards the positions of data on the line. Fields are delimited by spaces, tabs, or commas. Any number of spaces or tabs may be used. A field is considered blank or zero if it is surrounded by commas. For example, '3 , ,51,4' is interpreted as four fields of value 3, 0, 51, and 4. Spaces and tabs are ignored unless characters other than commas are separated by only spaces or tabs, in which case the spaces/tabs are interpreted as a delimiter. For example, '3 15,, 7 42 ,' will be interpreted as having fields of value 3, 15, 0, 7, 42, 0. Comments can be added to individual lines if desired by delimiting with an exclamation point (!). Anything following an explanation point on any line will be ignored. Please note: Partial translation of NEC files, or defective NEC files, might cause a program crash because many of EZNEC Pro's cross checks aren't done when reading NEC files. If you encounter a crash when EZNEC Pro reads or executes what you believe to be a valid NEC file, please notify the EZNEC Pro developer.

Very Large Models

Several factors should be considered when working with models of several thousand segments. The following information is provided to help you optimize the analysis of these very large models. Calculation Time There are two major time-consuming portions of the calculation, impedance calculation (matrix fill), and current calculation (matrix factor). The first increases as about the square of the number of segments, while the second increases approximately as the cube. So for large models, the second process dominates. Another part of the current calculation, "solve", can become extremely long if the model contains a large number of transmission lines. Adding ground to a free-space model will also slow calculations substantially. Specially compiled fast calculating code is used for the current calculation portion, but only if the program isn't forced to use the disk for virtual memory. Consequently, a major speed reduction will occur if this mode becomes necessary. And it does become necessary with the largest models now possible with EZNEC pro. Calculation times of over three days have been seen with models of nearly 20,000 segments, on a 1.2 GHz Pentium 3 machine. Effort put forth in reducing the number of segments in the model will pay off handsomely in calculation time. Segments In my experience of viewing models created by EZNEC pro users, many models use more segments than necessary. Calculating time is approximately proportional to the square of the number of segments for small models and to the cube of the number of segments for large models, so reducing the number of segments is always desirable. The Segmentation section contains tips for reducing segment use. Virtual RAM Use EZNEC Pro will use the disk for virtual memory if necessary. It might be possible to gain some calculation speed by optimizing the point at

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EZNEC User Manual which this occurs. See the Controlling Memory Use section for more information. Note that calculation speed drops very significantly when this mode is operational. See the first paragraph above. Required disk space increases as the square of the number of segments, and doubles when a double precision calculating engine is chosen. More than 10 GB is required for temporary storage for the largest models, and files of about 6 GB are written. NEC-2 engines require several times the temporary storage space as NEC-4 engines, due to a different calculation method. EZNEC Pro will check your available disk space before beginning calculations, and will refuse to run if not enough is available. Networks The presence of networks can slow the solution a great deal, particularly in very large models. In one model with 9000 segments, 100 networks nearly doubled the calculation time, so reduction of the number of networks can make a striking difference. One network is created for each current source and transmission line, and two for each "split" current source. Combining of the networks with the main large matrix shows in the calculation progress window as "Calculating currents: Solve". During the time this progress bar is filling, you might also see constant disk activity, particularly if the disk is being used for virtual RAM. Reducing the number of networks or the number of segments will shorten this portion of the calculation. EZNEC Pro/4 Considerations EZNEC Pro/4 was designed to be able to use an external NEC-4 calculating engine, which caused the NEC-4 calculating engines to be used somewhat differently than the NEC-2 engine. A disadvantage of this approach has shown up with very large models which include many networks. Both NEC-2 and NEC-4 engines save the main matrix in case the user wants to produce a different radiation pattern from the same model. The NEC-4 engines save the matrix before networks are combined. So if another radiation pattern is requested when an NEC-4 engine is specified, the networks must be recombined with the matrix. In small to moderate sized models, this process doesn't take long. But with very large models having many networks, it can take hours. The only direct solution at this time is to try and reduce the number of networks and/or segments in the model if possible. If two degree resolution is adequate, run a 3D plot for the initial calculation. Then you can choose any azimuth or elevation "slice" without recalculating. Another thing to consider is to run the model with the NEC-2 engine. However, this engine tends to take longer to calculate large models, so there might not be an overall saving in taking this approach. Bailing Out You can terminate the calculations by clicking the Cancel button in the Calculation Progress Window. It might take some time to respond, so please be patient; the calculation will stop. You'll also find that if you cover any of the EZNEC Pro windows during a lengthy calculation, there might be a delay before they redraw. Both these delays are due to the fact that the calculating engine communicates with the main program only at discrete times, and updates and button responses can only be serviced at these times.

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Double Precision Operation

EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro/2, and EZNEC Pro/4 include a double-precision NEC-2 calculating engine in addition to the standard mixed-precision engine. EZNEC Pro/4 also includes a double-precision NEC-4 calculating engine (EZCalc4D) as well as the standard single-precision EZCalc4 engine. Also, user-supplied double-precision NEC-4 programs can be used with EZNEC Pro/4. The choice of calculating engine type affects the size of model at which virtual memory operation will take place; it will happen with a smaller number of segments (approximately 0.7 times as many) when running double-precision calculations than when running single precision. In addition to the inherent slowing during virtual memory operation, operation may also be slowed somewhat because of the increased sizes of arrays which must be written to and read from the disk during calculation. Approximately twice as much memory and temporary disk space will be used for double precision operation. The maximum number of segments and wires which EZNEC will accommodate is the same for both single and double precision. The interface portion of the program is always single precision, with the exception of L network, transformer, and Y parameter network (EZNEC Pro only) parameters. Consequently, wire coordinates, for example, are passed along to the calculating engine as single-precision numbers, and single-precision arithmetic is used to determine wire connections within the interface. Also, some functions done by the interface such as wire height modification are done in single precision. Marginal conditions of wire connection (where wire ends are not the same but are very close to 0.001 segment apart) should be avoided. Both EZNEC and the calculating engine modify coordinates slightly to force a match when wire ends are extremely close, but it could be possible for one to force or assume a connection and the other not, under marginal conditions. So while unlikely, this situation should be avoided. When using an NEC-4 engine (EZNEC Pro/4 only), the output of the interface portion of the program is an NEC-4 input file which is passed to the calculating engine. The precision of all NEC-4 calculations is determined by the calculating engine choice. See Options for information on selecting double-precision operation, and Using An External NEC-4 Program for additional information about using a doubleprecision NEC-4 program with EZNEC Pro/4. L Network Limitations has information about the impact of double precision operation when the model contains L networks.

Controlling Memory Use

EZNEC Pro's calculating engine requires a large amount of memory when analyzing very large models. Before calling the calculating engine, the program checks to see how much RAM is available. If it finds an insufficient amount, it directs the calculating engine to use the computer's disk as virtual RAM. When this happens, calculation time is lengthened considerably. In general, fastest calculation will occur when virtual memory use is minimized or, better yet, avoided altogether. EZNEC Pro gives you the ability to adjust, if you desire, the 145

EZNEC User Manual amount of RAM the calculating engine will require, which can help speed calculations in some cases. There are, however, tradeoffs involved, which will be explained below. "Available RAM" becomes a somewhat nebulous term when dealing with Windows operating systems, because Windows has its own virtual memory manager and provides virtual RAM as needed from a pool of the physical installed RAM and a hard disk file of up to 2 GB in size. In theory, this entire amount is available to be used as RAM. (I'll call this "Windows RAM" to distinguish it from physical RAM.) EZNEC Pro could simply pretend that 2 GB of RAM is available, and Windows would take care of swapping between the hard drive and physical RAM as needed. In practice, though, this isn't a good idea at all when dealing with the potentially huge arrays generated by very large models. When confronted with huge blocks of data, Windows memory swapping becomes very slow. Allowing Windows to swap more than about the amount of actual physical RAM during calculation can slow calculation by an order of magnitude or more. So it's very important for EZNEC Pro not to ask for too much Windows RAM. The built-in algorithm used by EZNEC Pro is conservative, and has been found to reliably avoid Windows memory swapping. However, in some circumstances you might want to push the envelope a little and have EZNEC Pro ask for more Windows RAM, either to avoid going into its virtual memory mode, or to speed calculations some by reducing the amount of virtual memory it uses. There's not usually a very large penalty for allowing EZNEC Pro to use the disk for virtual RAM. A few benchmarks show a typical calculation time increase on the order of 20%, although this can vary considerably with the model, system, and amount of virtual memory being used. 20% does represent an hour of a five hour run time, though, so virtual RAM use is often worth avoiding when possible. The size of the main array created by the calculating engine is 8N^2 bytes for the standard NEC-2 engine, where N is the number of segments. The array size is also 8N^2 for the single precision EZNEC Pro/4 NEC-4 engine, and 16N^2 for the double precision NEC-2 and NEC-4 engines. The total amount of memory required during calculations is somewhat greater than this because of the need to also store other variables and arrays. So a single precision calculation of a 20,000 segment model requires more than 3 GB of memory. Current systems don't have this much installed RAM, let alone available RAM, so virtual memory use is unavoidable with this size model. But you might be able to decrease the amount of virtual memory that's created by EZNEC Pro and decrease the calculation time slightly. For smaller models, you can modify the threshold at which EZNEC Pro switches to virtual memory use. However, if you set the threshold too high, you run the risk of having Windows do an excessive amount of memory swapping, which will greatly slow calculations. If you choose to manually adjust the amount of Windows RAM which will be used by the calculating engine, make the adjustment, then watch during calculation for excessive or constant disk use which might indicate excessive Windows disk swapping. If it occurs, reduce the amount. Note: Heavy disk activity is normal during some parts of the calculation, most notably during the "Solve" portion of the current calculation. It's not uncommon to see virtually constant disk activity

