PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

LEARNING
MODULE 01:
Earth’s
Atmosphere

AMT 3103 - FUNDAMENTALS OF

AERODYNAMICS

Prepared by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
The Atmosphere 2 5
Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas 6
The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces 9
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 9
The Standard Atmosphere 11
Definition of Altitude 1 11
Hydrostatic Equation 12
Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes 13
Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 13
Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes. 16

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time

The Atmosphere 15 mins
Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas 25 mins
The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces 5 mins
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 15 mins
The Standard Atmosphere 5 mins
Definition of Altitude 5 mins
Hydrostatic Equation 12 mins
Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 23 mins
Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes. 5 mins
Activities
Review Questions – A: 1 hour
Review Questions – B: 1 hour
Video Materials
Online Meeting, Pre-recorded Videos, etc. 2 hours
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXf39bQH6iE 16 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yldFcm5oVmA 7 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZwL_qMuDig 11 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQTzNeUUh00 9 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9i810jvvk10 2 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oxx0Y-ko0uA 6 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThdDxTdJUnc 11 mins
Others
Quiz 2 hours

-Watch the Youtube Video links and read other references given above as a supplement material for
the topics in this module.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
th
Anderson, Jr., J. (2005). Introduction to Flight (5 Edition). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill
1
Earth's Atmosphere. (2020, September 16). Retrieved from
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/atmosphere/
2
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th ed.). 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY
3

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Reference
Clip Art: Atmosphere Layers Labeled. (2020). Retrieved from
1 B&Whttps://www.abcteach.com/documents/clip-art-atmosphere-layers-
labeled-bw-i-abcteachcom-43435
Guided Flight Discovery (2013). Private Pilot. Englewood, CO:
6
Jeppesen Sanderson.
Anderson, Jr., J. (2005). Introduction to Flight (5th Edition). New York,
2-5; 7-10
NY: McGraw-Hill

HONESTY CLAUSE

The students are expected to accept and maintain standard of intellectual and
academic honesty as members of the academic community. The State College believes that
the students should be truthful as a basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic
matters, and that they must make their own endeavors to submit the materials for credit.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes

[CLO]
Module Learning Outcomes
CLO 1: Valuing the study of
aerodynamics and its application [MLO]
on the aviation industry; Topic Learning Outcomes
MLO 1. Develop deep [TLO]
CLO 2: Apply the principles of understanding about relationship
moving air and identify its effect of fundamental physical TLO 1. Distinguish composition
on aircraft flight and quantities of a gas through an of the
performance; equation. atmosphere by definition and
CLO 3: Evaluate forces acting MLO 2. Differentiate the types of diagram.
along flight by utilizing altitudes involved in the TLO 2. Identify the major
aerodynamic equations; Standard Atmosphere through physical quantities used on the
CLO 5: Solve for the different problem solving. study of aerodynamics through
types of air properties under discussion.
different regime of airflow TLO 3. Formulate the equation
of state in aerodynamics through
derivation.
TLO 4. Identify the sources of
aerodynamic forces as detailed
in the module.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

The Atmosphere
The atmosphere on Earth is identical to that of a jacket on our world. It surrounds our
world, keeps us safe, gives us breathing oxygen, and that's where our weather happens. There
are five layers of the Earth's atmosphere: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere.

