Coordinates: 30°2′40″N 31°14′8″E

2011 Egyptian revolution

The 2011 Egyptian revolution, also known
2011 Egyptian revolution

as the 25 January revolution (Arabic: ‫ثورة‬

‫ يناير‬٢٥; Thawrat khamsa wa-ʿišrūn ‫ يناير‬٢٥ ‫ثورة‬
yanāyir),[20] began on 25 January 2011 and Part of the Egyptian Crisis and the Arab Spring
spread across Egypt. The date was set by
various youth groups to coincide with the
annual Egyptian "Police holiday" as a
statement against increasing police brutality
during the last few years of Hosni
Mubarak's presidency. It consisted of
demonstrations, marches, occupations of
plazas, non-violent civil resistance, acts of
civil disobedience and strikes. Millions of
protesters from a range of socio-economic
and religious backgrounds demanded the
overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni
Mubarak. Violent clashes between security
forces and protesters resulted in at least 846
people killed and over 6,000 injured.[21][22]
Protesters retaliated by burning over 90 Demonstrators in Cairo's Tahrir Square on 8 February
police stations across the country.[23] 2011
Date 25 January 2011 – 11 February 2011
The Egyptian protesters' grievances focused (2 weeks and 3 days)
on legal and political issues,[24] including
Location  Egypt

police brutality, state-of-emergency laws,[1]

lack of political freedom, civil liberty, Caused by
Police brutality[1]
freedom of speech, corruption,[2] high
State-of-emergency laws[1]
unemployment, food-price inflation[3] and
Electoral fraud
low wages.[1][3] The protesters' primary
demands were the end of the Mubarak Political censorship[2]
regime. Strikes by labour unions added to Corruption[2]
the pressure on government officials.[25] Unemployment[3]
During the uprising, the capital, Cairo, was Food price rises[3]
described as "a war zone"[26] and the port Low wages[1][3]
city of Suez saw frequent violent clashes.
Demographic structural factors[4]
Protesters defied a government-imposed
Other regional protests
curfew, which the police and military could
not enforce in any case. Egypt's Central Authoritarianism
Security Forces, loyal to Mubarak, were Political repression
gradually replaced by military troops. In the Methods
chaos, there was looting by rioters which Civil disobedience
was instigated (according to opposition Civil resistance
sources) by plainclothes police officers. In Demonstrations
Online activism
response, watch groups were organized by Riots
civilian vigilantes to protect their Self-immolation
neighborhoods.[27][28][29][30][31] Strike actions

On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Resulted in

Toppling of the Mubarak government
Suleiman announced that Mubarak resigned
as president, turning power over to the Resignation of Prime Ministers Nazif
and Shafik[5]
Supreme Council of the Armed Forces
(SCAF).[32] The military junta, headed by Assumption of power by the military[6]
effective head of state Mohamed Hussein Suspension of the Constitution and
Tantawi, announced on 13 February that the dissolution of the Parliament[7]
constitution is suspended, both houses of Disbanding of the State Security
parliament dissolved and the military would Investigations Service[8]
govern for six months (until elections could Dissolution of the NDP (former ruling
be held). The previous cabinet, including party) and transfer of its assets to the
Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve state[9]
as a caretaker government until a new one Arrest and prosecution of Mubarak, his
was formed.[33] family and former ministers[10][11][12]
31-year state of emergency lifted[13]
After the revolution against Mubarak and a
Democratic election to replace
period of rule by the Supreme Council of
Mubarak; Mohamed Morsi elected as
the Armed Forces, the Muslim Brotherhood
new president[14]
took power in Egypt through a series of
Protests in response to Morsi's
popular elections, with Egyptians electing
temporary constitutional declaration.
Islamist Mohamed Morsi to the presidency
in June 2012, after winning the election Military coup in 2013 overthrows Morsi
over Ahmed Shafik.[34] However, the Morsi General Sisi becomes president and
government encountered fierce opposition return of the military dictatorship
after his attempt to pass an Islamic-leaning Parties to the civil conflict
constitution. Morsi also issued a temporary
presidential decree that raised his decisions
Pro-Government: Opposition
over judicial review to enable the passing of
Groups:
the constitution.[35] It sparked general National Democratic
outrage from secularists and members of the Party 6 April Youth Movement
military, and mass protests broke out against Central Security Forces Muslim Brotherhood
his rule on 28 June 2013.[36] On 3 July
Egyptian Armed Forces Kefaya
2013, Morsi was deposed by a coup d'état
led by the minister of defense, General Police forces Revolutionary Socialists
Abdel Fattah El-Sisi,[37] as millions of State Security
Egyptians took to the streets in support of Intelligence
early elections.[38] El-Sisi went on to Supreme Council of the
become Egypt's president after an election Armed Forces
in 2014 which was boycotted by opposition Lead figures
parties.[39]

Contents
Other names
Background
Inheritance of power
 Emergency law Hosni Mubarak
Prominent activists:
Police brutality (President of Egypt) Ahmed Hassan Said
Election corruption Others:
Mohamed ElBaradei
Demographic and economic Omar Suleiman
Asmaa Mahfouz
challenges Ahmed Shafiq
Alaa Al Aswany
Unemployment and reliance Habib el-Adly
on subsidized goods Wael Ghonim
Mohamed Hussein
Economy and poor living Tantawi
conditions
Pope Shenouda III
Corruption
Number
Prelude
Tunisian revolution 2,000,000 at Cairo's Tahrir Square See: Regions section
below.
Self-immolation
National Police Day protests Casualties

(Pre-)revolution timeline
Death(s) During revolution: 846[15][16]
Farouk to Mubarak Post-Revolution: 300+[17]
Under Mubarak See: Deaths section below.
Post-revolution timeline
Under the Supreme Council of Injuries 6,467 people[18]
the Armed Forces Arrested 12,000[19]
Under President Mohamed Morsi
November 2012 declaration
June—July 2013 protests and
overthrow
Protests by city
Cairo
Alexandria
Mansoura
Suez
Other cities
Deaths
International reaction
Post-ouster
Results
Reforms
Trials
Analysis
Regional instability
Alexandria church bombing
Role of women
Role of the military
Impact on foreign relations
Online activism and social media
Role of media disruption on 28
January 2011
 Post-revolutionary art
See also
References
Further reading
General
Live coverage
Crowdsourcing
Interviews
Documentaries
Analysis and criticism
External links

Other names
In Egypt and other parts of the Arab world, the protests and governmental changes are also known as the
25 January Revolution (‫ يناير‬25 ‫ ثورة‬Thawrat 25 Yanāyir), Freedom Revolution (‫ ثورة حرية‬Thawrat
Horeya)[40] or Rage Revolution (‫ ثورة الغضب‬Thawrat al-Ġaḍab), and (less frequently)[41] the Youth
Revolution (‫ ثورة الشباب‬Thawrat al-Shabāb), Lotus Revolution[42] (‫ )ثورة اللوتس‬or White Revolution
(‫ الثورة البيضاء‬al-Thawrah al-bayḍāʾ).[43]