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Reference during this period. When virtual memory is being used, you'll also see heavy activity during the "Processing Data Saved to Disk" operation, and for short periods several times during the impedance and current calculations. There's one other important thing you should keep in mind. EZNEC Pro never uses more memory than the model requires, so all you can adjust is the maximum amount it can use. If your model requires less than the maximum, any adjustment you make to increase the maximum will have no effect. (Of course, if you reduce the amount EZNEC Pro can use, it could result in virtual memory use where it wouldn't have occurred without the adjustment.) If your model doesn't require virtual memory (which is indicated in the calculation progress window), increasing the maximum amount of Windows RAM EZNEC Pro can use will have no effect. The maximum amount of Windows RAM used by EZNEC Pro is adjusted by entering the following lines in the [Special Options] section of the EZNEC.INI file. Each parameter overrides the one shown below it in this list; that is, a parameter will be ignored if one above it in this list has been specified. (The order of items in the EZNEC.INI file makes no difference.) MaxAbsRAMUsedK = # Sets the maximum amount of Windows RAM used, where # is the amount in kbytes. MaxAbsRAMUsedPct = # Sets the maximum amount of Windows RAM used, where # is the percentage of installed physical RAM. MaxQualRAMUsedPct = # Sets percentage used in the standard maximum memory use calculation, as follows: max Windows RAM = max((#/100)*(installed RAM), act avail RAM)). This has the same effect as MaxAbsRAMUsedPct, except that if more physical RAM is available than the specified percentage of installed RAM, the memory use will be set to the amount of available physical RAM. This is the default EZNEC Pro method of determining maximum Windows RAM use, with a default percentage of 50. Unlike many of the EZNEC.INI file options, it's not necessary to exit and restart EZNEC Pro after changing one of these parameters; they will take effect immediately. You can see the approximate amount of Windows RAM which will be used by the calculating engine for a given model by selecting Memory Info from the Control Center Utilities menu.

Using An External NEC-4 Engine (EZNEC Pro/4 Only)

This section applies only to EZNEC Pro/4.

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EZNEC User Manual Please note For a number of reasons, discontinuation of support for external NEC-4 engines is being considered for future versions. Comments are welcome, particularly from anyone who is using this feature or anticipates using it in the future. Please send any comments to [email protected]. EZNEC Pro/4 is designed so that it can be used with a user-supplied NEC-4 program. This may be useful in comparing results from several variations of NEC-4, or in doing specialized calculations with a customized program. However, because of the possibility of code modifications and the variety of different compilers available, EZNEC Pro/4 might not work properly with some variations. Please read the following information before using an external NEC-4 program with EZNEC Pro/4. Running EZNEC Pro/4 with an external NEC-4 program Before running an external NEC-4 program, it's first necessary to create a batch file to specify the input and output file names. Do this as follows. Create the batch file, which is a text file containing the following line: MyNEC4.exe <IOF.txt where MyNEC4.exe is the name of the executable NEC-4 program to be run, and IOF.txt is another text file which contains: EZ.NEC NEC.OUT Give the batch file the name of the executable file but with a BAT extension (MyNEC4.BAT for the example), and put it and the IOF.txt file in the same directory as the NEC-4 program executable file. When you first run the external NEC-4 program, you have to specify the program name via the Control Center Options menu Calculating Engine/External NEC-4 Program selection. Specify the name of the batch file, not the executable file, when prompted. The external NEC-4 program can be in any directory. Input and output files will be created in its directory. You can make the external program the default engine if desired by selecting Save As Defaults in the Control Center Options menu after specifying the NEC-4 engine. To choose a different external NEC-4 program, simply click the Control Center Options/Calculating Engine/External NEC-4 selection to open a file selection dialog box. You must of course create a batch file for each calculating engine. They can share an IOF.txt file if all batch files are in the same directory, or if the IOF.txt path is specified in the batch files. Tips for Running DOS Programs Normally, calling a DOS program will result in opening a DOS window when the external NEC-4 program starts. This window will remain open after the external NEC-4 program ends. This is generally preferred, since it allows you to see any error messages that were generated by the external program and sent to the normal DOS screen output. However, when running a frequency or SWR sweep, it's desirable to have the window close after the external program is finished. The external program is called once for each frequency step, requiring the window to

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Reference be closed after each step. The window can be made to close automatically after the program finishes by creating a DOS program information file (PIF). To create the file, In Windows Explorer, right-click the batch file created in the above section. Click Properties, then Create Shortcut. The new shortcut will appear at the end of the list of files. Right-click the shortcut and select Properties. Click the Program tab at the top. Click the Close on Exit box to make it checked. Click Ok. Right-click the shortcut again, and select Rename. Delete the "Shortcut to", and the extension. That is, if the original name was "Shortcut to MyNEC4.bat", change it to "MyNEC4". Then click Ok. When specifying an external NEC-4 program in EZNEC Pro/4, enter the batch file name as before. The PIF will be used automatically. The window auto-close feature can be disabled in the future by simply right-clicking the shortcut file in Windows Explorer, choosing Properties then the Program tab, and unchecking the Close on Exit box. Limitations Most EZNEC Pro/4 features are available when using an external NEC-4 program. However, EZNEC Pro/4 isn't able to take advantage of its ability to save and re-use ground files. This is because different compilers store files in different formats, and EZNEC Pro/4 has no way of knowing which compiler was used for the external program. When using an external program you also lose indications of calculation progress and whether out-of-core memory is being used, and the ability to terminate execution before it's complete. EZNEC Pro/4 can't tell the maximum array dimensions for an external program, so the user has to take the responsibility of making sure the number of description wires, segments, connections, etc. don't exceed the NEC-4 array dimensions. EZNEC Pro/4 depends on certain characteristics of the output file to identify the data it needs. Modification to the data format in the NEC-4 output file may cause improper operation of EZNEC Pro/4. In general, additional outputs will be ignored by EZNEC Pro/4 and won't cause a problem. Incompatibility One compiler which generates programs causing problems with EZNEC Pro/4 is the Microsoft FORTRAN PowerStation version 1.00. A revision of this compiler, version 1.0a, seems to produce acceptable programs. The sign-on screen for the compiler may indicate version 1.00 even though it has been updated to 1.0a. Following are a few of the files from both versions, listed to help you identify which you may have. All these files are in the \F32\BIN directory: File v. 1.00 v.1.0a BINDMSF.EXE 73,206 01-30-93 64,302 01-15-94 F23232.EXE 404,480 02-08-93 489,984 12-22-93 LINK32.EXE 277,504 02-03-93 52,224 02-02-94

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EZNEC User Manual LINK.EXE ABSENT 385,536 01-19-94 Microsoft PowerStation v. 1.00 has bugs which result in errors when implicitly converting to a complex variable type, or between complex types. At least one instance of the former is known to exist in the standard NEC-4.1 code, and it is likely that others are also contained in the code. The known instance causes NEC-4.1 to crash under some circumstances, so was relatively easy to find. Others may simply cause incorrect results. EZNEC Pro/4 may exercise features of NEC-4.1 which you wouldn't ordinarily use, causing crashes or inaccuracies when using an NEC-4.1 program which is thought to be working properly. Do not use Microsoft PowerStation v. 1.00-compiled programs with EZNEC Pro/4. NEC-4.1 Medium Height Bug When using an external NEC-4 program and a model with two ground media, the second medium won't be interpreted correctly unless a special option is entered. This is due to a bug in NEC-4.1 which inverts the sign of the medium height parameter (CHT) on the GD "card". EZNEC Pro calculating engines EZCalc4 and EZCalc4D have been modified to interpret the parameters as defined in the NEC-4.1 manual, which is the same interpretation used by NEC-2. EZNEC Pro/4 will normally write the NEC input file with this convention. However, you can force EZNEC Pro/4 to write the GD "card" with an inverted sign for the CHT parameter under some circumstances. This is done by setting a special option in the EZNEC.INI file, as follows: EZIHS = # where # = 1 => Invert sign when using external NEC-4 program # = 2 => Invert sign when saving file in NEC format # = 3 => Invert sign when either of the above Details of setting the special option are in the Special Options section. If you want to modify your NEC-4.1 program source code to remove the bug, it can be done by inverting the value of variable CLIFH. I suggest inverting it in subroutine REFPT1 where it calls REFPT, to keep the meaning of the variables similar to their use in NEC-2: CALL REFPT(-CLIFH,DX,DY,DZ,XP,YP,ZP,XS,YS,ZS) EZNEC Pro is not designed to operate with an external NEC-2 or NEC-3 program.

