Combustion in Cement Kiln

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 3 Everything you need to know about combustion in Cement Kiln
o 3.1 GAS LAWS
 3.1.1 Boyle’s Law.
 3.1.2 Charles’ Law.
 3.1.3 Gay-Lussac’s Law.
 3.1.4 A General Law.
o 3.2 THE COMBUSTION REACTION
o 3.3 THE STANDARD COAL FACTOR, COMBUSTION AIR REQUIREMENTS
 3.3.1 Effect of Kiln Air on Combustion Efficiency.
 3.3.2 Determining  Excess  or Deficiency  of Air.
 3.3.3 Carbon Dioxide  in the Kiln Exit Gases.
 3.3.4 Related
 

Before entering into a detailed discussion on the combustion conditions in the kiln, it is

appropriate  to review some fundamental  Jaws related to gases and combustion.
Knowledge of these laws are essential in order for any kiln operator to understand the
duties involved in his job. When malfunctions and unusual problems occur, such as chain
fires, rapid and unusual temperature rises in tile fuel or firing system, an understanding of
these Jaws combined with common sense can make the difference between a potentially
serious, out-of-control condition and a safe solution.
 

GAS LAWS
All gases, including the hot gases in a kiln, behave in a certain manner under external
influences. A perfect gas is one that obeys very closely cer tain physical laws. For all practical
purposes, the gases under considera tion in this chapter may be assumed to be perfect
gases. Adjustments to ti1e air circuitry of a rotary kiln are part of the responsibility of ti1e
kiln operator, hence a basic knowledge of these Jaws is necessary to assist him in making
the correct adjustments.

Before entering into a discussion of the gas laws, the reader is reminded that pressures and
temperatures used in ti1e following equations are absolute.        Absolute values are
determined:
a) by adding 460°  to  the  temperature  in  degrees  Fahrenheit,  g., 60°F = 520° absolute.

b) by adding atmospheric pressure to gauge pressure; while atmospheric pressure varies

with altitude and weather conditons, it is sufficiently accurate for these computations to use
7, i.e., 50 psi gauge = 64.7 psi absolute.

In a like manner, CGS units are obtained by adding 273 :u the temperature in degrees
centigrade, and 76 to the pressure in centimeters of mercury.

Boyle’s Law.
In 1662 Robert Boyle expressed tl1is law as follows:

Under constant temperature, tl1e  volume of a given mass of gas varies inversely as the
pressure upon it. In other words, pressure times volume, at constant  temperature,  is a
constant  expressed mathematically
Charles’ Law.
Similar to the discovery of Boyle, Jacques Charles in 1787 discovered that the volumes
occupied by a given mass of gas at different temperatures are proportional  to  tl1e
absolute  temperatures  of  the  gas  provided  the  pressure remains constant.
All gases expand when the temperature is raised. If the temperature of a gas is raised 1
F, it  will  expand  1/460 of  its  original  volume.  In  CGS units, a temperature rise of 1 C will
result in an expansion of 1/273 of the original volume

Gay-Lussac’s  Law.
Finally, there was Joseph Gay-Lussac who, early in the 19th Century, delved further into the
action of gases, and developed the law that bears his name, which states that the pressure
exerted by a given mass of gas will increase in proportion to the temperature if the
volume is held constant. All unit again are in absolute values.
A General Law.
Now reviewing the above three basic gas laws, it becomes apparent that a general law can
be stated, based on all three of the basic laws. The general equation is:
These gas laws can help a new operator to understand some of the fundamentals in kiln
control. They are the solutions to some common basic control problems an operator might
be confronted with on an almost daily basis.