Background
Hosni Mubarak became President of Egypt after the assassination of
Anwar Sadat in 1981. Mubarak's National Democratic Party (NDS)
maintained one-party rule.[44] His government received support from the
West and aid from the United States by its suppression of Islamic militants
and peace with Israel.[44] Mubarak was often compared to an Egyptian
pharaoh by the media and some critics, due to his authoritarian rule.[45] He
was in the 30th year of his reign when the Revolution of 2011 began.[46]

Inheritance of power

Mubarak's younger son was expected to succeed his father as the next Hosni Mubarak in 2009
president of Egypt in 2000.[47] Gamal began receiving attention from the
Egyptian media, since there were apparently no other heirs to the
presidency.[48] Bashar al-Assad's rise to power in Syria in June 2000, hours after Hafez al-Assad's death,
sparked debate in the Egyptian press about the prospects for a similar scenario in Cairo.[49]

During the years after Mubarak's 2005 re-election, several left- and right-wing (primarily unofficial)
political groups expressed opposition to the inheritance of power, demanded reforms and asked for a multi-
candidate election. In 2006, with opposition increasing, Daily News Egypt reported an online campaign
initiative (the National Initiative against Power Inheritance) demanding that Gamal reduce his power. The
campaign said, "President Mubarak and his son constantly denied even the possibility of [succession].
However, in reality they did the opposite, including amending the constitution to make sure that Gamal will
be the only unchallenged candidate."[50]
During the decade, public perception grew that Gamal would succeed his
father. He wielded increasing power as NDP deputy secretary general and
chair of the party's policy committee. Analysts described Mubarak's last
decade in power as "the age of Gamal Mubarak". With his father's health
declining and no appointed vice-president, Gamal was considered Egypt's
de facto president by some.[51] Although Gamal and Hosni Mubarak
denied an inheritance of power, Gamal could be elected; with Hosni
Mubarak's presidential term set to expire in 2010, speculation existed that
Gamal would run as the NDP candidate in 2011.[52] However, after the
January–February 2011 protest Gamal Mubarak said that he would not run
for president in the 2011 elections.[53] Gamal Mubarak in 2006

Emergency law

Emergency law (Law No. 162 of 1958) was enacted in the country after the 1967 Six-Day War. Although
it was suspended for 18 months during the early 1980s,[54] it has otherwise continuously been in effect
since Anwar Sadat's 1981 assassination.[55] Emergency law extended police powers, suspended
constitutional rights, legalised censorship[56] and abolished habeas corpus. It limits non-governmental
political activity, including demonstrations, unapproved political organizations and unregistered financial
donations.[54] The Mubarak government has cited the threat of terrorism in extending emergency law,[55]
claiming that opposition groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood could gain power in Egypt if the
government did not forgo parliamentary elections and suppress the group through emergency law.[57] This
has led to the imprisonment of activists without trial,[58] illegal, undocumented and hidden detention
facilities[59] and the rejection of university, mosque and newspaper staff based on their political
affiliation.[60] A December 2010 parliamentary election was preceded by a media crackdown, arrests,
candidate bans (particularly Muslim Brotherhood candidates) and allegations of fraud due to the near-
unanimous victory by the NDP in parliament.[54] Human-rights organizations estimate that in 2010,
between 5,000 and 10,000 people were in long-term detention without charge or trial.[61][62]

Police brutality

According to a U.S. Embassy report, police brutality has been widespread in Egypt.[63] In the five years
before the revolution, the Mubarak regime denied the existence of torture or abuse by police. However,
claims by domestic and international groups provided cellphone videos or first-hand accounts of hundreds
of cases of police brutality.[64] According to the 2009 Human Rights Report from the U.S. State
Department, "Domestic and international human rights groups reported that the Ministry of Interior (MOI)
State Security Investigative Service (SSIS), police, and other government entities continued to employ
torture to extract information or force confessions. The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights
documented 30 cases of torture during the year 2009. In numerous trials defendants alleged that police
tortured them during questioning. During the year activists and observers circulated some amateur
cellphone videos documenting the alleged abuse of citizens by security officials. For example, on 8
February, a blogger posted a video of two police officers, identified by their first names and last initials,
sodomizing a bound naked man named Ahmed Abdel Fattah Ali with a bottle. On 12 August, the same
blogger posted two videos of alleged police torture of a man in a Port Said police station by the head of
investigations, Mohammed Abu Ghazala. There was no indication that the government investigated either
case."[65]
The deployment of Baltageya[66] (Arabic: ‫—)بلطجية‬plainclothes police—by the NDP has been a hallmark
of the Mubarak government.[66] The Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights has documented 567 cases
of torture, including 167 deaths, by police from 1993 to 2007.[67] Excessive force was often used by law-
enforcement agencies against popular uprisings.[68] On 6 June 2010 Khaled Mohamed Saeed died under
disputed circumstances in the Sidi Gaber area of Alexandria, with witnesses testifying that he was beaten to
death by police – an event which galvanized Egyptians around the issue of police brutality.[69][70][71]
Authorities stated that Khaled died choking on hashish while being chased by police officers. However,
pictures of Khaled's disfigured corpse from the morgue showed signs of torture. A Facebook page, "We are
all Khaled Said", helped attract nationwide attention to the case.[72] Mohamed ElBaradei, former head of
the International Atomic Energy Agency, led a 2010 rally in Alexandria against police abuse, and visited
Saeed's family to offer condolences.[73]

During the January–February 2011 protests, police brutality was common. Jack Shenker, a reporter for The
Guardian, was arrested during the Cairo protests on 26 January. He witnessed fellow Egyptian protesters
being tortured, assaulted, and taken to undisclosed locations by police officers. Shenker and other detainees
were released after covert intervention by Ayman Nour, the father of a fellow detainee.[74][75][76]

Election corruption

Corruption, coercion not to vote and manipulation of election results occurred during many elections over
Mubarak's 30-year rule.[77] Until 2005, Mubarak was the only presidential candidate (with a yes-or-no
vote).[78] Mubarak won five consecutive presidential elections with a sweeping majority. Although
opposition groups and international election-monitoring agencies charged that the elections were rigged,
those agencies were not allowed to monitor elections. The only opposition presidential candidate in recent
Egyptian history, Ayman Nour, was imprisoned before the 2005 elections.[79] According to a 2007 UN
survey, voter turnout was extremely low (about 25 percent) because of a lack of trust in the political
system.[78]