Additional Information
Software Incompatibilities
Norton Antivirus When background virus checking is enabled, Norton Antivirus has been found to cause the EZNEC installation program to hang. Antivirus and Anti-malware (-adware or -spyware) Programs When set to constantly check for "virus-like" activity, some programs cause a very significant slowing of the calculations. It appears to be due to interception and analysis of the messages sent from the calculating engine to the main program in order to show calculation progress. Slowing in terms of a fraction of total calculation time will be greatest for simple models, since this is when the time spent sending

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Reference calculation progress messages is the greatest fraction of total calculation time. Total slowing will be most noticeable when doing a frequency or SWR sweep of a relatively simple model. If the slowing is objectionable, it can be alleviated either by turning off the feature in the antivirus or anti-malware program, or by directing EZNEC to update the calculation progress display less frequently. The latter is done by setting Special Option CalcProgReduction. More detail is included for particular programs below. McAfee Antivirus When background virus checking is enabled, some versions of McAfee Antivirus cause EZNEC calculations to proceed extremely slowly, to the point that the mouse cursor might be unresponsive or jerky during EZNEC calculations. So far, this has been seen only in McAfee Antivirus v. 4 with some program updates. See the Antivirus and Anti-malware Programs section above for solutions. ZoneAlarm ZoneAlarm v. 6.1.744.001 was found to slow EZNEC calculations but not nearly to the degree caused by the McAfee program. Slowing was found to occur only when the ZoneAlarm "OSFirewall" feature is on. This feature is normally enabled whenever the ZoneAlarm Program Control Level is set to Medium or High, but it can be separately disabled by unchecking it in ZoneAlarm's Program Control/Main/Custom window. Alternatively, the slowing can be reduced by using the EZNEC Special Option mentioned in the Antivirus and Anti-malware Programs section above. Matrox PowerDesk - Has been reported to prevent EZNEC from remembering window positions correctly so that windows re-open in different positions than when they close. To prevent this problem, uncheck the box labeled "Save/Restore window positions when programs are opened/closed" in the PowerDesk/QuickDesk Multi-Display Controls dialog box. Window Washer For reasons which are baffling, Window Washer some versions at least -- gives the user the ability to cause automatic deletion of files in the Windows temporary file directory at periodic intervals, for example every hour. EZNEC, and many other programs, routinely write temporary files into that directory. These temporary files are written with the expectation that they can be read at some later time (but before the program ends). If a temporary file written by EZNEC has been deleted, EZNEC will crash when it attempts to read the missing file. EZNEC is, of course, only one of many applications which will react this way. Temporary files should not be deleted except just after turning a computer on or rebooting, or just before turning it off or rebooting.

The Calculation Progress Window

The Calculation Progress Window appears whenever EZNEC calls the calculating engine to do calculations. It remains on the screen until calculations are finished, and no other EZNEC operations can occur while it's being displayed. It shows several important pieces of information, plus it allows you to terminate calculations before they finish. [EZNEC Pro/4 only]: This window doesn't appear if you're using an external (user-supplied) NEC-4 program for calculation.

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EZNEC User Manual Calculating Engine Type -- The title bar shows which calculating engine is being used. For the standard EZNEC program it will always show NEC-2. With the other programs, it will show which of the available calculating engine options is being used. Frequency The frequency is shown just below the title bar. This is particularly useful when doing a frequency sweep. Stepped Diameter Correction This message appears under the frequency if one or more groups of wires is being corrected with the stepped diameter correction feature. Its appearance doesn't guarantee, however, that all elements of a Yagi, for example, are being corrected. To determine this, you have to use the Stepped Diameter Correction Display. [EZNEC Pro/4 only]: Stepped Diameter Correction will normally be disabled when using an NEC-4 calculating engine, so this message won't appear in that case. Disk Use As Virtual RAM If the calculating engine can't find enough available RAM, it uses the disk as virtual RAM. Although Windows will do this on its own, the routines built into NEC are much more efficient for the purposes of doing the necessary calculations. You won't see this message with the standard EZNEC program due to its segment limitation, and only with large models when running other EZNEC programs. Calculation Progress Several progress bars appear in the window as the calculation runs. Which bars appear is determined by the calculations being done. A ground file calculation bar appears only when using Real, High Accuracy ground, and then only if EZNEC failed to find a file containing suitable data from a previous calculation. Progress as shown on the bars doesn't necessarily proceed at a constant rate, so you shouldn't be concerned if it seems to speed up, slow down, or occasionally pause as calculations proceed. In EZNEC Pro programs, the current calculation is split into two parts, "Factor" and "Solve", if any current sources or transmission lines are present in the model. The "solve" portion tracks the progress of combining the main matrix with networks, which can take considerable time with very large models. (See Very Large Models.) You'll also see a "Geometry Check" bar showing the progress of EZNEC's geometry check. Cancel Clicking this button will stop calculations and return you to the interface part of the program. To avoid unnecessarily slowing calculations, the state of this key is tested only periodically, so there might be a delay before the program responds to your cancellation request, particularly in models containing a very large number of segments.

Reinstalling or Copying EZNEC

To reinstall or copy EZNEC, simply insert the CD you received when you purchased EZNEC and run the setup file. If you downloaded the program, copy the file you downloaded to the target machine and run it. Saved description (.EZ) and trace files aren't affected by installation and uninstallation processes, so they have to be copied manually. When EZNEC is installed, entries are made in the system Registry, and files are placed in locations other than the program directory. These entries and files are

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Reference essential to EZNEC operation. Consequently, a copy of the files in the EZNEC program directory after installation isn't sufficient to reinstall the program or to copy it to another machine. For those purposes, you need either the program CD you received or the file you downloaded when you purchased EZNEC. Only those contain everything necessary to install EZNEC. Please make backup copies of the CD or downloaded file in case reinstallation is needed in the future. It's not uncommon for a CD to become defective with time, so two copies are more secure than one. You can copy EZNEC to any number of machines you'd like. The only restriction is that no more than one copy can be in use at any time. The only exception is the clearly identified demo program, which may be freely copied and distributed.

LastZ.txt file
The Lastz.txt file is created when a Frequency Sweep or SWR sweep is run. It contains, in comma-delimited ASCII format, the impedance and SWR at each source and frequency. It remains in the EZNEC program directory after the program ends and can be used for other purposes if desired. Text headers in the first line identify the field contents. Except when EZNEC is writing to the file, its read-only attribute is set. EZNEC depends, for proper operation, on the contents of this file to be correct and in a particular format, so Lastz.txt shouldn't be edited under any circumstances. If a modified version is necessary, make a copy having a different name and edit the copy. Some applications used for viewing Lastz.txt, such as spreadsheets, may lock the file and make it inaccessible to EZNEC. If the file is locked when EZNEC requires access, you'll get an error message, and will be required to release the file by closing it in the locking application before EZNEC can proceed.

Parallel Connected Loads Polarity

Polarity Differences Between Series and Parallel Connected Loads The polarity of voltage and current reported in the Load Data display will usually be opposite for series and parallel connected loads. The polarity reversal will be evident as a 180 degree difference in phase of current and voltage. This is caused by a difference in definition between the two load connections in the definitions of which terminal is considered to have positive voltage relative to the other and which direction is defined for positive current flow. The conventions, and the reason for the difference, are explained below. First consider a source and conventional (series connected) load connected to the same segment of a wire (red). The load, as the connection type implies, is connected in series with the source. The wire is shown in red. Defined voltage polarity is shown for the source and load, and the positive direction of current flow for each object is shown with an arrow.

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If the source is producing, say, 1 ampere at a phase angle of zero degrees, the Load Data display will report 1 ampere at zero degrees, because the directions of the source and load currents are defined the same -- that is, the positive current arrows are pointing in the same direction, away from end 1 of the wire and toward end 2. This is also the direction of the wire current. One would expect the current through the load to be the same as the current from the source, since both are in series, and the chosen definitions of current direction cause them to be the same. The voltage drop across the load has to be defined as shown, so that the impedance will be equal to V/I. Next consider a parallel connected load in parallel with a source:

Here, the voltage across the load is the same as the voltage across the source, so we would expect the load voltage to be reported as being the same as the source voltage. And the convention for defining the voltage polarity of the load has been chosen to make this so. But notice that the convention for voltage polarity is opposite that for the series connected load -- the + terminal of the parallel connected source is toward end 2 of the wire, while the + terminal of the series connected load was toward end 1 of the wire. Without this different definition, the load voltage would be reported as being the negative of the source voltage when the two are connected directly in parallel, a situation sure to be confusing. Once the voltage convention is determined, the convention for positive current is also fixed in order to make the load impedance equal V/I. Like the series connected load, the direction of positive current is into the load from the positive terminal. But because of the voltage definition reversal, the direction of

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Reference positive load current is away from end 2 of the wire toward end 1. Relative to the wire, this is the reverse of the direction of positive current for the series connected load. The difficulty arises when a parallel connected load is placed in series with the source. This can't be done on the same segment as done with the series connected load, but it could be, say, on the adjacent segment. That situation looks like this:

Compare this to the first diagram, with the series connected load, and it's apparent that the definitions of polarity of both the load voltage and current are opposite for the two types of loads. This has no impact on any results except for the phase angle of voltage and current shown in the Load Data display. Whenever you directly replace one load type with the other, you'll see a 180 degree change in both voltage and current. The only way to avoid the reversal between types is to reverse the convention of one type of load or the other. If the series connected load were reversed, the load current would be shown as reversed in phase from the source current when the two are directly in series. If the parallel connected load were reversed, its voltage would be opposite in polarity from that of a parallel connected source. So the conventions shown above were chosen. These are also the conventions used by NEC, so using them in EZNEC helps when making comparisons to NEC results.