Figure 1

Troposhere
We have the troposphere, the nearest to the Earth's atmosphere. The meaning of
"Tropos" is change. This layer gets its name from the weather in this part of our atmosphere
which is constantly changing and mixing the gasses.
Depending on where you are on Earth the troposphere is between 5 and 9 miles (8
and 14 kilometers) high. At the North and South Pole, it is the thinnest.
This layer contains the air that we breathe, and the clouds in the sky. In its lowest layer,
the air is the densest. The troposphere in addition includes three quarters of the whole
atmosphere 's mass. The air here has nitrogen at 78 percent and oxygen at 21 percent. Argon,
water vapor, and carbon dioxide make up the remaining 1 percent.
You are feeling the troposphere as you feel the wind on your skin, see clouds in the
sky, and see a bird flap their wings in flight. Calling this layer our home is a pretty nice.
Stratosphere
We have the stratosphere above the troposphere and under the mesosphere. The
meaning of "Strat" is layer. This atmosphere layer has its own collection of layers. Here there
are no hurricanes or disturbances mixing up the air, so cold, heavy air is at the bottom and
warm, light air at the top. That is the opposite of how the troposphere layers work, where we
live. If you were to climb a stratosphere peak, you would have to take off your warm clothes
when you got closer to the top instead of putting them on like we normally do. But there aren't
high enough mountains to hit the stratosphere so you don't have to think about that.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
This layer is 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick. The stratosphere is where you can find the
ozone layer, which is very valuable. The ozone layer helps protect us from the sun against
ultraviolet radiation (UV). The ozone layer naturally blocks much of the sun's UV radiation that
it gives us. Without this layer of protection, it would not be possible for life as we know it.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere is in between the stratosphere and the thermosphere. "Meso" means
middle, and this is the highest atmospheric layer in which the gases are all mixed together
instead of being separated by their mass.
The mesosphere is 35 kilometers (22 miles) wide. The air is still thin so in the
mesosphere you will not be able to breathe. But in this layer, there is more gas than out there
in the thermosphere.
Have you ever seen a shower of meteors, where meteors fire and fly through the sky?
Some people refer to them as shooting stars. In the mesosphere, those meteors burning up.
The meteors make it through the exosphere and thermosphere without much hassle, because
there is not much air in those layers. But when they reach the mesosphere there are ample
gasses to cause friction and heat.
Thermosphere
Across the exosphere and mesosphere is the thermosphere. "Thermo" means heat,
that can reach a temperature of up to 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit in this layer. However, if you
were to hang out in the thermosphere, you would be very cold, since there are not enough
molecules of gas to move the heat. That also means that there are not enough molecules to
pass through the sound waves.
This layer of Earth's atmosphere is about 513 km (319 miles) thick. This is much thicker
than the atmosphere's inner layers but not quite as dense as the exosphere.
As the International Space Station circles Earth, the thermosphere is their home. This
is also where you'll find satellites of low Earth orbit. In the thermosphere there is a lot
happening!
Exosphere
The exosphere is our planetary outermost layer. "Exo" means outside and is the same
term used to identify insects like grasshoppers on the outside of their body that have a hard
shell or a "exoskeleton."
The exosphere is the very outermost region of our atmosphere. This layer divides the
outer space from the rest of the atmosphere. It's about 10,000 kilometers (6,200 milles) high.
This is almost as wide as Earth itself. It's really, really big exosphere. That means you have to
be very far from Earth to get out into space.
There are gases like hydrogen and helium in the exosphere, but they are quite spread
out. Many empty spaces are in between. There is no breathable air and it is very cold.
Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas

As we all know, the science dealing with air movement or movement of any gas is
called aerodynamics and the person studying this science is called an aerodynamicist.

The analysis of flow of gases has infinite applications, especially in the aerospace
industry such as aircraft, missiles, rockets.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
The four basic quantities in the aerodynamic language are pressure, density,
temperature and velocity.

Pressure

By definition, pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the
time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on that surface.

An example for this is a hand that stretches beyond a car's window. Pressure is the
force that appears to drive the arm back in the direction of air flow (in contrast to the direction
of the car). This force per unit area on your hand is characterized as pressure that essentially
exists because the air molecules strike the surface of your hand and move some of its
momentum to the surface.

Newton/meter2 or Pascal (N/m^2 or Pa), pounds/foot2 or pounds/inches2 (psf or psi)

are the units used for pressure. Note that pressure is classified as force per unit area, however,
you don't need to have an area of 1 m2 or 1 ft2 to have pressure. We may actually define it at
a point in the gas or at a point in the surface that may differ from one point to another.

Figure 2

Imagine a volume gas shown above, and imagine somewhere on it a point B. Let us
describe dA as an incremental area around point B and dF as a force on one side of dA
because of pressure. Now we could describe pressure as:
𝑑𝐹
𝑃 = lim ( ) (𝒆𝒒. 𝟏)
𝑑𝐴 →0 𝑑
𝐴
The above equation states that P is the limiting form of force per unit area where the
area of interest at point B has shrunk to zero, so it can be seen that pressure is a point property
and can have a different value in the gas from one point to another.