Demographic and economic challenges

Unemployment and reliance on subsidized goods

The population of Egypt grew from 30,083,419 in 1966[80] to

roughly 79,000,000 by 2008.[81] The vast majority of Egyptians
live near the banks of the Nile, in an area of about 40,000 square
kilometers (15,000 sq mi) where the only arable land is found. In
late 2010, about 40 percent of Egypt's population lived on the
equivalent of roughly US$2 per day, with a large portion relying on
subsidized goods.[1] Egyptian population pyramid in 2005;
many people age 30 and younger,
According to the Peterson Institute for International Economics and despite education, have difficulty
other proponents of demographic structural approach finding work.
(cliodynamics), a basic problem in Egypt is unemployment driven
by a demographic youth bulge; with the number of new people
entering the workforce at about four percent a year, unemployment in Egypt is almost 10 times as high for
college graduates as for those who finished elementary school (particularly educated urban youth—the
people who were in the streets during the revolution).[82][83]
Economy and poor living conditions

Egypt's economy was highly centralised during the presidency of

Gamal Abdel Nasser, becoming more market-driven under Anwar
Sadat and Mubarak. From 2004 to 2008 the Mubarak government
pursued economic reform to attract foreign investment and increase
GDP, later postponing further reforms because of the Great
Recession. The international economic downturn slowed Egypt's
GDP growth to 4.5 percent in 2009. In 2010, analysts said that the A poor neighbourhood in Cairo
government of Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif would need to resume
economic reform to attract foreign investment, increase growth and
improve economic conditions. Despite recent high national economic growth, living conditions for the
average Egyptian remained relatively poor[84] (albeit better than other African nations[82] with no
significant social upheavals).

Corruption

Political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Interior Ministry rose dramatically, due to increased
control of the system necessary to sustain his presidency.[85] The rise to power of powerful businessmen in
the NDP, the government and the House of Representatives led to public anger during the Ahmed Nazif
government. Ahmed Ezz monopolised the steel industry, with more than 60 percent of market share.[86]
Aladdin Elaasar, an Egyptian biographer and American professor, estimated that the Mubarak family was
worth from $50 to $70 billion.[87][88]

The wealth of former NDP secretary Ezz was estimated at £E 18 billion;[89] the wealth of former housing
minister Ahmed al-Maghraby was estimated at more than £E 11 billion;[89] that of former tourism minister
Zuhair Garrana is estimated at £E  13  billion;[89] former minister of trade and industry Rashid Mohamed
Rashid is estimated to be worth £E 12 billion,[89] and former interior minister Habib al-Adly was estimated
to be worth £E 8 billion.[89] The perception among Egyptians was that the only people benefiting from the
nation's wealth were businessmen with ties to the National Democratic Party: "Wealth fuels political power
and political power buys wealth."[90]

During the 2010 elections, opposition groups complained about government harassment and fraud.
Opposition and citizen activists called for changes to a number of legal and constitutional provisions
affecting elections. In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) gave Egypt a
score of 3.1 based on perceptions by business people and analysts of the degree of corruption (with 10
being clean, and 0 totally corrupt).[91]

Prelude
To prepare for the possible overthrow of Mubarak, opposition groups studied Gene Sharp's work on
nonviolent action and worked with leaders of Otpor!, the student-led Serbian organisation. Copies of
Sharp's list of 198 non-violent "weapons", translated into Arabic and not always attributed to him, were
circulated in Tahrir Square during its occupation.[92][93]

Tunisian revolution
Following the ousting of Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali after mass protests, many analysts
(including former European Commission President Romano Prodi) saw Egypt as the next country where
such a revolution might occur.[94] According to The Washington Post, "The Jasmine Revolution [...] should
serve as a stark warning to Arab leaders – beginning with Egypt's 83-year-old Hosni Mubarak – that their
refusal to allow more economic and political opportunity is dangerous and untenable."[95] Others believed
that Egypt was not ready for revolution, citing little aspiration by the Egyptian people, low educational
levels and a strong government with military support.[96] The BBC said, "The simple fact is that most
Egyptians do not see any way that they can change their country or their lives through political action, be it
voting, activism, or going out on the streets to demonstrate."[97]

Self-immolation

After the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia on 17

December, a man set himself afire on 18 January in front of the
Egyptian parliament[98] and five more attempts followed.[96] On 17
January, Abdou Abdel Monaam, a baker, also set himself on fire to
protest a law that prevented restaurant owners from buying
subsidized bread, leading him to buy bread at the regular price –
which is five times higher than the subsidized. Mohammed Farouq
Mohammed, who is a lawyer, also set himself afire in front of the
parliament to protest his ex-wife, who did not allow him to see his
daughters.[99] In Alexandria, an unemployed man by the name of
Ahmed Hashem Sayed also set himself on fire.[100]

National Police Day protests

Protester holds Egyptian flag during
Opposition groups planned a day of revolt for 25 January,
protests which began on 25 January
coinciding with National Police Day, to protest police brutality in
2011.
front of the Ministry of Interior.[101] Protesters also demanded the
resignation of the Minister of Interior, an end to State corruption,
the end of emergency law and presidential term limits for the
president.

Many political movements, opposition parties and public figures supported the day of revolt, including
Youth for Justice and Freedom, the Coalition of the Youth of the Revolution, the Popular Democratic
Movement for Change, the Revolutionary Socialists and the National Association for Change. The April 6
Youth Movement was a major supporter of the protest, distributing 20,000 leaflets saying "I will protest on
25 January for my rights". The Ghad El-Thawra Party, Karama, Wafd and Democratic Front supported the
protests. The Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt's largest opposition group,[102] confirmed on 23 January that it
would participate.[103] Public figures, including novelist Alaa Al Aswany, writer Belal Fadl and actors
Amr Waked and Khaled Aboul Naga, announced that they would participate. The leftist National
Progressive Unionist Party (the Tagammu) said that it would not participate, and the Coptic Church urged
Christians not to participate in the protests.[102]

Twenty-six-year-old Asmaa Mahfouz was instrumental[104] in sparking the protests.[105][106] In a video

blog posted a week before National Police Day,[107] she urged the Egyptian people to join her on 25
January in Tahrir Square to bring down the Mubarak regime.[108] Mahfouz's use of video blogging and
social media went viral[109] and urged people not to be afraid.[110] The Facebook group for the event
attracted 80,000 people.
(Pre-)revolution timeline

Farouk to Mubarak

Most causes of the 2011 Egyptian revolution against Mubarak also existed in 1952, when the Free Officers
ousted King Farouk:[111] inherited power, corruption, under-development, unemployment, unfair
distribution of wealth and the presence of Israel. A new cause of the Arab Spring is the increase in
population, which increased unemployment. The first sign along the road to Mubarak was the 1967 war
between Egypt and Israel.
Gamal Abdel Nasser's defeat brought Anwar Sadat to power after Nasser's death
in 1970. Sadat undid Nasser's social reforms and dependence on the Soviet Union, predicting its collapse
nearly two decades before it occurred.