Special Options
A few choices are likely to be so seldom used that they don't justify being put into a menu. However, EZNEC still provides a way to enable or change these choices. In the EZNEC program directory is a file named EZNEC.INI. EZNEC reads this file each time it starts, so it can be used to communicate the values of special options. The EZNEC.INI file can be edited with any text editor. Or you can conveniently open it for editing with the EZNEC Editor by choosing Edit .INI File in the Control Center Utilities menu. Once edited, save and close the file, then end the EZNEC program. Wait for a few seconds for the disk cache to dump, then restart EZNEC. The new changes should then be in effect. 155

EZNEC User Manual All entries are case insensitive. Spaces around the = sign are optional. All entries are put into the file in the [Special Options] section; that is, they go below that heading. ButtonFontName = fontname where fontname is the name of a valid font, such as Arial. This sets the font type for the Control Center Action Buttons. Please see ButtonFontSize, above. ButtonFontSize = # where # is a number. This sets the font size for the Control Center Action Buttons, and is included because some users have reported that the text doesn't fit when EZNEC is run at some resolutions on some systems. The default font size is 8, so I suggest you try a size slightly smaller than this if you experience this problem. I recommend setting the ButtonFontName to Arial if you use this option. Arial permits setting font size to any value, including fractional values. The default font MS Sans Serif allows only whole, even point sizes. CalcProgReduction = # where # is a number from 0 to 3; other values ignored. Use when the program is slowed by an anti-virus or anti-malware program. (See Software Incompatibilities.) Limits how often the calculation progress indicator is updated during calculation. A value of zero results in normal operation. Higher values (up to 3) reduce the update frequency, speeding operation but making the calculation progress indication less smooth. CursorBorder = None Turns off the outline around the outer border of the cursor in the 2D, 3D, and SWR plots. This is to avoid a problem seen in Windows 2000 with the ATI Xtra 128 video board where the cursor border is the same color as the cursor, and gets left behind when the cursor is moved. DotMult = # where # is a number from 0.5 to 5: Increases or decreases the size of the grid dots on the 2D Display grid. It modifies the value of the line width selected by the Control Center Options/Plot Printing/Printed Plot Line Width option, only when printing grid dots. This affects only the 2D printed plot. See PrintedOffsetAxisWidth below. MaxMSFreqs = # where # is either 8 or 100. MicroSmith versions 2.000B and earlier are able to accommodate a maximum of 8 frequency sweep steps in the .DAT file (for frequency dependent impedances). Later versions can accommodate up to 100. EZNEC will write a maximum of 8 or 100 depending on an internal setting. The normal default value is 100, but a value of 8 can result from importing values from a DOS EZNEC configuration file (ELNEC.CFG). The first time you run EZNEC with this option present in the EZNEC.INI file, its value will become the permanent maximum value. After that, you can remove this line from the EZNEC.INI file if desired. The only ways it can be changed except by using this entry in the EZNEC.INI file are by uninstalling and reinstalling EZNEC (in which case it'll be set to 100) or by importing data from an ELNEC.CFG file by means of the EZNEC Installation Utility. NECRadials = On Standard EZNEC and EZNEC+ only: See The NEC Radial Model for use of this option. PrDataLineSp = # where # is a number from 1 to 2. This sets the line spacing for data from a Data Window printed under a plot. It affects only printed output.

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Reference PrinterMargin = # where # is a number from 0 to 3, or a number followed by the letter "c" (either case) from 0c to about 7.6c: Sets the width of the margins around printed graphics plots (2D, 3D, SWR, and View Antenna displays). If the number is followed by c, the number is interpreted as being in cm; otherwise, in inches. For example, 1.2 will produce margins of 1.2 inches; 2.3c will produce margins of 2.3 cm. VAObjTextSizePct = # where # is a number. Sets the size of wire numbers and numbers related to insertion objects in the View Antenna display. Default value is 5; the equivalent value in versions prior to 5.0.13 was 8.75. WireInfoDist = # where # is an integer from 1 to 20. If the value is zero or positive, it defines the distance within which the cursor has to be before the Wire Information popup window appears. If the value is 1, the popup window will appear only when the right mouse button is clicked while holding down the <Ctrl> key. 2DGridLineWidth = # where # is an integer from 1 to 10. Sets width of 2D plot grid lines or dots and analysis lines on screen. Has no effect on printed plot. Note: All lines will be solid if this is set to any value other than 1. Note: Program does not have to be restarted for changes to become effective, although the 2D Plot Window must be redrawn. 2DTraceLineWidth = # where # is an integer from 1 to 10. Sets width of 2D plot trace and key lines on screen. Has no effect on printed plot. Note: All lines will be solid if this is set to any value other than 1 Note: Program does not have to be restarted for changes to become effective, although the 2D Plot Window must be redrawn. EZNEC pro only: LD5Translation = Off inhibits translation of LD5 (wire loss) cards in NEC description file. See Working With NEC Format Files for more information about LD "card" translation. LD5Translation = First will cause EZNEC Pro to apply the wire loss parameters of the first LD5 "card" read as global Wire Loss, and ignore additional LD5 "cards". The following three options are used for controlling Windows RAM use when running very large models. See Controlling Memory Use for more information. MaxAbsRAMUsedK = # MaxAbsRAMUsedPct = # MaxQualRAMUsedPct = # MaxCMWidth = # where # is an integer. EZNEC Pro only: EZNEC Pro saves Antenna Notes as CM "cards" in the NEC input file. This sets the maximum width of these lines, in number of characters.

OpenPF Plot File Format

EZNEC saves 2D and 3D plot (trace) files using the OpenPF standard. Files using this standard are commonly given the extension .PF, and EZNEC uses this for ordinary 2D plot files. However, plots generated by the frequency sweep are given extension .P #, where # represents the frequency step. 3D plot files are

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EZNEC User Manual given the extension .PF3. All these conform to the following standard. The standard is included here for those who want to develop compatible software or who have a need to directly read the data in these files. Important Note: Although the plot files written by EZNEC conform to the OpenPF standard, and EZNEC is able to read some 2D plot files produced by users or other programs, EZNEC isn't generally able to import or correctly read OpenPF files created by users or other programs. OpenPF Plot File Standard Version 1.0 June 1, 1995 The following standard was developed by Brian Beezley and Roy Lewallen as a common format for sharing data files between programs. Although we both contributed to the content, the original proposal was Brian=s, and he is the author of the following standard and did the majority of the work. We encourage others to adopt this standard. OpenPF is an open, nonproprietary standard for computer files that contain electromagnetic field data. OpenPF is intended for files created by antenna analysis programs and for files containing measurements. OpenPF files can be used to archive or transport data. Programs can use the files to plot fields and radiation patterns on a screen, printer, or plotter. The OpenPF file format is extensible. Data is organized into blocks that begin with a block type identifier followed by block length. This structure allows a file parser to skip and ignore blocks it's not designed to handle, including block types defined in future revisions of OpenPF. The blocks defined below provide for 2 D relative far field data (azimuth and elevation radiation patterns) and 3 D absolute near and far field data. 3 D radiation patterns can be represented by a set of 2 D data blocks. The file format enables a single file to contain near and far field data, absolute and relative data, azimuth and elevation data, low and high resolution data, partial and full data cuts, data for multiple frequencies, and unidentified data. The file format provides for new fields in future OpenPF revisions without the overhead of reserved bytes. New fields can be appended to any file block. File parsers that use block length to advance to the next block will skip over new fields. OpenPF uses standard coordinate systems. For rectangular coordinates, X and Y are in the horizontal plane and Z is height. For spherical coordinates, R is radial distance, phi is azimuth angle, and theta is zenith angle. For cylindrical coordinates, rho is horizontal distance, phi is azimuth angle, and z is height. Azimuth angle is 0 along the X axis and increases in the XY plane toward the Y axis (counterclockwise). Zenith angle is 0 along the Z axis and increases in the Z phi plane toward the phi ray. Units are meters and degrees. OpenPF files use the Intel processor "little endian" data convention (least significant byte first for multibyte data). Bit number 0 is the least significant bit. Bits marked as reserved are undefined and should not be assumed to be 0. OpenPF files use the file extension ".PF".