THE COMBUSTION REACTION

Successful operation of a rotary kiln requires an adequate source of heat that will first raise
the kiln to the desired operating temperature, and will then maintain this temperature by
compensating for the various heat losses occurring in the kiln system, including the heat 
required for the process. The required heat is obtained by combustion of the fuel, a
chemical reaction in which carbon, C, hydrogen, Hz,  and sulfur, S, in the fuel  combine  with
oxygen ,  in  the  air.    To  obtain  combustion,  two requirements must be fulfilled:
1. sufficient oxygen must be present to mix with the fuel, and
2. a certain  temperature  must  be  maintained   to  ignite  the  fuel oxygen
An operator must always remember the triangular relationship that leads to combustion:

If any one of the three links is missing, no combustion will take place. If there is not enough
air in the kiln, there will be no proper fire. Likewise in a dry or wet kiln, too much heat and
air in the chain section will result in chain fire because chains contain carbon which acts as
fuel. In order to stop a fire, the elimination of one of the components of the triangle is
necessary, e.g., choking off the oxygen (air) supply. This will be discussed in greater detail
later on. In addition, firing conditions inside the kiln must be such that the fuel particles
undergo  complete  combustion while the fuel is still in suspension in the kiln atmosphere.

THE STANDARD COAL FACTOR,

COMBUSTION AIR REQUIREMENTS
To determine the approximate combustion air needed to bum a given unit weight of coal,
the formulas given below can be used when no ultimate coal analysis is available. The
combustion air requirements here include 5  percent excess air.
Here it can be seen why gas- and coke-fired kilns tend to have their ignition point of the
flame much further back in the kiln than coal or oil fired kilns. In addition, combustion in a
kiln requires that sufficient time must be available to accomplish complete combustion
while the fuel is in suspension in the kiln atmosphere.

These equations for complete combustion  indicate that when fuel is properly burned, 1 part
of carbon will combine with 1 part of oxygen to form the combustion product carbon
dioxide. However, when incomplete combustion takes place, then instead of carbon dioxide
the combustion product is carbon monoxide:
Oxygen needed for combustion originates from the air which is forced into the kiln. Air
consists  mainly of 78 volumes (76% by weight) of nitrogen and 21 volumes (23% by weight)
of oxygen. Thus, it is necessary to introduce approximately 5 volumes of air for each volume
of oxygen needed to obtain complete combustion. The nitrogen contained in the air does
not enter the combustion process, only the oxygen reacts with the carbon, hydrogen, and
sulfur to form the combustion gases.

Effect of Kiln Air on Combustion Efficiency.

It should now be apparent to the readers that control of the air supply for the kiln is as
important as control of the fuel rate, because each is dependent on the other in their effect
on combustion. In the following it will be shown tl1at too little air (deficiency) as well .as too
much  air (excess) is harmful to the economical operation of a rotary kiln.

When combustion is incomplete because of a deficiency of air, approximately 4500 Btu are
released when one pound of carbon is  burned  to carbon monoxide. However,  under
conditions of complete combustion in burning  the same amount of carbon to carbon
dioxide,  14,500 Btu will be released, a difference of I 0,000 Btu between complete and
incomplete combustion, a clear indication of the importance of having at all times enough
air available to accomplish  complete combustion of the fuel. It should be pointed out that a
rotary kiln, for safety reasons, is never allowed to be operated with such a deficiency in air
supply. There is no·room for any compromise in such a situation; the operator must do
everything in  his power to again obtain complete combustion  of  the  fuel within  seconds
after the first indication of incomplete combustion  is  given.  It  is definitely the wrong
procedure to increase the fuel rate at a time when a deficiency of air is already present and
the burning zone starts to lose temperature.