Sadat neglected the modernization of Egypt, and his cronyism cost the country infrastructure industries
which could generate new jobs. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak after Sadat's 1981 death. With no
academic or governmental experience, Mubarak implemented emergency rule throughout his 30 years in
office, not appointing a vice president until he was pressured to resign. Communications media such as the
internet, cell phones and satellite TV channels augmented mosques and Friday prayers, traditional means of
mass communications. The mosques brought the Muslim Brotherhood to power, and the Brotherhood has
pressured all governments from 1928 through 2011 (as it also does in neighboring countries).[112]

Under Mubarak

25 January 2011 ("Day of Revolt"): Protests erupted throughout

Egypt, with tens of thousands gathering in Cairo and thousands
more in other Egyptian cities. The protests targeted the Mubarak
government; while mostly non-violent, there were some reports of
civilian and police casualties.

26 January 2011: Civil unrest in Suez and other areas throughout

the country. Police arrested many activists.

27 January 2011: The government shuts down four major ISPs at Al Jazeera footage of Egyptian
approximately 5:20  p.m.  EST.[113] disrupting Internet traffic and protests
telephone services[114]

28 January 2011: The "Friday of Anger" protests began, with

hundreds of thousands demonstrating in Cairo and other Egyptian
cities after Friday prayers. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei
arrived in Cairo amid reports of looting. Prisons were opened and
burned down, allegedly on orders from Interior Minister Habib El
Adly. Prison inmates escaped en masse, in what was believed to be
an attempt to terrorise protesters. Police were withdrawn from the
streets, and the military was deployed. International fears of
violence grew, but no major casualties were reported. Mubarak
The "Day of Revolt", 25 January
made his first address to the nation, pledging to form a new
government. Later that night clashes broke out in Tahrir Square
between revolutionaries and pro-Mubarak demonstrators, leading to
casualties. No fatalities have been reported in Cairo, however, 11 people were killed in Suez and another
170 were injured.1,030 people were reported injured nationwide.
29 January 2011: The military presence in Cairo increased. A
curfew was imposed, which was widely ignored as the flow of
protesters into Tahrir Square continued through the night. The
military reportedly refused to follow orders to fire live ammunition,
exercising overall restraint; there were no reports of major
casualties. On 31 January, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd,
and 7th Divisions of the Egyptian Army had been ordered into
Cairo to help restore order.[115]

1 February 2011: Mubarak made another televised address, Protest in Tahrir Square, 4 February
offering several concessions. He pledged political reforms and said
he would not run in the elections planned for September, but would
remain in office to oversee a peaceful transition. Small-but-violent
clashes began that night between pro- and anti-Mubarak groups.

2 February 2011 (Camel Incident): Violence escalated as waves of

Mubarak supporters met anti-government protesters; some Mubarak
supporters rode camels and horses into Tahrir Square, reportedly
wielding sticks. The attack resulted in 3 deaths and 600
injuries.[116] Mubarak repeated his refusal to resign in interviews
with several news agencies. Violence toward journalists and Celebrating the announcement of
reporters escalated, amid speculation that it was encouraged by Hosni Mubarak's resignation in Tahrir
Mubarak to bring the protests to an end. The camel and horse riders Square, 11 February
later claimed that they were "good men", and they opposed the
protests because they wanted tourists to come back to keep their
jobs and feed their animals. The horse and camel riders deny that they were paid by anyone, though they
said that they were told about the protests from a ruling party MP. Three hundred people were reported
dead by the Human Rights Watch the following day, since 25 January.[117][118] Wael Ghonim, Google
executive and creator of the page We are all Khaled Said, was reported missing and the company asked the
public to help find him.[119]

6 February 2011: An interfaith service was held with Egyptian Christians and Muslims in Tahrir Square.
Negotiations by Egyptian Vice President Omar Suleiman and opposition representatives began during
continuing protests throughout the country. The Egyptian army assumed greater security responsibilities,
maintaining order and guarding The Egyptian Museum of Antiquity. Suleiman offered reforms, while
others in Mubarak's regime accused foreign nations (including the U.S.) of interfering in Egypt's affairs.

10 February 2011: Mubarak addressed the Egyptian people amid speculation of a military coup. Instead of
resigning (which was widely expected), he said he would delegate some powers to Vice President
Suleiman while remaining Egypt's head of state. Mubarak's statement was met with anger, frustration and
disappointment, and in a number of cities there was an escalation in the number and intensity of
demonstrations.

11 February 2011 ("Friday of Departure"): Large protests continued in many cities, as Egyptians refused
to accept Mubarak's concessions. At 6:00  pm Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation, entrusting the
Supreme Council of Egyptian Armed Forces with the leadership of the country.

Post-revolution timeline

Under the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces

13 February 2011: The Supreme Council dissolved Egypt's parliament and suspended the constitution in
response to demands by demonstrators. The council declared that it would wield power for six months, or
until elections could be held. Calls were made for the council to provide details and more-specific
timetables and deadlines. Major protests subsided, but did not end. In a gesture to a new beginning,
protesters cleaned up and renovated Tahrir Square (the epicenter of the demonstrations); however, many
pledged to continue protesting until all demands had been met.

17 February: The army said that it would not field a candidate in the upcoming presidential elections.[120]
Four important figures in the former regime were arrested that day: former interior minister Habib el-Adly,
former minister of housing Ahmed Maghrabi, former tourism minister H.E. Zuheir Garana and steel tycoon
Ahmed Ezz.[121]

2 March: The constitutional referendum was tentatively scheduled for 19 March 2011.[122]

3 March: A day before large protests against him were planned, Ahmed Shafik stepped down as prime
minister and was replaced by Essam Sharaf.[123]

5 March: Several State Security Intelligence (SSI) buildings across Egypt were raided by protesters,
including the headquarters for the Alexandria Governorate and the national headquarters in Nasr City,
Cairo. Protesters said that they raided the buildings to secure documents they believed prove crimes by the
SSI against the people of Egypt during Mubarak's rule.[124][125]

6 March: From the Nasr City headquarters, protesters acquired evidence of mass surveillance and vote-
rigging, noting rooms full of videotapes, piles of shredded and burned documents and cells in which
activists recounted their experiences of detention and torture.[126]

19 March: The constitutional referendum passed with 77.27 percent of the vote.[127]

22 March: Portions of the Interior Ministry building caught fire during police demonstrations outside.[128]

23 March: The Egyptian Cabinet ordered a law criminalising protests and strikes which hamper work at
private or public establishments. Under the new law, anyone organising such protests will be subject to
imprisonment or a fine of £E 500,000 (about US$100,000).[129]

1 April ("Save the Revolution Day"): About 4,000 demonstrators filled Tahrir Square for the largest protest
in weeks, demanding that the ruling military council more quickly dismantle lingering aspects of the old
regime;[130] protestors also demanded trials for Hosni Mubarak, Gamal Mubarak, Ahmad Fathi Sorour,
Safwat El-Sherif and Zakaria Azmi.