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Reference In the descriptions that follow, word means a 16 bit unsigned integer and FP means a 32 bit, single precision, floating point number that conforms to the IEEE 754 1985 standard. ASCII means a character string that uses the extended ASCII PC 8 symbol set. Header OpenPF files begin with a block of the following format: Version byte Header length word Source length byte Title length byte Environment length byte Notes length word Source ASCII Title ASCII Environment ASCII Notes ASCII Version This byte identifies the OpenPF version used to generate the file. The version number consists of a major revision (an integer) and a minor revision (an integer between 0 and 9) separated by a decimal point. The upper nibble (4 bits) contains the major revision and the lower nibble the minor. Header Length This field is the total length of the header in bytes. File parsers should use this length to advance past the header instead of assuming that data blocks begin immediately after the notes string. Future OpenPF revisions may define additional fields after the notes string. Header lengths less than 3 are invalid. Source, Title, Environment, and Notes Lengths These fields specify the lengths in bytes of the ASCII strings. Zero is valid. Source String This string identifies the data source. This may be an antenna analysis program, an antenna test range, a laboratory, etc. No bytes are allocated for a zero length string. Title, Environment, and Notes Strings The title string describes the antenna. The environment string describes the antenna environment (free space, antenna height, ground constants, etc.). The notes string contains auxiliary information that might be displayed only upon request. Data blocks that follow may contain strings that override these global strings. No bytes are allocated for zero length strings. Data Blocks Data following the header is organized into blocks. Each data block begins with block type (a byte) followed by block length (a word). Block types 0 through 127

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EZNEC User Manual are standard and reserved. Programs may use types 128 through 255 for special purposes, but block length must always follow block type so that file parsers can skip over the block. Blocks may appear in any order. The following standard blocks are defined: NOP Block Block type byte (0) Block length word Rest of block Block type 0 is a no operation block. Its purpose is to provide a standard ignore me block. Normally this block isn't used, but it may be convenient when patching a file. Block length is the total length of the block in bytes. Block lengths less than 3 are invalid. Relative Far Field Blocks Block type byte (1 16) Block length word Title length byte Environment length byte Notes length word Frequency FP Plane byte Plane angle FP Symmetry byte Number of points word First angle FP Angular increment FP Data points each FP Title ASCII Environment ASCII Notes ASCII Block types 1 16 contain planar cuts of relative far field data as follows: Block Data Units 1 Total magnitude dBi 2 Horizontal magnitude dBi 3 Vertical magnitude dBi 4 Right circular magnitude dBic 5 Left circular magnitude dBic 6 Major axis magnitude dBi 7 Minor axis magnitude dBi 8 Ellipticity dB 9 Total phase degrees 10 Horizontal phase degrees 11 Vertical phase degrees 12 Right circular phase degrees 160

Reference 13 Left circular phase degrees 14 Major axis phase degrees 15 Minor axis phase degrees 16 Polarization tilt degrees Ellipticity is the length of the minor axis of the polarization ellipse divided by the length of the major axis expressed in dB (the IEEE 754 1985 floating point code for infinity is valid). Polarization tilt is the counterclockwise angle between the major axis and the E(theta) direction. Block Length This field is the total length of the block in bytes. Block lengths less than 3 are invalid. Title, Environment, and Notes Lengths These fields specify the lengths of the ASCII strings in bytes. Zero is valid. Frequency Frequency is in MHz. Plane This byte is 0 for azimuth data (constant zenith angle) and 1 for elevation data (constant azimuth angle). Other values are reserved. Plane Angle This field is the zenith angle for azimuth data and the azimuth angle for elevation data. Symmetry The bits of this byte have the following meaning when set: Bit Azimuth Data Elevation Data 0 X symmetry XY symmetry 1 Y symmetry Z symmetry Symmetry means that the data has the same value when reflected about the line or plane indicated. For azimuth data, bits 0 and 1 refer to the X and Y axes. For elevation data, they refer to the XY plane and the Z axis. Both bits may be set simultaneously. Bits 2 7 are reserved. Number of Points This field is the number of data points that follow. 0 is valid. First Angle This field is the angle of the first data point. Angular Increment This field defines the sign and magnitude of the angular difference between successive data points. Data Points

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EZNEC User Manual The data set begins at the first angle. The angles of successive data samples differ by the angular increment. Title, Environment, and Notes Strings When string length is nonzero, the string overrides the corresponding header string for this block. When zero, the header string applies for this block and no string space is allocated. Absolute Near and Far Field Blocks Block type byte (64 81 & 96 101) Block length word Title length byte Environment length byte Notes length word Frequency FP Power FP Coordinate system byte Symmetry byte Number of A points word First A FP A increment FP Number of B points word First B FP B increment FP Number of C points word First C FP C increment FP Data points each FP Title ASCII Environment ASCII Notes ASCII Block types 64 81 contain absolute fields. Block types 67 81 are field components resolved in rectangular coordinates. These blocks are defined as follows: Block Data Units 64 Power density watts/square meter 65 Peak E magnitude volts/meter 66 Peak H magnitude amps/meter 67 Px Poynting vector watts/square meter 68 Py Poynting vector watts/square meter 69 Pz Poynting vector watts/square meter 70 Ex magnitude volts/meter 71 Ey magnitude volts/meter 72 Ez magnitude volts/meter 73 Hx magnitude amps/meter 162

Reference 74 Hy magnitude amps/meter 75 Hz magnitude amps/meter 76 Ex phase degrees 77 Ey phase degrees 78 Ez phase degrees 79 Hx phase degrees 80 Hy phase degrees 81 Hz phase degrees Block types 96 101 contain absolute electric field components resolved in spherical coordinates as follows: Block Data Units 96 E(R) magnitude volts/meter 97 E(phi) magnitude volts/meter 98 E(theta) magnitude volts/meter 99 E(R) phase degrees 100 E(phi) phase degrees 101 E(theta) phase degrees Use block type 65 for peak E magnitude. Block Length, String Lengths, and Frequency These fields are the same as for relative far field blocks. Power This field is antenna input power in watts. Coordinate System This byte specifies the coordinate system used to locate data points (it does not specify the coordinate system used to resolve field components). The byte is 0 for rectangular coordinates, 1 for spherical coordinates, and 2 for cylindrical coordinates. Other values are reserved. Coordinates are defined as follows: Coordinate System A B C 0 Rectangular X Y Z 1 Spherical R phi theta 2 Cylindrical rho phi z Symmetry The low order bits of this byte have the following meaning when set: Bit Meaning 0 A coordinate symmetry 1 B coordinate symmetry 2 C coordinate symmetry Here, symmetry means that the data has the same value when the coordinate is negated (this definition is not the same as that for relative fields). Any of the bits may be set simultaneously. Bits 3 7 are reserved. Number of A, B, or C points

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EZNEC User Manual These fields specify the number of points for each coordinate. 0 is invalid. The total number of data points is the product of A, B, and C. For rectangular coordinates, the field is computed over a point, line, rectangular surface, or rectangular volume. For spherical coordinates, the field is computed over a point, line, circle, disc, spherical surface, spheroid, or portion thereof. For cylindrical coordinates, the field is computed over a point, line, circle, disc, cylindrical surface, cylindrical volume, or portion thereof. First A, B, and C These fields specify the starting values of each coordinate. A, B, and C Increments These fields define the sign and magnitude of the difference between successive coordinate values. Data Points Points are ordered as follows: A cycles from first to last, then B, and finally C. The coordinate values of successive data samples differ by the A, B, or C increments. Title, Environment, and Notes Strings These fields are the same as for relative far field blocks.

Smith Chart Programs

MicroSmith MicroSmith, by Wes Hayward, W7ZOI is a DOS-based program which allows you to view impedances on a Smith chart. With its aid, impedance matching networks can be designed. EZNEC is able, in its Frequency Sweep mode, to write files for direct input of source impedance data to MicroSmith. MicroSmith was published by the American Radio Relay League, but is no longer available. I suggest winSMITH as a currently available substitute. Note: MicroSmith v. 2.000B and earlier permit no more than 8 frequency steps in a .DAT file (for frequency dependent loads), while later versions allow 100. EZNEC can be set to limit the number of MicroSmith .DAT file steps to either 8 or 100. See the MaxMSFreqs option in Special Options for information about how to set this limit. winSMITH At the time of this writing, winSMITH is available from Scitech publishing (http://www.scitechpub.com/WinSmith.htm).

Input File Formats

Frequency Sweep Input File The frequency sweep input file contains a list of frequencies to be used for the frequency sweep. Its name is specified in the Control Center Setups menu, Frequency Sweep selection.