More common is a rotary kiln operating with a large percentage of excess air, usually
resulting from inefficient attendance of the kiln by the operator. The question might be
raised now why too much air is also harmful to the efficient operation of a kiln, the
reasoning being that with plenty of air available a total burning of the fuel will with certainty
be secured. However, operating a kiln with a large percentage of excess air increases heat
losses to the rear of the kiln and lowers the flame temperature. Furthermore, any excess air
not required for combustion consumes valuable heat because this air too will be raised to
the operating temperature of the kiln. In short, by consuming heat to raise the temperature
of the excess air, less heat will be available for the actual burning process of the material in
the kiln.
G Martin,3 in an extensive study of the thermodynamics of  rotary kilns, has calculated that
for every 1% of free oxygen present in the kiln exit gases, there is a loss of 0.4449 tons of
fuel for every 100 tons of coal burned. That is, 0.4% of the heat introduced into the kiln by
the fuel will be lost for each I% free oxygen in the kiln exit gases. Consider, for example, a
kiln producing 2040 tons clinker per day at an average specific consumption of 4.4
MBtu/ton clinker when the exit gas oxygen content is 1.5%.  Burning  the same amount of
clinker per day but with 4.5% oxygen in the exit gas would result in a loss of 120 MBtu
because of the excess air admitted to the kiln.   At a common price of $1.80 per MBtu,
roughly $67,000 per year would be lost

Determining   Excess   or Deficiency   of Air.

The foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question: How does an operator know when
the kiln is operating with too much or too little air?

To assist the operator, analyzers are available that continuously deter mine the amount of
oxygen and combustibles  (carbon  monoxide)  in the kiln exit gases. Other analyzers, less
frequently used, are available for determining carbon dioxide content. The Orsatt apparatus
is used  for making periodical analyses of gas samples to determine oxygen,
carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide content
The percent oxygen contained  in the kiln exit gases gives the best indication of the
combustion condition in the kiln because this oxygen is directly related to the amount of air
introduced and the amount of oxygen taken up during the process of combustion. We
know that air contains 21% oxygen by volume. If there were no combustion reaction in the
kiln, the same percentage of oxygen would be in the air leaving tl1e kiln. How ever, because
combustion reactions do take place in the kiln, most of the oxygen reacts with carbon,
hydrogen, and sulfur to form the combustion products CO, C02, H20 and S02. Thus, when
no  free  oxygen  can  be found in the kiln exit gases no excess air has been introduced into
the kiln.

The percent excess air can be calculated with the formula  given  by Perry, Chilton, and
Kirkpatrick,4 provided that no combustibles (CO) are present in the kiln exit gases:
Fig. 5.1 shows this relationship for a typical rotary kiln.

The percent excess air can also be calculated from the results of a gas analysis obtained with
the Orsatt apparatus. The following formula is especially helpful when a gas has a content of
less than 1% oxygen because such gases usually contain traces of carbon monoxide also.

Fig. 5.1 Ideal operating conditions in the  kiln  occur  when  the  kiln  exit  gas contains
between  0.7  and  3.5%  oxygen.  Zone  A  indicates  an  excess  of  air, resulting  in
excessive  heat  loss;  Zone   B   indicates   a  deficiency   of  air,  resulting in the
formation of carbon monoxide.
in which

02  = percentage of oxygen

CO    = percentage of carbon monoxide, and

N2    = percentage of nitrogen

Incomplete combustion is easily recognized when any percentage, regardless of how small,
is indicated on the combustible (CO) recorder. As stated earlier, a rotary kiln is never allowed
to operate under conditions of incomplete combustion which means that at no time should
there be any carbon monoxide present in the kiln exit gases.

Now consider the question of just what constitutes the ideal operating condition for
efficient combustion and kiln control. At this poin theory and practice are apt to take
divergent paths. Many viewpoints and opin ions, some good, some in error, have been
dvanced, so it is well at this point to review the theory of perfect combustion. First, most
efficient combustion takes place when there is neither carbon monoxide nor excess air
present in the kiln exit gases: that is, the oxygen and the combustibles  recorders should
botlh have a reading of zero.  Second, with any increase of

either carbon monoxide or excess air, valuable heat is lost.