8 April ("Cleansing Friday"): Tens of thousands of demonstrators again filled Tahrir Square, criticizing the
Supreme Council of the Armed Forces for not following through on their demands: the resignation of
remaining regime figures and the removal of Egypt's public prosecutor, due to the slow pace of
investigations of corrupt former officials.[131]

7 May: The Imbaba church attacks, in which Salafi Muslims attacked Coptic Christian churches in the
working-class neighborhood of Imbaba in Cairo.[132]

27 May ("Second Friday of Anger", "Second Revolution of Anger" or "The Second Revolution"):
Tens of
thousands of demonstrators filled Tahrir Square,[133] in addition to demonstrations in Alexandria, Suez,
Ismailia and Gharbeya, in the largest demonstrations since the ouster of the Mubarak regime. Protestors
demanded no military trials for civilians, restoration of the Egyptian Constitution before parliament
elections and for all members of the old regime (and those who killed protestors in January and February)
to stand trial.
1 July ("Friday of Retribution"): Thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and Tahrir Square
to voice frustration with the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces for what they called the slow
pace of change, five months after the revolution, some also feared that the military is to rule Egypt
indefinitely.[134]

8 July ("Friday of Determination"): Hundreds of thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and
Tahrir Square, demanding immediate reform and swifter prosecution of former officials from the ousted
government.[135]

15 July: Tahrir Square protests continued.

23 July: Thousands of protesters attempted to march to the defense ministry after a speech by Mohammed
Tantawi commemorating the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but are met with counter-insurgents with sticks,
stones and Molotov cocktails.

1 August: Egyptian soldiers clashed with protesters, tearing down tents. Sixty-six people were arrested.

6 August: Hundreds of protesters gathered and prayed in Tahrir Square before they were attacked by
soldiers.[136]

9 September (2011 Israeli embassy attack; the "Friday of Correcting the Path"): Tens of thousands of
people protested in Suez, Alexandria and Cairo; however, Islamist protesters were absent.

9 October (Maspero demonstrations):[137][138] Late in the evening of 9 October, during a protest in the
Maspiro television building,[139] peaceful Egyptian protesters calling for the dissolution the Supreme
Council of the Armed Forces, the resignation of Chairman Field Marshal Mohamed Tantawi and the
dismissal of the governor of Aswan province were attacked by military police. At least 25 people[140] were
killed, and more than 200 wounded.

19 November: Clashes erupted as demonstrators reoccupied Tahrir Square. Central Security Forces used
tear gas to control the situation.[141]

20 November: Police attempted to forcibly clear the square, but protesters returned in more than double
their original numbers. Fighting continued through the night, with police using tear gas, beating and
shooting demonstrators.[141]

21 November: Demonstrators returned to the square, with Coptic Christians standing guard as Muslims
protesting the regime pause for prayers. The Health Ministry said that at least 23 died and over 1,500 were
injured since 19 November.[141] Solidarity protests were held in Alexandria and Suez.[142] Dissident
journalist Hossam el-Hamalawy told Al Jazeera that Egyptians would begin a general strike because they
"had enough" of the SCAF.[143]

28 November 2011 – 11 January 2012: Parliamentary elections

17 December 2011: The Institute d'Egypte caught fire during clashes between protesters and Egyptian
military; thousands of rare documents burned.[144]

23 January 2012: Democratically elected representatives of the People's Assembly met for the first time
since Egypt's revolution, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces gave them legislative
authority.[145][146][147]

24 January: Field Marshal Hussein Tantawi said that the decades-old state of emergency would be partially
lifted the following day.[148][149][150][151]
12 April: An administrative court suspended the 100-member constitutional assembly tasked with drafting a
new Egyptian constitution.[152][153][154]

23–24 May: First round of voting in the first presidential election since Hosni Mubarak was deposed.

31 May: The decades-long state of emergency expired.[155][156]

2 June: Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were sentenced to life in prison because of
their failure to stop the killing during the first six days of the revolution. The former president, his two sons
and a business tycoon were acquitted of corruption charges because the statute of limitations had expired.
Six senior police officials were also acquitted for their role in the killing of demonstrators, due to lack of
evidence.[157][158][159][160]

8 June: Political factions tentatively agreed to a deal to form a new constitutional assembly, consisting of
100 members who will draft the new constitution.[161]

12 June: When the Egyptian parliament met to vote for members of a constitutional assembly dozens of
secular MPs walked out, accusing Islamist parties of trying to dominate the panel.[162]

13 June: After Egypt's military government imposed de facto martial law (extending the arrest powers of
security forces),
the Justice Ministry issued a decree giving military officers authority to arrest civilians and
try them in military courts.[163][164][165][166] The provision remains in effect until a new constitution is
introduced, and could mean those detained could remain in jail for that long according to state-run Egy
News.[167]

14 June: The Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that a law passed by Parliament in May,
banning former regime figures from running for office, was unconstitutional; this ended a threat to Ahmed
Shafik's candidacy for president during Egypt's 2012 presidential election. The court ruled that all articles
making up the law regulating the 2011 parliamentary elections were invalid, upholding a lower-court ruling
which found that candidates running on party slates were allowed to contest the one-third of parliamentary
seats reserved for independents. The Egyptian parliament was dissolved, and the Supreme Council of the
Armed Forces resumed legislative authority. The SCAF said that it would announce a 100-person assembly
to write the country's new constitution.[167][168][169][170][171]

15 June: Security forces were stationed around Parliament to bar anyone, including lawmakers, from
entering the chambers without official authorisation.[172][173]

16–17 June: Second round of voting in the Egyptian presidential election. The SCAF issued an interim
constitution,[174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181] giving itself the power to control the prime minister,
legislation, the national budget and declarations of war without oversight, and chose a 100-member panel to
draft a permanent constitution.[173][182] Presidential powers include the power to choose his vice president
and cabinet, to propose the state budget and laws and to issue pardons.[177] The interim constitution
removed the military and the defense minister from presidential authority and oversight.[165][177]
According to the interim constitution, a permanent constitution must be written within three months and be
subject to a referendum 15 days later. When a permanent constitution is approved, a parliamentary election
will be held within a month to replace the dissolved parliament.[175][176][177][178]

18 June: The SCAF said that it picked a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution[173] if a court
strikes down the parliament-picked assembly, planning a celebration at the end of June to mark the transfer
of power to the new president.[165][183] Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi declared himself
the winner of the presidential election.[175][176]
19–24 June: Crowds gathered in Tahrir Square to protest the SCAF's dissolution of an elected, Islamist
parliament and await the outcome of the presidential election.[184][185][186][187][188][189][190]