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Reference Frequencies are in megahertz (MHz), and consist only of numbers. They may be in any order and do not have to be equally spaced. (They will be sorted in increasing order for display.) Frequencies must be separated by spaces, carriage returns, or a combination of these. If your regional decimal separator is a period (.) and not a comma (,), a comma may also be used as a separator, alone or in combination with spaces or carriage returns. Any line not beginning with a number is considered to be a comment, and ignored. They may be entered anywhere in the list. Entries of zero, or empty fields, are ignored. A negative entry will terminate reading of the file, so that only values preceding the negative entry will be used. This is a convenient way to limit processing to only the first part of a lengthy list. Wire Coordinate File The wire coordinate file is used for importing wire coordinates via the Wires Window or the Control Center, by choosing Import Wire Coordinates from ASCII File in the File menu. The plus and pro program types permit two different file formats; the standard type permits only the first one described below. FIRST FORMAT TYPE: ALL PROGRAM TYPES. The ASCII import file consists of an optional line defining the units to be used for coordinates and diameter, followed by one line per wire giving the end coordinates, diameter, and, optionally, number of segments. Comments may appear anywhere in the file. Tabs, spaces, commas, or any combination may be used as delimiters. The optional units specification is done on one line and must precede all wire definitions. If absent, wire coordinates and diameters are assumed to be in meters. Wire definitions consist of end 1 coordinates, end 2 coordinates, and diameter. If desired, the number of segments can be added as an eighth field. If the segment field isn't included, the wire will be automatically segmented using the "conservative" criterion. The file is case-insensitive. Blank lines, and any text on a line following a semicolon will be ignored. Blanks, tabs, or any combination can be used as delimiters (separators between fields or individual specifications). Commas can be used as delimiters only if your decimal separator is not a comma. Number format must correspond to your Windows regional setting. That is, if you normally write one-and-one-half 1,5', then it must be written that way in this file. Imported wires can be used to add to or replace an existing definition. Example 1 (for the U.S. and other regions having a period as the decimal separator):

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EZNEC User Manual This is the wire configuration for the 4-square array of example description file 4SQUARE.EZ. Note that a complete antenna description must also include sources, which must be added from within EZNEC. ; Example file for EZNEC wire importing: four square array. ; ONLY FOR REGIONS WITH PERIOD DECIMAL SEPARATOR. ; NOTE that wire import files don't contain sources or information other than wires. ; To actually make a 4-square array with the information from this file ; requires specification of sources, frequency, ground type, etc. ; The first non-comment line is the units specifier. This will cause: ; -- Program UNITS to be changed to FEET ; -- Wire coordinates to be interpreted as being in feet ; -- Wire diameter to be interpreted as being in inches ft in ; Next are the wire specifiers. Spaces, commas, and tabs are used in this example ; as delimiters to illustrate the flexibility available. As this file is written, these ; wires will be automatically segmented using "conservative" ; density. If desired, an additional field could be added to any line to cause ; "minimum" recommended density, or a specific number of segments. ; The first three numbers are the end 1 coordinates (in feet because of ; the first unit specifier above). The next three are the end 2 coordinates ; (ft). The seventh number is the diameter (in inches because of the ; second unit specifier). 0,0,0 0 0 32.75 1.5 0 34.42 0 0 34.42 32.75 1.5 34.42, 0 0 34.42 0 32.75, 1.5 34.42 34.42 0 34.42,34.42 32.75 1.5 ; Normally the wire specifications would be written to be easier to read. ; The above format was chosen to illustrate the flexibility available in ; choosing field delimiters. Example 2 (for regions having a comma as the decimal separator): This is the wire configuration for the 4-square array of example description file 4SQUARE.EZ. Note that a complete antenna description must also include sources, which must be added from within EZNEC. ; Example file for EZNEC wire importing: four square array. ; ONLY FOR REGIONS WITH COMMA DECIMAL SEPARATOR. ; NOTE that wire import files don't contain sources or information other than wires. ; To actually make a 4-square array with the information from this file ; requires specification of sources, frequency, ground type, etc. ; The first non-comment line is the units specifier. This will cause: ; -- Program UNITS to be changed to METERS ; -- Wire coordinates to be interpreted as being in meters ; -- Wire diameter to be interpreted as being in millimeters

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Reference m mm ; Next are the wire specifiers. Only spaces or tabs are used in this example ; as delimiters to separate fields. Commas are not allowed as field delimiters ; in regions where a comma is used as the decimal separator. As this ; file is written, these wires will be automatically segmented using "conservative" ; density. If desired, an additional field could be added to any line to cause ; "minimum" recommended density, or a specific number of segments. ; The first three numbers are the end 1 coordinates (in meters because of ; the first unit specifier above). The next three are the end 2 coordinates ; (meters). The seventh number is the diameter (in mm because of the ; second unit specifier). 0 0 0 0 0 9,9822 38,1 0 10,4912 0 0 10,4912 9,9822 38,1 10,4912 0 0 10,4912 0 9,9822 38,1 10,4912 10,4912 0 10,4912 10,4912 9,9822 38,1 ; Normally the wire specifications would be written to be easier to read. ; The above format was chosen to illustrate the flexibility available in ; choosing field delimiters. Complete Rules for Wire Files Used for Importing with the first format type General: No distinction is made between upper and lower case letters. A semicolon (;) and anything to its right on a line will be ignored. Blank lines will be ignored. Spaces, tabs, or combination may be used as delimiters. Commas may be used in regions (such as the U.S.) where a comma is not the decimal separator. There are two types of specifications: wires and (optional) units. Units specification line (optional) must precede all wire specifications. Text fields (only) can be surrounded by quotation marks (" "). These are coordinate units, diameter units, wire diameter specified as wire gauge, and "M" specifying minimum segmentation. Quotation marks are not required for any field. The user will be given the choice of adding the wires to the existing description or replacing the existing description with the wires. Units Specifications: Zero, one or two unit specifiers may be included. Unit specifiers must precede all wire specifications. If two specifiers are given, they must appear on the same line and be separated by a valid delimiter. The first unit specifier is the coordinate unit specification. It will modify the EZNEC UNITS selection, and wire coordinates in the import file will be interpreted as being in the specified units. If the units specifier line is absent, all coordinates and diameters will be interpreted as being in meters. The second unit specifier (optional) is the diameter specification. Wire diameters will be interpreted as being in these units. The units used by the program for wire diameter may be different than, and will not be determined or changed by, this

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EZNEC User Manual specification. (For example, if both the coordinate and diameter units specifications are feet, EZNEC will change its UNITS to feet. If a diameter is given in the import file as 0.5, it will be interpreted by EZNEC as having a diameter of 0.5 feet. However, EZNEC shows diameters in inches when UNITS are feet, so after importing, the wire will show up in EZNEC as having a diameter of 6 inches.) If no diameter unit specifier is given, wire diameters will be interpreted as being in the same units as the end coordinates. Only the first two letters of each specifier is read. They are interpreted as follows: M or ME - meters (If M is used alone, it must not be followed by any other character, including a period.) MI or MM - millimeters FT or FE - feet IN - inches WA or WL- wavelengths Wire Specifications: Wire specifications must have at least 7 fields. Fields are end 1 x, y, z coordinates; end 2 x, y, z coordinates; diameter; and, optionally in an eighth field, number of segments. See below for more information about the segment field. Wires having zero length or diameter will be rejected. Coordinates are interpreted as being in the units specified by the first unit specifier. If no unit specifiers are given, they will be interpreted as being in meters, not in the units currently being used by the program. Diameters are interpreted as being in the units specified by the second unit specifier. If no second unit specifier is present, they will be interpreted as being in the same units as the end coordinates. The diameter of any wire may be given as AWG wire size, using #n where n is an integer > 0. (n can have more than one digit.) The optional segmentation field can contain the number of segments for the wire or the letter "M". "M" will result in minimum-recommended count automatic segmentation for the wire. If the segmentation field is blank, or contains any other non-numeric value, zero, or a negative number, the wire will be automatically segmented using "conservative" criteria. Fields beyond the eighth will be ignored. SECOND FORMAT TYPE: EZNEC+, EZNEC PRO ONLY This format is provided to allow easy importing of wire coordinates from an NEC input file. Only GW lines are read. EZNEC will assume this format if it finds any line in the file beginning with GW. The standard NEC format is required: GW followed by the tag (ignored), number of segments, end coordinates, and radius (not diameter). No fields are optional, and U.S. format is required. If any line is found beginning with "GW", the file is assumed as being GW format, and all other lines in the file, including dimension specifications, are ignored, and all values are assumed to be meters. Comments can follow the data on the line by preceding the comment with an exclamation point. This format enables importing wires (only) directly from an NEC file, or

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Reference from GW lines cut and pasted from one. Note that EZNEC pro programs allow direct reading of NEC format files, including most of the other "card" types, so this method of input isn't usually necessary.