Application of this tl1eory is of value only when perfect combustion conditionS prevail
within the kiln burning zone. In practice, however, this condition is rarely attained
because many factors associated with design of the kiln work against such ideal conditions.
A typical example that  spotlights this  fact is the common  observation that a small
percentage of carbon monoxide can be found in the exit gases while at the same time there
is also a small percentage of free oxygen pres ent. This is in direct contradiction to the
combustion theory that carbon monoxide shows only after all the excess air has been used
up;  that  is, after the oxygen level has fallen to zero. In many instances the Orsatt analysis or
the recorders have shown combustibles at oxygen· readings in the rang·e of 0.7%. This
indicates that inefficient conditions are present when oxygen drops below 0.7%. The
operator can observe the effects of changes in oxygen on tl1e flame itself. If, for example,
the kiln is operat ing at an oxygen content of 0.7% and the fuel rate is increased without
an increase in the air flow in the kiln, such an action will cause a change in the color of
the flame, the flame taking on a darker color at its outer rim, a sure sign that t11e flame
temperature is dropping.
Through experience it has been found that a rotary kiln operates best when the kiln exit
gases have an oxygen content of not less than 0.7% and not more than 3.5% under stable
operating  conditions.  The  optimum target point is between 1.0 and 1.5% oxygen. In
addition, under no circumstances should there be any carbon monoxide present in the kiln
exit gases. The given targets and ranges for oxygen levels do not  apply  at times when the
kiln is in an upset condition.

New and more advanced types of gas analyzers have recently been installed in many kilns.
These advanced technology  analyzers are capable of detecting and recording minute
traces  of gas components such as 02> C02, CO, as well as S02 and NO,.   Recordings  on
these units are usually in terms of ppm (parts per million) instead of percentages.

The thing to remember is that conventional gas recordings will only indicate the presence of
CO when it exceeds approx. 500 ppm whereas the newer analyzers are capable of recording
contents as low as 10 ppm. It is therefore necessary to reword the above-mentioned
operating rule and state that immediate counteracting moves must be made whenever the
kiln gases contain more than 100 ppm (0.01%) CO.

The fact that both too little and too much air for combustion is detri mental for fuel
economy, has led to the practice in some plants of main taining a constant fuel-to-air ratio
at all times when the kiln is operating, even reaching the stage on some kilns in which
controllers automatically adjust the total mass of air entering the kiln whenever a change in
fuel rate is carried out. Although such an approach is fully justified from the viewpoint of
combustion efficiency, it  is  not conducive to overall operating stability of the kiln.

Furnaces with less complex reactions than a rotary kiln can operate efficiently under the
above principle. In the rotary kiln, however, there are many more factors that have a direct
influence on the stability of the opera tion. For example, an important factor that is
neglected when the prin ciple of a constant fuel-to-air ratio is used to control a kiln, is the
heat profile through the entire length_ of the kiln. A rigid application of this burning
technique causes the temperature proftle to change toward the back end of the kiln.
Table 5.1 shows the results of a burning technique in which the temperature profile has not
been considered. Examples A and C follow the recommended practice of controlling the
oxygen level within a range of 0.7- 3.5%, and at the same time giving full consideration to
the back-end temperature. Example A shows how the fuel rate and the air rate into the kiln
are proportionally changed with succeeding increases in the kiln feed rate. With each feed
rate increase there must be a corresponding increase in fuel rate and air flow rate as well as
a rise in back-end temperature to take care of the increased production. This, then, is the
procedure for stable kiln operation. Failure to make all these required increases could lead
the kiln into an upset. There is little doubt that such an approach as shown in Example A will
meet the approval of experienced operators.