24 June: Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi, the first Islamist elected head of an Arab state, is
declared the winner of the presidential election by the Egyptian electoral
commission.[191][192][193][194][195][196]

26 June: The Supreme Administrative Court revoked Decree No. 4991/2012 from the Minister of Justice,
which granted military intelligence and police the power to arrest civilians (a right previously reserved for
civilian police officers).[182][197][198][199]

27–28 June: After the first Constituent Assembly of Egypt was declared unconstitutional and dissolved in
April by Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, the second constituent assembly met to establish a
framework for drafting a post-Mubarak constitution.[200][201]

29 June: Mohamed Morsi took a symbolic oath of office in Tahrir Square, affirming that the people are the
source of power.[202][203][204]

30 June: Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically elected president before the Supreme
Constitutional Court at the podium used by U.S. President Barack Obama to reach out to the Islamic world
in 2009 in his A New Beginning speech.[205][206][207][208][209]

Under President Mohamed Morsi

For a chronological summary of the major events which took place after the 2011–2012 Egyptian
revolution under President Mohamed Morsi, see Timeline of the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution (Post-
revolution timeline).

November 2012 declaration

On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and attempting
to protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution.[210] The declaration required
a retrial of those acquitted of killing protesters, and extended the constituent assembly's mandate by two
months. The declaration also authorized Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution.
Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would
impose strict Islamism, while the Muslim Brotherhood supported Morsi.[211][212]

Morsi's declaration was criticized by Constitution Party leader Mohamed ElBaradei (who said that he had
"usurped all state powers and appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh"),[213] and led to violent protests
throughout the country.[214] Protesters again erected tents in Tahrir Square, demanding a reversal of the
declaration and the dissolving of the constituent assembly. A "huge protest" was planned for Tuesday, 27
November,[215] with clashes reported between protesters and police.[216] The declaration was also
condemned by Amnesty International UK.[217]

In April 2013 a youth group was created opposing Morsi and attempting to collect 22 million signatures by
30 June 2013 (the first anniversary of his presidency) on a petition demanding early presidential elections.
This triggered the June 2013 protests.
Although protests were scheduled for 30 June, opponents began
gathering on the 28th.[218] Morsi supporters (primarily from Islamic parties) also protested that day.[219]
On
30 June the group organized large protests in Tahrir Square and the presidential palace demanding early
presidential elections, which later spread to other governorates.[220]
June—July 2013 protests and overthrow

On 30 June 2013, marking the first anniversary of Morsi's

inauguration as president, millions of Egyptians protested against
him, demanding he step down from office. Morsi refused to resign.
A 48-hour ultimatum was issued to him, demanding that he
respond to the demands of the Egyptians,[221] and on 3 July 2013,
the President of Egypt was overthrown. Unlike the imposition of
martial law which followed the 2011 resignation of Hosni
Mubarak, on 4 July 2013, a civilian senior jurist Adly Mansour was
appointed interim president and was sworn in over the new
Demonstration in Tahrir Square
government following Morsi's removal. Mansour had the right to
Against Mubarak – 30Jan2011
issue constitutional declarations and vested executive power in the
Supreme Constitutional Court, giving him executive, judicial and
constitutional power.[222] Morsi refused to accept his removal from office, and many supporters vowed to
reinstate him. They originally intended their sit-ins to celebrate Morsi's first anniversary, but they quickly
became opposed to the new authorities.[223] Their sit-ins were dispersed on 14 August that year by security
forces, leading to at least 904 civilian deaths and 8 police officers killed.[224][225]

On 18 January 2014, the interim government institutionalised a new constitution following a referendum in
which 98.2% of voters were supportive. Participation was low with only 38.6% of registered voters
participating[226] although this was higher than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's
tenure.[227] On 26 March 2014 Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this
time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in
the 2014 presidential election.[228] The poll, which had a 47% turnout, and was held between 26 and 28
May 2014, resulted in a resounding victory for el-Sisi.[229] Sisi sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8
June 2014.

Protests by city

Cairo

Cairo has been at the centre of the revolution; the largest protests
were held in downtown Tahrir Square, considered the "protest Protesters in Alexandria
movement's beating heart and most effective symbol".[230] During
the first three days of the protests there were clashes between the
central security police and demonstrators, but on 28 January the police withdrew from all of Cairo. Citizens
formed neighbourhood-watch groups to maintain order, and widespread looting was reported. Traffic police
were reintroduced to Cairo the morning of 31 January.[231] An estimated two million people protested at
Tahrir Square. During the protests, reporters Natasha Smith, Lara Logan and Mona Eltahawy were
sexually assaulted while covering the events.[232][233][234][235]

Alexandria

Alexandria, home of Khaled Saeed, experienced major protests and clashes with police. There were few
confrontations between demonstrators, since there were few Mubarak supporters (except for a few police-
escorted convoys). The breakdown of law and order, including the general absence of police from the
streets, continued until the evening of 3 February. Alexandria's protests were notable for the joint presence
of Christians and Muslims in the events following the church bombing on 1 January, which sparked
protests against the Mubarak regime.

Mansoura

In the northern city of Mansoura, there were daily protests against the Mubarak regime beginning on 25
January; two days later, the city was called a "war zone". On 28 January, 13 were reported dead in violent
clashes; on 9 February, 18 more protesters died. One protest, on 1 February, had an estimated attendance of
one million. The remote city of Siwa had been relatively calm,[236] but local sheikhs reportedly in control
put the community under lockdown after a nearby town was burned.[237]

Suez

Suez also saw violent protests. Eyewitness reports suggested that the death toll was high, although
confirmation was difficult due to a ban on media coverage in the area.[238] Some online activists called
Suez Egypt's Sidi Bouzid (the Tunisian city where protests began).[239] On 3 February, 4,000 protesters
took to the streets to demand Mubarak's resignation.[240] A labour strike took place on 8 February,[241] and
large protests were held on 11 February.[242] The MENA news agency reported the death of two protestors
and one police officers on 26 January.[243]

Other cities

There were protests in Luxor.[244] On 11 February police opened fire on protesters in Dairut, tens of
thousands of protesters took to the streets of Shebin el-Kom, thousands protested in El-Arish on the Sinai
Peninsula,[242] large protests took place in the southern cities of Sohag and Minya and nearly 100,000
people protested in and around local-government headquarters in Ismaïlia.[242] Over 100,000 protesters
gathered on 27 January in front of the city council in Zagazig.[245] Bedouins in the Sinai Peninsula fought
security forces for several weeks.[246] As a result of the decreased military border presence, Bedouin
groups protected the borders and pledged their support of the revolution.[247] However, despite mounting
tension among tourists no protests or civil unrest occurred in Sharm-El-Sheikh.[248]