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Legal Notices
Legal Disclaimer
The licensee ("Licensee" or "User") acknowledges that the reliability of any and all results produced by this software are not precise and are subject to significant levels of variability. Licensee further acknowledges that the reliability of results can be affected by a multitude of factors, including the type of antenna used, whether it is used in an urban environment, surrounding objects, ground conductivity conditions, and the experience and skill of Licensee in using computer modeling techniques. Licensee specifically acknowledges that this software CANNOT BE USED TO tell User whether (1) the amount of electromagnetic energy being emitted from User's antenna is unsafe to User, User's family, User's neighbors or anyone else in proximity to User's antenna; (2) Licensee's antenna subjects Licensee or any other persons to potentially hazardous electromagnetic exposure. Licensor, therefore, makes no warranties that this software provides any information regarding human safety or whether exposure hazardous to humans may result from use of Licensee's antenna; Licensee acknowledges he or she is not relying on this software to determine whether User's antenna is safe or subjects any persons to hazardous or potentially hazardous exposures of electromagnetic energy. LICENSOR HEREBY DISCLAIMS ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. LICENSOR'S LIABILITY UNDER OR FOR BREACH OF THIS AGREEMENT SHALL BE LIMITED TO REFUNDING THE LICENSE FEE PAID BY LICENSEE. IN NO EVENT SHALL LICENSOR BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, HOWEVER CAUSED, WHETHER FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY, NEGLIGENCE, CONTRACT, TORT (INCLUDING STRICT LIABILITY) OR OTHERWISE, OR FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR FOR PROPERTY DAMAGE. BY USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, LICENSEE HEREBY ACKNOWLEDGES AND AGREES THAT HE OR SHE WILL BE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY INJURIES ARISING OUT OF OR RELATING TO ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY EMITTING FROM USER'S RADIO ANTENNA. USER WILL INDEPENDENTLY SATISFY HIMSELF/HERSELF THAT USER'S RADIO ANTENNA DOES NOT EXPOSE ANY PERSONS TO HAZARDOUS LEVELS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY AND DOES NOT SUBJECT ANY PERSONS TO UNSAFE CONDITIONS. USER WILL DEFEND, INDEMNIFY, AND HOLD LICENSOR HARMLESS FROM ANY AND ALL CLAIMS RELATING TO ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY EMITTED FROM USER'S ANTENNA INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, CLAIMS THAT THE LEVEL OF SUCH EMISSIONS IS UNSAFE. LICENSEE RELEASES LICENSOR FROM ANY CLAIMS RELATING TO THE INABILITY OF THIS SOFTWARE TO DETERMINE WHETHER LEVELS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY COMING FROM LICENSEE'S ANTENNA ARE HAZARDOUS OR UNSAFE TO ANY HUMAN BEINGS.

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Legal Notices

License Agreement SINGLE USE SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT

By using the software, the user agrees to the following terms and conditions. Ownership. All ownership of this software is reserved to Roy W. Lewallen ("Licensor"). No title to or ownership of any software or any parts thereof is transferred by any delivery of this software. The use of the software enclosed with this License Agreement conclusively establishes Licensee's agreement with all the terms and conditions hereof. Limitation of Liability. Licensor's liability under this Agreement shall be limited to a refund of the price paid by Licensee for the use of such program. Licensor will not be liable for any property damage, personal injury, loss of use, interruption of business, or other special, incidental, or consequential damages, however caused, whether for breach of warranty, contract, tort (including negligence), strict liability or otherwise. Exclusion of Warranties. Licensor excludes all warranties, express or implied, including, without limitation, warranty of fitness for a particular purpose. Licensor's sole warrantee is as follows: For a period of ninety (90) days following delivery, the Licensor will refund the full purchase price upon notification that the Licensee is not completely satisfied with the program and upon receipt by the Licensor of all hardware keys furnished with the program. Except as stated in the previous sentence, licensor does not warrant that the functions contained in the program will meet the licensee's requirements. Licensor makes no other warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. Use of Licensed Software. Licensor is licensing Licensee to use the software as a single user. No use of this software may be made on a company or location basis including, without limitation, local area networks. Modification/Copies. Licensee may make copies of the licensed program, but no more than one copy per license may be used at any one time. Any modification of this licensed software program by Licensee shall remain subject to all terms and conditions of this Agreement and shall remain the sole property of Licensor; all derivative works shall remain the property of Licensor. Protection. During the term of this Agreement, or thereafter, in the event Licensee uses or conveys, or attempts to use or convey, the licensed program, manual, and/or technical documentation or any duplication or modification thereof, in a manner contrary to the terms of this Agreement, Licensor shall be entitled to an injunction to be issued by any court of equity in joining and restraining Licensee from continuing said violation, in addition to any damage suffered by Licensor. The provisions of this section shall survive any termination of this agreement. General Terms. The prevailing party in any legal action brought under this Agreement shall be entitled to reimbursement for reasonable attorney's fees at trial, on appeal and on any petition for review. Miscellaneous. This instrument contains the entire agreement between the parties respecting its subject matter and may only be modified in a writing signed by Licensor and Licensee. This agreement is governed by the laws of Oregon.

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EZNEC User Manual Any legal action arising out of this Agreement shall be prosecuted in Oregon. Licensee submits to the jurisdiction of the courts of Multnomah County, Oregon. No waiver by Licensor of any violation or nonperformance by Licensee shall be deemed to be a waiver of any subsequent violation or nonperformance. All waivers must be in writing. In the event any of the provisions of this License Agreement are invalid under any applicable statute or rule of law, those provisions or portions thereof are to that extent deemed to be omitted, or shall be interpreted, if possible, to comply with such statute or rule of law.

Copyright and Trademark Notice

All EZNEC program types including EZNEC, EZNEC+, EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4 and their manuals, both printed and on-line help, are copyright 2000-2007 by Roy W. Lewallen. All rights are reserved. EZNEC is a registered trademark of Roy W. Lewallen. All rights are reserved.

NEC-4 Notices
EZNEC Pro/4 may use a modified version of NEC-4.1 for calculations. The following warning and notice apply to the portion of that program derived from NEC-4.1. Read the following important messages before using. *********** WARNING ********** The NEC-4.1 code is subject to export restrictions under Department of Commerce regulations EAR99 (15 CFR Parts 730-774). *********** NOTICE ********** The NEC-4.1 computer code material was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor the University of California nor any of their employees makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately-owned rights.

Third Party Software Legal Notices

vbAccelerator
All EZNEC program types beginning with v. 4.0.9 incorporate code generously provided free of charge by vbAccelerator. The following information constitutes the license agreement for use of that software: vbAccelerator code and binaries are provided for your reuse in any of your projects, whether proprietary, commercial or open-source. This document details vbAccelerator's Open Source software licence. vbAccelerator Software License Version 1.0 Copyright (c) 2002 vbAccelerator.com Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

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Legal Notices 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The end-user documentation included with the redistribution, if any, must include the following acknowledgment: "This product includes software developed by vbAccelerator (http://vbaccelerator.com/)." Alternately, this acknowledgment may appear in the software itself, if and wherever such third-party acknowledgments normally appear. 4. The names "vbAccelerator" and "vbAccelerator.com" must not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without prior written permission. For written permission, please contact vbAccelerator through [email protected]. 5. Products derived from this software may not be called "vbAccelerator", nor may "vbAccelerator" appear in their name, without prior written permission of vbAccelerator. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL VBACCELERATOR OR ITS CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

Info-ZIP
All EZNEC program types beginning with v. 4.0.14 make use of unzip32.dll, and zip32.dll beginning with v. 5.0.0, both generously provided free of charge by InfoZIP. The following information constitutes the license agreement for use of that software: This is version 2004-May-22 of the Info-ZIP copyright and license. The definitive version of this document should be available at ftp://ftp.infozip.org/pub/infozip/license.html indefinitely. Copyright (c) 1990-2004 Info-ZIP. All rights reserved. For the purposes of this copyright and license, "Info-ZIP" is defined as the following set of individuals: Mark Adler, John Bush, Karl Davis, Harald Denker, Jean-Michel Dubois, Jean-loup Gailly, Hunter Goatley, Ian Gorman, Chris Herborth, Dirk Haase, Greg Hartwig, Robert Heath, Jonathan Hudson, Paul Kienitz,

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EZNEC User Manual David Kirschbaum, Johnny Lee, Onno van der Linden, Igor Mandrichenko, Steve P. Miller, Sergio Monesi, Keith Owens, George Petrov, Greg Roelofs, Kai Uwe Rommel, Steve Salisbury, Dave Smith, Christian Spieler, Antoine Verheijen, Paul von Behren, Rich Wales, Mike White This software is provided "as is," without warranty of any kind, express or implied. In no event shall Info-ZIP or its contributors be held liable for any direct, indirect, incidental, special or consequential damages arising out of the use of or inability to use this software. Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to the following restrictions: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, definition, disclaimer, and this list of conditions. 2. Redistributions in binary form (compiled executables) must reproduce the above copyright notice, definition, disclaimer, and this list of conditions in documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. The sole exception to this condition is redistribution of a standard UnZipSFX binary (including SFXWiz) as part of a self-extracting archive; that is permitted without inclusion of this license, as long as the normal SFX banner has not been removed from the binary or disabled. 3. Altered versions--including, but not limited to, ports to new operating systems, existing ports with new graphical interfaces, and dynamic, shared, or static library versions--must be plainly marked as such and must not be misrepresented as being the original source. Such altered versions also must not be misrepresented as being Info-ZIP releases-including, but not limited to, labeling of the altered versions with the names "Info-ZIP" (or any variation thereof, including, but not limited to, different capitalizations), "Pocket UnZip," "WiZ" or "MacZip" without the explicit permission of Info-ZIP. Such altered versions are further prohibited from misrepresentative use of the Zip-Bugs or Info-ZIP e-mail addresses or of the Info-ZIP URL(s). 4. Info-ZIP retains the right to use the names "Info-ZIP," "Zip," "UnZip," "UnZipSFX," "WiZ," "Pocket UnZip," "Pocket Zip," and "MacZip" for its own source and binary releases.