Density

By definition, a substance's density, designated by ρ, is the mass of that substance per

unit volume. Kilogram/meter3 (kg/m3) and pound/feet3 (lb/ft3) are units commonly used for
density.

Density does not require an actual volume of 1 m3 or 1 ft3 in relation to the pressure,
since just like pressure it is a point property that can be described as follows, where dV is an
elemental volume around point B and dm is the mass of dV:

𝑑
𝜌= lim ( ) (𝒆𝒒. 𝟐)
𝑑𝑉 → 0 𝑚
𝑑𝑉
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

Thus, density is defined as the mass per unit volume where the observed volume has
shrunk to zero around point B where the actual density value can differ in the volume of gas
from one point to another.

Figure 3
Temperature

Visualize gas as a series of atoms and molecules in which the particles are in
continuous motion in space and collide periodically with each other. The said particles have
Kinetic Energy, because of these motions. Observing a single particle over a period of time
during which it is undergoing multiple molecular collisions, we could then calculate the
particle's average kinetic energy over the span it was observed. Consequently, the value of
the measured average kinetic energy varies with the velocity or rate at which such collisions
occur, i.e. Temperature is directly related to the average kinetic energy value.

Temperature is, by definition, a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in

the gas. Let KE be the mean molecular kinetic energy, then 𝐾𝐸 = 3 𝑘𝑇 gives temperature
2
-23
where k is the Boltzmann constant with a value of1.38 x 10 J/K.

The units used are Kelvin, Celsius, Rankine, and Fahrenheit. (K, ⁰C, ⁰R, ⁰F)

Imagine, for example, holding your hand over a flame where you're feeling warm or
hot. Looking at this molecularly, the molecules around your hand facing the flames shift faster
than the surrounding molecules to make you feel warm enough only on the side near the fire.

Velocity (Flow Velocity and Streamlines)

Velocity is a vector quantity which denotes both speed and direction. For a flowing gas,
we should understand that each region of the gas doesn't always have the same speed
because the velocity of the gas will differ from point to point in the flow. Thus, flow velocity is a
point property along with pressure, density and temperature.

Figure 4

Clearly consider an element of mass in the gas to imagine it and see it pass over time.
Its velocity will vary as it travels from the initial point to point B.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

If the flow is constant or does not fluctuate over time, it is seen that a fluid variable
traces a fixed path in space called a streamline. These streamlines offer a way to imagine the
movement of the gas on various surfaces to analyze the behavior of the air.

The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces

Visualize yourself again in a moving vehicle while holding your hand out at the
windscreen. You sense a rearward force acting on your hand as the car is traveling at a steady
speed. Why does this happen?

The source of all aerodynamic forces stems from two natural sources:

1. Pressure distribution on the surface

2. Shear stress (friction) on the surface

The pressure as stated usually works on the surface presented below, and the
magnitude of this pressure is defined by the arrow length. As shown, pressure values differ,
and this unbalance of different distributions of pressure produces aerodynamic force. The
second figure meanwhile denotes shear stress on the surface induced by the frictional effect
of the flow rubbing against it. This imbalance is creating aerodynamic forces on the body.

Figure 5

Equation of State for a Perfect Gas

In fact, there is no perfect gas. For aerodynamics, air conducts just like a perfect gas
under normal temperature and pressure conditions. This is the reason why air is considered
a perfect gas under normal conditions.

A perfect gas is, by definition, one at which intermolecular forces are negligible. In
order to explain this concept, we can look at the molecular picture of air. Since air is composed
of random motion of different particles where each particle on average is a long distance away
from its neighboring particles. It is important to remember that each of these particles has its
own field of intermolecular force induced by the ramification of the complex interaction of
electromagnetic properties of the electrons and nuclues. By default, particles that are far from

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
each other and have a strong repulsive force and particles that are too close to each other
have a weak attraction for those forces.

It is important to note that a gas's pressure and temperature are tangible amounts
directly affected by intermolecular forces, especially when the molecules are tightly packed
together.

An example would be the air around us which separates each particle on an average
of 10 molecular diameters apart. In other words, air is treated as a perfect gas because the
air particles are spaced widely enough to have a very weak attraction with each other which
gives us a negligible intermolecular force. This is also the case with the air flow over ordinary
flight vehicles at subsonic and supersonic speeds, so we can still manage a perfect gas for
calculations.