Deaths
Before the protests six cases of self-immolation were reported, including a man arrested while trying to set
himself afire in downtown Cairo.[249] The cases were inspired by (and began one month after) the acts of
self-immolation in Tunisia which triggered the Tunisian revolution. The self-immolators included Abdou
Abdel-Moneim Jaafar,[250] Mohammed Farouk Hassan,[251] Mohammed Ashour Sorour[252] and Ahmed
Hashim al-Sayyed, who later died from his injuries.[253]

As of 30 January, Al Jazeera reported as many as 150 deaths in the protests.[254]

By 29 January, 2,000 people were confirmed injured.[255] That day, an employee of the Azerbaijani
embassy in Cairo was killed on their way home from work;[256] the following day, Azerbaijan sent a plane
to evacuate citizens[257] and opened a criminal investigation into the killing.[258]
Funerals for those killed during the "Friday of Anger" were held on
30 January. Hundreds of mourners gathered, calling for Mubarak's
removal.[259] By 1 February the protests left at least 125 people
dead,[260] although Human Rights Watch said that UN High
Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay claimed that as many
as 300 might have died in the unrest. The unconfirmed tally
included 80 Human-Rights-Watch-verified deaths at two Cairo
hospitals, 36 in Alexandria and 13 in Suez;[261][262][263] over
Tahrir Square memorial made by
3,000 people were reported injured.[261][263] demonstrators in honour of those
who died during the protests,
An Egyptian governmental fact-finding commission about the
regarded as shuhada' Arabic: ‫شهداء‬
revolution announced on 19 April that at least 846 Egyptians died
(martyrs). The photo captions
in the nearly three-week-long uprising.[264][265][266] One attribute most of the deaths to police
prominent Egyptian who was killed was Emad Effat, a senior cleric violence.
at the Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah school of Al-Azhar University. He
died 16 December 2011, after he was shot in front of the cabinet
building.[267] At Effat's funeral the following day, hundreds of
mourners chanted "Down with military rule".[267][268]

International reaction
International response to the protests was initially mixed,[269]
although most governments called for peaceful action on both sides Graffiti at Tahrir square,
and a move towards reform. Most Western nations expressed commemorating martyrs of the
concern about the situation, and many governments issued travel revolution
advisories and attempted to evacuate their citizens from Egypt.[270]

The European Union Foreign Affairs Chief said, "I also reiterate my call upon the Egyptian authorities to
urgently establish a constructive and peaceful way to respond to the legitimate aspirations of Egyptian
citizens for democratic and socioeconomic reforms."[271] The United States, the United Kingdom, France
and Germany issued similar statements calling for reform and an end to violence against peaceful protesters.
Many states in the region expressed concern and supported Mubarak; Saudi Arabia issued a statement
"strongly condemn[ing]" the protests,[272] while Tunisia and Iran supported them. Israel was cautious, with
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asking his government ministers to maintain silence and urging Israel's
allies to curb their criticism of President Mubarak;[273][274] however, an Arab-Israeli parliamentarian
supported the protests. Solidarity demonstrations for the protesters were held worldwide.

Non-governmental organizations expressed concern about the protests and the heavy-handed state
response, with Amnesty International describing attempts to discourage the protests as "unacceptable".[275]
Many countries (including the U.S., Israel, the UK and Japan) issued travel warnings or began evacuating
their citizens, and multinational corporations began evacuating expatriate employees.[276] Many university
students were also evacuated.

Post-ouster

Many nations, leaders and organizations hailed the end of the Mubarak regime, and celebrations were held
in Tunisia and Lebanon. World leaders, including German Chancellor Angela Merkel and UK Prime
Minister David Cameron, joined in praising the revolution.[277] U.S. President Barack Obama praised the
achievement of the Egyptian people and encouraged other activists, saying "Let's look at Egypt's
example".[278] Amid growing concern for the country, David Cameron was the first world leader to visit
Egypt (10 days after Mubarak's resignation). A news blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in
Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover, hastily added to the beginning of a planned tour of the Middle
East.[279] On 15 March, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Egypt; she was the highest-
ranking U.S. official to visit the country since the handover of power from Mubarak to the military. Clinton
urged military leaders to begin the process of a democratic transition, offering support to protesters and
reaffirming ties between the two nations.[280]

Results
On 29 January Mubarak indicated that he would change the government because, despite the crossing of a
"point of no return", national stability and law and order must prevail. He asked the government, formed
only months ago, to step down and promised that a new government would be formed.[281] Mubarak
appointed Omar Suleiman, head of Egyptian Intelligence, vice president and Ahmed Shafik prime
minister.[282] On 1 February, he said he would stay in office until the next election in September, and then
leave. Mubarak promised political reform, but made no offer to resign.

The Muslim Brotherhood joined the revolution on 30 January, calling on the military to intervene and all
opposition groups to unite against Mubarak. It joined other opposition groups in electing Mohamed el
Baradei to lead an interim government.[283]

Many of the Al-Azhar imams joined protesters throughout the country on 30 January.[284] Christian leaders
asked their congregations not to participate in the demonstrations, although a number of young Christian
activists joined protests led by New Wafd Party member Raymond Lakah.[285]

On 31 January, Mubarak swore in his new cabinet in the hope that the unrest would fade. Protesters in
Tahrir Square continued demanding his ouster, since a vice-president and prime minister were already
appointed.[286] He told the new government to preserve subsidies, control inflation and provide more
jobs.[287]

On 1 February Mubarak said that although his candidacy had been announced by high-ranking members of
his National Democratic Party,[288] he never intended to run for reelection in September.[289] He asked
parliament for reforms:

According to my constitutional powers, I call on parliament in both its houses to discuss

amending article 76 and 77 of the constitution concerning the conditions on running for
presidency of the republic and it sets specific a period for the presidential term. In order for the
current parliament in both houses to be able to discuss these constitutional amendments and the
legislative amendments linked to it for laws that complement the constitution and to ensure the
participation of all the political forces in these discussions, I demand parliament to adhere to
the word of the judiciary and its verdicts concerning the latest cases which have been legally
challenged.

— Hosni Mubarak, 1 February 2011[290]

Opposition groups, including the Muslim Brotherhood (MB), repeated their demand that Mubarak resign;
after the protests turned violent, the MB said that it was time for military intervention.[291] Mohamed
ElBaradei, who said he was ready to lead a transitional government,[292] was a consensus candidate from a
unified opposition, which included the 6 April Youth Movement, the We Are All Khaled Said Movement,
the National Association for Change, the 25 January Movement, Kefaya and the Muslim Brotherhood.[293]
ElBaradei formed a "steering committee".[294] On 5 February, talks began between the government and
opposition groups for a transitional period before elections.