Scintilla
All EZNEC program types beginning with v. 5.0.26 make use of the Scintilla editor (SciLexer.dll), generously provided free of charge by Neil Hodgson. The following information constitutes the license agreement for use of that software: License for Scintilla and SciTE Copyright 1998-2003 by Neil Hodgson <[email protected]> All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation.

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Legal Notices NEIL HODGSON DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL NEIL HODGSON BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

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Support
Updates (Maintenance Releases)
Updates to EZNEC and EZNEC+ (but not EZNEC Pro programs EZNEC Pro/2 and EZNEC Pro/4) and the manual are posted at http://eznec.com/ez50updates as they're developed. EZNEC Pro users will find the update URL on the CD label. Please check the appropriate URL periodically to keep your program up to date. These aren't upgrades to new versions, but include fixes for bugs as they're found, and improvements to the manual. Up-to-date information about your program will be posted there or elsewhere at http://eznec.com.

Reporting bugs
Have you checked lately for updates? A bug might have already been found and fixed. Please see the Updates section for information. Although EZNEC has been extensively tested, there are bound to be bugs remaining. If you encounter one and report it, I'll fix the bug as quickly as possible and send you a replacement program. However, Windows is a complex environment, and it can sometimes be very difficult to determine the exact sequence of events leading to a crash or other problem, so your help is essential. The key to fixing a bug lies in being able to make it occur. If I can make it happen, I can fix it. If I can't make it happen, it's usually virtually impossible to infer the cause. In the Windows environment, a problem can occur only when certain windows overlap in a particular way or in a particular order, or only when certain windows are open. So it's important to get as much detailed information as possible about the state of the program when the problem occurs. The following information is very important, so please include as much of it as you can in your report: 1. Error messages. Please record the exact wording of the error message, and the title on the colored bar at the top. (The title helps determine what generated the message.) Often, some or all of the program's windows remain on the screen while the error message is being displayed. So this gives you an opportunity to record what forms (windows) are open, their approximate sizes, and where they're positioned. Of course, some bugs won't generate an error message. If it doesn't, that's useful information in itself, so please include it. 2. What you were doing, in as great detail as you can remember, when the error occurred. This includes not only the very last action, but as much as you can recall of the events which led up to it. 3. Is it repeatable? This is essential information. A repeatable error is very much easier to find than one which isn't. Please try to begin exactly as you did and follow as closely as possible the sequence of operations you performed, and see if you can make it happen again. If so, please record the sequence. Note that some errors depend on which windows are open, and sometimes even which windows are overlapping, so this information can be important also. 176

Support 4. Does it happen only with a particular antenna description or descriptions? If so, please attach the .EZ file to an email message and send it to me. 5. If there was anything new, different, or unusual you were doing. Please see How to Contact Me for information about where and how to send your report. Thanks for your help!

How to Contact Me
The best method of contacting me is email, but other means might be better for you. Email: [email protected] Phone: 503-646-2885 Fax: 503-671-9046 Mail: Roy Lewallen P.O. Box 6658 Beaverton, OR 97007 U.S.A.

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Index
A Advanced Wire Features Introduction ....................................................49 Amateur or Professional?.................5 C CM ...............................................102 Control Center.................................... Menus.......................................118 Copy Protection................................4 Copyright Notice...........................172 Currents Table...............................97 D dBsw...............................................69 Description File................................... Combining (adding)..................104 E Edit Menu.....................................119 EZNEC Pro Section Note.............138 EZNEC Pro Users..........................15 F Font.................................................... Substitution...............................104 Frequency Sweep Input File.............. Format......................................164 G Graphics Windows Overview.......129 Ground............................................... Connecting Sources...................72 Group Modify................................110 Guarantee........................................5 H Helix Creation.................................50 Help.................................................... Context sensitive..........................8 Help Menu....................................126 High Accuracy Ground...................54 I If You Downloaded EZNEC...........14 Introduction to Modeling.................36 L L Networks Window........................... Using...........................................87 LastZ.txt file..................................153 Legal Disclaimers.........................170 Load.................................................... Connection..................................74 Parallel Connected...................153 Load Data.......................................98 Loading Coils..................................75 Loads Window................................73 Loop Creation.................................49 Loop Resizing.................................49 M Manual............................................14 Models............................................36 N Near Field Table.............................99 NEC Radial Model..........................93 NEC-4................................................. Double precision calculating engine...................................145 NEC-4 Notices.............................172 Networks............................................ L Networks..................................86 O Observation Height......................109 P Patches........................................139 pf Format Files.............................157 pf Format Files................................... Conversion to Graphics Format ..............................................132 Phased Arrays................................58 Placing Loads At Wire Junctions. . .75 Plane Wave Excitation...................67 Specifying...................................67 With a Ground Plane..................68 Plot Window.................................129 Polarization......................................... Circular.......................................99 Printing The Manual.......................15 Program Version Compatibility......16 R Radials............................................... Creating......................................49 Real Ground Models......................89 Limitations...................................92 Reinstalling EZNEC.....................152

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Index RLC Load Type........................74, 76 S Scaling To a New Frequency.......112 Segmentation Check....................103 Segments.................................56, 58 Segments........................................... Specifying number of..................40 Selection buttons..........................117 Setups..........................................125 Setups................................................ Near field analysis....................110 SINGLE USE SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT...........................171 Small Loops....................................58 Smith Chart Programs........................ MicroSmith................................164 Source Placement..........................55 Source Types.................................65 Sources..........................................71 Sources.............................................. Using...........................................64 Sources Window................................ Using...........................................66 Split Source....................................71 Starting EZNEC..............................15 Step Size................................69, 100 Stepped Diameter Correction........57 Support............................................... How to contact me....................177 Reporting bugs.........................176 SWR...............................................98 SWR Graph..................................115 T Taper Segs...................................113 Templates.......................................37 Test Drive........................................... Along The Straightaway.............17 On The Race Course..................27 Test Drive Introduction...................17 The Laplace Loads Window...........78 The NEC Radial Model..................95 The R + j X Loads Window............76 Thousands separator.......................6 Through The Curves......................22 TraceView............................115, 125 Transformers............................30, 84 Transformers Window........................ Using...........................................85 Transmission Lines..................57, 73 About..........................................79 Coaxial cable..............................83 Loss............................................82 Trap Type RLC Loads....................77 Traps..............................................75 U Undo/Redo...................................116 Updates (Maintenance Releases)176 Using An External NEC-4 Engine (EZNEC/4 Only)........................147 Using Multiple Sources..................72 Using The 2D Display..................135 Using The 3D Display..................137 Using the Stepped Diameter Correction Display......................53 Using The SWR Display...............138 Using Two Ground Media..............93 V vbAccelerator...........................2, 172 Velocity Factor................................80 Version Numbers.........................125 Vertical Antennas And Buried Radials........................................60 View Antenna Display........................ Objects......................................130 Opening....................................128 Virtual RAM..................143, 145, 151 Virtual Segment......................62, 116 VOACAP Files..............................111 W What Was New in v. 4.0.................10 What's New In v. 5.0........................8 Windows............................................. Basic operation.............................1 winSMITH........................................... Maximum frequency steps......105, 164 Wire Coordinates...........................44 Importing from ASCII file....48, 165 Printing......................................125 Wire Grid Creation............................. And Segmentation Check Warnings...............................114

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EZNEC User Manual Wire Grid Modeling..................50, 61 Wire Insulation...............................47 Wire loss.........................................46 Evaluating with Average Gain. .103 Wire Numbers.................................... Default settings.................119, 155 Wire spacing...................................54 Wires.................................................. Connecting to ground...........90, 94 Diameter.....................................37 Importing from ASCII file..........118 Intersecting.................................48 Intersecting at an acute angle....53 Selecting...................................132 Wires Window.................................... Using...........................................41 Working With NEC Format Files. .140 Y Y Parameter Networks...................88 Y Parameter Networks Window......... Using...........................................88 Yagi................................................51 Stacked.......................................59 Yagi Antennas........................62, 115 Z Z0....................................................... Specifying alternate value for SWR ..............................................126 ZoneAlarm....................................150

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