Examples of upset kiln conditions are shown in B and C in which the feed rate remains
constant.  Example B shows the technique of maintaining a constant fuel-to-air ratio; that is,
the oxygen percentage remains  constant. This results in uniform combustion but very
serious fluctuations in burning zone and back-end temperatures.  Changes in back-end
temperature result in uneven feed preparation (drying, calcination) in turn creating cycling
operating conditons. Because ti1e feed rate is constant, heat distri bution should be
unchanged to maintain the same drying and calcining conditons.
Example C is the recommended procedure for kiln upsets in which an attempt is made to
maintain back-end temperature constant. Small adjustment are made to the induced draft
fan speed to compensate for the temperature drops or rises that occur in the back end due
to changes in the fuel rate.
The preceding discussion of combustion has centered on and is applicable to f1ring systems
where the air supply to the furnace can be in dependently controlled. In other words, it
applies to all kilns (we dry, semidry, preheater) that have one single-firing system in the
lower part of the kiln (burning zone). It also applies to precalciner kilns that have ter tiary air
canting from the cooler for the flash furnace. The discussion on the proper air supply to  the
kiln  and the optimum percent of  excess air does not apply to precalciner kilns where all the
air for the precalcining chamber (flash furnace) originates from and goes through the rotary
kiln (i.e., no tectiary air duct present). In such kilns one single air-supply route must serve
two combustion processes namely the flames in the burning zone and the flash calciner.
Obviously, the excess air at the rotary kiln back end must be much higher otherwise
incomplete combustion will take place in the flash furnace. Excess air from 60-90% at the
feed end is not uncommon on such kilns. Through experience it has become known that
large percentages of excess air renders a kiln inefficient by lowering the thermal level of the
gases. As a whole, such a precalciner  might  be efficient but the fact remains that the
burning of the fuel in the burning zone is done by large amounts of excess air hence no
optimum conditions prevail here. This, too, is the reason why a precalciner, without tertiary
air duct, usually does not achieve the high output rates that a pr calciner of equal size with
tertiary air duct does.

Combustion air requirements  to bum fuel (solid or liquid) can be calculated as follows:

Products of combustion are mathematically detemined by the following formulas:

Carbon Dioxide   in the Kiln Exit Gases.
 

The percent of oxygen in kiln exit gases is solely a function of the amount of air introduced
into the kiln and the amount of air consumed in combustion  of the fuel.  In contrast to this,
the percent  of carbon dioxide in the exit gases is influenced by calcination of the raw feed
in the kiln as well as by combustion.

When burning pulverized coal under perfect conditions, that is, when no excess air is
present in the kiln gases, a maximum of about 18.3% C02 would result from the combustion
if there were no evolution of C02 from the raw feed in the kiln. For fuel oil this value is about
15.8%, and for natural  gas,  12.2%.  These percentages  are obtainable only when perfect
combustion conditions prevail in the kiln, which is very seldom the case. Any excess air
present will cause a reduction in the percent of C02 in the gases. However, analysis of kiln
exit gases in a cement plant shows a percentage between 22 and 28% C02. Therefore, a
portion of the C02 in the kiln exit gases must originate from calcination of the raw feed.

Assunting that the C02 originating  from  the  kiln  feed  remains constant, then any drop in
C02 in the exit gases indicates an increase in air in  the  kiln.    Knowing  that  a  rise  in
excess  air  results  in  poorer  fuel efficiency, it is then true that a decrease in C02 in the exit
gases indicates a higher heat consumption for each ton of clinker burned. Hence the
operator  should  try  to  obtain  the  maximum  percentage  of  C02 possible during normal
operation of a kiln.

If the only function of the C02 analyzer were to indicate fuel efficiency, there would be no
reason for its use as this information  is available from the oxygen analyzer. The conditions
under which a carbon dioxide recorder becomes of value is when calcining conditions
change in the kiln, that is, when the kiln is in an upset state. A change in the feed rate
(including the dust return rate, if any), feed composition, or feed advancement within the
kiln, can result in a change in the C02 content in the exit gases even at constant combustion
conditions in the burning zone.   The reason  why  the C02 changes in these instances is
because more feed, less feed, or different feed, is being calcined in the kiln.