The relation among 𝑃, 𝜌, 𝑇 for a gas is called the equation of state where for a perfect
gas the equation of state is:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟑)

Where R is the specific gas constant which varies for different types of gases but for air we
have a value of
𝐽 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝑅 = 287 = 1716
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅

It is important to note that that the deviation of an actual gas in nature from perfect gas
behavior can be expressed approximately by the modified Berthelot Equation of State:
𝑃 𝑎𝑃 𝑏𝑃
= 1+ −
𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑇 𝑇3

Where the gas is constants a and b. As P decreases, and T increases, the deviations
get smaller. This makes sense in such a way that if pressure rises, the molecules get tightly
packed together making us unable to consider intermolecular forces negligible because they
do not adhere to the concept of a perfect gas. On the other side, as the temperature rises, the
molecules move faster, demonstrating a greater molecular separation making intermolecular
forces less important compared to the inertia forces encountered by each molecule that
correspond to the concept and actions of a perfect gas.

Note: Specific volume ν is the inverse of density which has a unit of volume per unit
mass. Thus we can rewrite the equation of state for a perfect gas in this manner:
𝑃𝜈 = 𝑅𝑇 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟒)

Review Questions – A:
Solve for the following problems. Show your complete solution and box your final answer.
Round off your final answer to 4 decimals places. Upload a pdf/jpeg file of your answers in the
Google Drive folder under this subject.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Identify the for major layers of the atmosphere depicted in the accompanying
illustration.

Figure 6

2. Which layer of the atmosphere contains most of the earth’s weather?

3. Consider the low-speed flight of the space shuttle as it is nearing a landing. If the air
pressure and temperature at the nose of the shuttle are 1.2 atm and 300 K,
respectively, what are the density and specific volume?
4. Calculate the weight of the air (in pounds) contained within a room 20 ft long, 15 ft
wide, and 8 ft high. Assume standard atmospheric pressure and temperature of 2116
lb/ft2 and 59⁰F, respectively.

The Standard Atmosphere

Aerospace vehicles are typically split into two main categories: a) Atmospheric
Vehicles (aircraft, helicopters) and b) Space Vehicles (rockets, satellites). The common
ground between these two groups is that they work within our atmosphere during lift-offs and
re-entries as in the case of space vehicles. For the latter, if the spacecraft is a planetary probe
it may may experience various atmospheres. Therefore, the properties of the atmosphere
should be taken into account during the construction of every aerospace vehicle.
The atmosphere on earth is a constantly evolving structure. Because of the shape of
the planet and the variation of sunlight obtained for various areas, time of day, season a
variation exists for different regions globally in the current atmospheric conditions. It would be
impractical to consider these variations when evaluating the design and performance of the
flight vehicles. In order to integrate flight tests, wind tunnel results and general aircraft design
and performance to a common reference, a "Standard Atmosphere" is therefore specified.
The standard atmosphere provides mean values of pressure, density, temperature,
and other properties as altitude functions whose values were taken from weather balloons and
sounding rocket measurements combined with an atmospheric mathematical model. It is
important to note that the standard atmosphere represents the average atmospheric
conditions that serve everywhere as a principal reference for aeronautical engineers.
There are several different standard atmospheres but these variations are negligible
for all practical purposes under 30 km (100,000 ft.) where aircraft normally operate.

Definition of Altitude
1. Geometric Altitude
- Geometric altitude is the altitude measured with reference to the earth’s surface
2. Absolute Altitude

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
- Absolute altitude is the altitude measure with reference to the earth’s center. It is given
by the formula ha = r + hG, where r is the radius of the earth and hG is the geometric
height.
3. Geopotential Altitude
- Geopotential altitude is a fictitious altitude defined to compensate for variation of gravity
with respect to height. It can be considered a gravity-adjusted height.
The local acceleration of gravity g varies inversely, from Newton's Law of Gravitation, as
the square of distance from the center of the earth. A relationship between local gravity
acceleration (g) and sea-level gravity acceleration at a given altitude ha is:
𝑟2 𝑟 2
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑂 ( ) = 𝑔𝑂 ( ) (𝐞𝐪. 𝟏)
ℎ𝑎 𝑟+ℎ 𝐺

Hydrostatic Equation
Consider an air element in stationary fluid at rest shown above. For convenience we
used rectangular faces whose top and bottom sides are 1 unit in length, 1 unit in width and
whose sides are infinitesimally small height dhG.
Length = 1
Width = 1
Height = dhG
Note: P=F/A and that Pressure varies with altitude such that the pressure decreases with
altitude.
Sine F = PA then

Figure 7

Force on the bottom

surface (P*1*1) P
Force on the top surface (P+dP)*1*1 P+dP
Force due to local (ρ*volume*g) =
ρgdhG
acceleration of gravity ρ*(1*1*dhG)*g

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
P –(P+dP) - ρgdhG =
0
Total Summation of P=(P+dP)+ρgdhG P=
Forces Vertical (upward P+dP +ρgdhG
Positive) P – P= dP + ρgdhG 0 =
dP + ρgdhG
dP = - ρgdhG

The equation dP = −ρ g dhG (𝒆𝒒. 𝟐) is called the hydrostatic equation that applies to
every fluid in the atmosphere including the air. This equation states that the smallest amount
of pressure change is directly variable with the smallest amount of altitude dhG. Note that g is
a variable as given in equation 1.
Let 's assume that g is a constant and is equal to the acceleration of gravity at sea
level, so that we can rewrite equation 2 in such a way that dP = −ρ gO dh (𝒆𝒒. 𝟑). Notice that
equation 2 and equation 3 are not similar numerically, and that h should be slightly different
from hG in such a way that g is slightly different with gO. We should describe has a new altitude,
called altitude geopotential.
Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes
Let us define the relation between hG and h.
Dividing equation 2 and 3 𝑑𝑃 −ρgdhG
=
𝑑𝑃 −ρ gOdh
Relation between h and hG in g
dh= 𝑑ℎ𝐺
terms of the smallest amount of g𝑂
change
Replacing g/gO with values from r 2
dh = ( ) 𝑑ℎ𝐺
equation 1 𝑟 + ℎ𝐺
Setting h and hG equal to zero at ℎ ℎ 𝐺 r 2
sea level and taking note that the ∫ dh = ∫ ( ) 𝑑ℎ𝐺 0 0
𝑟 +ℎ𝐺
value of h is slightly different to hG.
Integrate both sides of the r
equation. Note that r is constant h=( ) ℎ𝐺
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺
because the radius of the earth
does not change.
A quick calculation of the yielding h=( 6.356766 x 106 ) ∗ (7000)
equation shows that there is a little 6.356766 x 106 +
7000
difference for h and hG at low h = 6.9923𝑘𝑚
altitudes. Note: It shows about 0.1 of 1%
Note that r = 6.356766 x 106 m difference. Only at altitudes above 65
and let hG = 7000 m km does the difference exceed 1%

Definition of the Standard Atmosphere

If we prove that h has a marginal difference with hG, we can now obtain P, ρ, and T as
a function of h Let us first use the illustration below to describe the standard atmosphere.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

The graph displays the distribution of temperature relative to altitude. Note that regions
with inclined lines show the (gradient regions) and the vertical or isothermal regions.
Gradient regions are regions with changing temperature values while the isothermal
regions are regions with constant temperature values. Gradient regions have what you call
lapse rate designated by α, which is simply the temperature change divided by the height
variation or the line's slope. With this slope we can see how the temperature over a given
interval changes its value. Please notice that the presented data are based on experimental
proof.
The troposphere ranges from 0-11 km, and the stratosphere is 11-25 km. We'll look at
certain regions and see if we can get the amount, we 're talking about as a function of h.
From the preceding module, since air is considered a perfect gas, we are given the
state equation with the formula 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 and from equation 3: dP = −ρ gO dh.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere

Computation for Isothermal Regions in the atmosphere

Divide equation 3 by the equation of dP −ρ g O dh −gO dh
= =
state 𝑃 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑃 dP ℎ −g dh −gO ℎ
O
Consider the isothermal layers. ∫ =∫ = ∫ 𝑑ℎ
Integrate both sides but take note 𝑃11 𝑃 ℎ11 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 ℎ11
that the lower limit parameters
should be taken from the base of the
𝑃 −gO
isothermal layers which is the point ln = (ℎ −ℎ11)
properties at 11 km to a point 𝑃11 𝑅𝑇
somewhere between 11 km and 25 𝑃 −gO
(ℎ−ℎ11)}
km. = 𝑒 { 𝑅𝑇
𝑃11
P ρ 𝑅T
= 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑇 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅
𝑃11 𝜌11𝑅𝑇11
Since Temperature is constant and
we have the values from the point at =𝐶
11 km we can determine the values
P ρ
from a point between 11-25 km =
using the equation of state. We can 𝑃11 𝜌11
divide the equation of state at a point
of 11 km to the equation of state at Therefore:
a point anywhere between 11-25
P ρ {−gO (ℎ−ℎ )}
km. = = 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 11
𝑃11 𝜌11

Note that this computation is valid for all isothermal layers in the atmosphere
provided that we change the reference pressure, density and temperature of
the layer we are concerned about.

Computation for Gradient Layers in the Atmosphere

Defining lapse rate. Since the
temperature variation given is linear 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑇 − 𝑇0 𝑑𝑇
and by geometry given to us by slope 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑢𝑛 ℎ − ℎ0 𝑑ℎ
equation.
1
Rearranging the lapse rate equation. 𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑇
𝛼

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
Divide equation 3 by the equation of dP −ρ g O dh −gO dh
= =
state 𝑃 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
dP −gO dh −gO 1
= = 𝑑𝑇
Plugging in dh from the lapse rate. 𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝛼
dP −gO 𝑑𝑇
=
𝑃 𝛼𝑅 𝑇
𝑃
dP −gO 𝑇 𝑑𝑇

Integrate both sides of the equation ∫ = ∫

from the base of the gradient layer to 𝑃0 𝑃 𝛼𝑅 𝑇0 𝑇
a point somewhere in it. P −gO 𝑇
ln ( ) = [ln( )]
𝑃0 𝛼𝑅 𝑇0
P 𝑇 𝛼𝑅 −gO
ln ( ) = [ln( )]
𝑃0 𝑇0
Simplifying by properties of natural −gO
P 𝑇 𝛼𝑅
log. =( )
𝑃0 𝑇0

P ρ 𝑅T
= 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑅 =𝐶
𝑃0 𝜌0𝑅𝑇0
P ρT
=
𝑃0 𝜌0𝑇0
−gO
P ρT 𝑇 𝛼𝑅
Since we have two points in = =( )
consideration, we can divide each 𝑃0 𝜌0𝑇0 𝑇0
−gO
point’s equation of state. ρ 𝑇 𝑇 𝛼𝑅
( )( ) = ( )
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑇0
−gO
−1
ρ 𝑇 𝛼𝑅
( )= ( )
𝜌0 𝑇0
ℎ 1 𝑇
∫ 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
ℎ0 𝛼 𝑇0
Recalling that lapse rate is linear. We
1
have the following relation and by
ℎ − ℎ0 = ( 𝑇 − 𝑇0)
integrating both sides we can get: 𝛼
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝛼(ℎ − ℎ0)

Note that the equations above are valid for all gradient layers provided that
the values should be changed to the reference region.

Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes

Pressure altitude is the indicated altitude on the altimeter set to 29.92 in Hg.
Density altitude is defined as pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
variations.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Earth’s Atmosphere
Temperature altitude is the altitude corresponding to a temperature reading.

Figure 10

Review Questions – B:
Solve for the following problems. Show your complete solution and box your final answer.
Round off your final answer to 4 decimals places. Upload a pdf/jpeg file of your answers in the
Google Drive folder under this subject.
1. At 12 km in the standard atmosphere, the pressure, density, and temperature are
1.9399 x 104 N/m2, 3.1194 x 10-1 kg/m3, and 216.66 K, respectively. Using these
values, calculate the standard atmospheric values of pressure, density, and
temperature at an altitude of 18 km.
2. Consider an airplane flying at some altitude. The outside pressure and temperature
are 2.65 x 104 N/m2 and 220 K, respectively. What are the pressure and density
altitudes?
3. During a flight test of new airplane, the pilot radios to the ground that she is in level
flight at a standard altitude of 35,000 ft. What is the ambient air pressure far ahead of
the airplane?

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