Changes that occur in- the calcining zone cannot be seen by the kiln operator when he
looks into the kiln to observe the burning zone because calcining takes place behind the
burning zone.  For this reason, a change in the character of the feed bed could occur
unknown to the operator until it later becomes visible in the burning zone. Most common of
such occurrences are kiln feed dust waves that flush at high speed into the burning zone,
the arrival of large chunks of scale, or a change in the amount of feed entering the burning
zone. By the use of a carbon dioxide analyzer and recorder, the operator is able to recognize
such changes before they become visible in the burning zone,  thus giving him time to
make the necessary adjustments in the kiln control variables sooner than he could without
the analyzer. If the operator notices an increase or decrease in the carbon dioxide
recording, no adjustments having been made to such variables as fuel rate, air flow rate, or
kiln speed, he knows that some change has taken  place in the calcining zone. This is an
early warning of possible changes in burnability that will soon occur. Once an operator
has  become accustomed  to a particular  kiln,  he will  know  what  settings  in C02>02, fuel
rate,  feed rate,  and other variables  will most likely result in  an efficient and stable kiln
operation for a given feed composition ..
A carbon dioxide analyzer is also helpful in obtaining stable operating conditions again after
a kiln upset.  Assuming  that the kiln has been in an upset  condition  with  oxygen  lower
and  C02  higher  than  normal,  then when  the recorders  start  to show  an increase  in 
oxygen,  with  the corresponding decrease in C02 without  any  change  in  feed  rate,  the
operator will know that calcining conditions behind  the burning  zone  are improving and
he can expect an increase in burning zone temperature within a few minutes.
Proper combustion requires that the kiln be operated in such a manner that:

1. The kiln exit gases have an oxygen content of not less than 7% nor more than
3.5% under normal operating conditions.
2.  The kiln exit gases contain no carbon
3.  The kiln exit gases contain the maximum percentage of carbon
In addition, the operator should:

4- Strive for  optimum  combustion  conditions   at  all  times  by  stabilizing kiln gas oxygen
content between  0 and 1.5%.

5- Take immediate steps to eliminate combustibles in the exit gases whenever any carbon
monoxide is detected therein.

In preheater and precalciner kilns it is of interest to note by how much (percent) the kiln
feed is calcined after it leaves the preheater vessels and enters the rotary kiln proper. The
laboratory checks this by analyzing the feed before and after the preheater tower, then
calculates the result as follows:

In the second group are the variables  over which the kiln operator has control in order to
obtain desired flame characteristics.  These are:

Group   2 Fineness of the coal burned Temperature of the fuel oil Temperature of primary air
Temperature of secondary air

Flow rate of primary air Flow rate of secondary air Fuel rate
Burning zone wall temperature
Position of the burner

Degree of purity (dust concentration) of combustion air entering the kiln

Cross-sectional loading of the kiln

Air requirement of the fuel

Density of the primary   stream  (primary air plus fuel)
Density of the combustion gases
The nine italicized variables are the ones indicated by Gygi* as being the most important
factors affecting the flame in a rotary kiln.  A change in flame characteristics will take place
whenever one of the variables in either group is changed. If the change results in a
dangerous or undesirable flame, one or more of the other variables must be adjusted to
counteract the bad flame condition.

Flame characteristics can vary  considerably from one cement plant to another, sometimes
even from one kiln to another in the same plant. The reason for this is that a flame must
always be tailored to existing kiln designs and prevailing operating conditions. Clinker
quality, refractory, presence of rings, and kiln equipment problems force an operator to
obtain a certain flame that  best fits the actual conditions in the particular kiln under
consideration.
As a general rule in flame control, one should attempt to obtain the shortest possible fire
and the highest possible flame temperature without adversely influencing clinker quality,
coating formation, ring formation, and refractory life, or causing damage to the kiln
equipment in the discharge area. Furthermore, the flame must not cause overheating in the
burner hood, kiln discharge end, or cooler.  Once the ideal flame characteristics have been
obtained, the operator should make every effort to operate the kiln in such a fashion as
to cause a minimum of disturbance to the flame. A flame should not willfully be changed
during the course of kiln operation unless specific conditions necessitate a change.
Now consider in detail the several flame characteristics that were mentioned at the
beginning of this chapter, and how these characteristics can be modified.