The government cracked down on the media, halting internet access[295] (a primary means of opposition
communication) with the help of London-based Vodafone.[296][297][298] Journalists were harassed by
supporters of the regime, eliciting condemnation from the Committee to Protect Journalists, European
countries and the United States. Narus, a subsidiary of Boeing, sold the Mubarak government surveillance
equipment to help identify dissidents.[299]

Reforms

The revolution's primary demands, chanted at every protest, were bread (jobs), freedom, social justice and
human dignity. The fulfillment of these demands has been uneven and debatable.
Demands stemming from
the main four include the following:

Sign with protester demands

Shredded documents at the

State Security
Investigations Service
 Protesters' demands[300]
Demand Status Date
11 February
1. Resignation of President Mubarak Met
2011
The basic
minimum
wage rose
2. New minimum and maximum wages Met from £E 246
to £E 870 on
22 March
2015[301]

3. Canceling emergency law Met[302] 31 May 2012

Claimed
met;[303]
4. Dismantling the State Security Investigations Service 31 May 2012
reneged in
2013[304]
Claimed
5. Announcement by vice-president Omar Suleiman that he would not run for met;[305] 3 February
president reneged in 2011
April 2012
13 February
6. Dissolving Parliament Met
2011
Ongoing;
More have
been arrested
7. Release of those imprisoned since 25 January and faced
military trials
under the
SCAF

8. Ending the curfew Met[306] 15 June 2011

9. Removing the SSI-controlled university police Claimed met 3 March 2011

10. Investigation of officials responsible for violence against protesters Ongoing
Not met;
minister fired,
ministry still
11. Firing Minister of Information Anas el-Fiqqi and halting media propaganda
exists and
propaganda
ongoing[307]
Announced; 7 February
12. Reimbursing shop owners for losses during the curfew
not met 2011
11–18
13. Announcing demands on government television and radio Claimed met
February 2011
14. Dissolving the NDP Met 16 April 2011
15. Arrest, interrogation and trial of Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and
Met[308] 24 May 2011
Alaa

16. Transfer of power from SCAF to civilian council Met[309] 30 June 2012

17. Removal of Mohamed Morsi in a military coup, after protests in Tahrir

Met 3 July 2013
Square and throughout Egypt
On 17 February, an Egyptian prosecutor ordered the
detention of three former ministers (interior minister Habib
el-Adli, tourism minister Zuhair Garana and housing
minister Ahmed el-Maghrabi) and steel magnate Ahmed
Ezz pending trial for wasting public funds. The public
prosecutor froze the bank accounts of Adli and his family
following accusations that over £E  4  million ($680,000)
were transferred to his personal account by a businessman.
The foreign minister was requested to contact European
Voter line in Mokattam, Cairo, during the 19
countries to freeze the other defendants' accounts.[310]
March 2011 constitutional referendum
That day, the United States announced that it would give extending from the built-up area of Mokattam
Egypt $150  million in aid to help it transition towards into the desert. The referendum had an
democracy. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said unprecedented voter turnout of over 18 million.
that William Burns (undersecretary of state for political
affairs) and David Lipton (a senior White House adviser
on international economics) would travel to Egypt the following week.[310]

On 19 February a moderate Islamic party which had been banned for 15 years, Al-Wasat Al-Jadid (Arabic:
‫حزب الوسط الجديد‬, New Center Party), was finally recognised by an Egyptian court. The party was
founded in 1996 by activists who split from the Muslim Brotherhood and sought to create a tolerant, liberal
Islamic movement, but its four attempts to register as an official party were rejected. That day, Prime
Minister Ahmed Shafiq also said that 222 political prisoners would be released. Shafiq said that only a few
were detained during the uprising; he put the number of remaining political prisoners at 487, but did not say
when they would be released.[311] On 20 February Yehia El Gamal, an activist and law professor, accepted
on television the position of deputy prime minister. The next day, the Muslim Brotherhood announced that
it would form a political party, the Freedom and Justice Party led by Saad Ketatni, for the upcoming
parliamentary election.[312][313][314] A spokesperson said, "When we talk about the slogans of the
revolution – freedom, social justice, equality – all of these are in the Sharia (Islamic law)."[315]

On 3 March, Prime Minister Shafiq submitted his resignation to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.
The SCAF appointed Essam Sharaf, a former transportation minister and a vocal critic of the regime
following his resignation after the 2006 Qalyoub rail accident, to replace Shafik and form a new
government. Sharaf's appointment was seen as a concession to protesters, since he was actively involved in
the events in Tahrir Square.[316][317][318] Sharaf appointed former International Court of Justice judge
Nabil Elaraby foreign minister and Mansour El Essawi as interior minister.[319][320]

On 16 April the Higher Administrative Court dissolved the former ruling National Democratic Party
(NDP), ordering its funds and property to be transferred to the government.[321] On 24 May it was
announced that Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and Alaa, would be for over the deaths of anti-
government protesters during the revolution.[322]

Trials

Mubarak's resignation was followed by a series of arrests of, and travel bans on, high-profile figures on
charges of causing the deaths of 300–500 demonstrators, injuring 5,000 more, embezzlement, profiteering,
money laundering and human rights abuses. Among those charged were Mubarak, his wife Suzanne, his
sons Gamal and Alaa, former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former housing minister Ahmed El-
Maghrabi, former tourism minister Zoheir Garana and former secretary for organizational affairs of the
National Democratic Party Ahmed Ezz.[323] Mubarak's ouster was followed by allegations of corruption
against other government officials and senior politicians.[324][325] On 28 February 2011, Egypt's top
prosecutor ordered an assets freeze on Mubarak and his family.[326] This was followed by arrest warrants,
travel bans and asset freezes for other public figures, including former parliament speaker Fathi Sorour and
former Shura Council speaker Safwat El Sherif.[327][328] Arrest warrants were issued for financial
misappropriations by public figures who left the country at the outbreak of the revolution, including former
trade and industry minister Rachid Mohamed Rachid and businessman Hussein Salem; Salem was believed
to have fled to Dubai.[329] Trials of the accused officials began on 5 March 2011, when former interior
minister Habib el-Adli appeared at the Giza Criminal Court in Cairo.[330]

In March 2011 Abbud al-Zumar, one of Egypt's best-known political prisoners, was freed after 30 years.
Founder and first emir of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, he was implicated on 6 October 1981 assassination of
Anwar Sadat.[331]

On 24 May, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors
during the revolution; if convicted, he could face the death penalty. The list of charges, released by the
public prosecutor, was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence
and deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".[12]

Analysis

Regional instability

The Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions sparked a wave of uprisings, with demonstrations spreading across
the Middle East and North Africa. Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Yemen and Syria
witnessed major protests, and minor demonstrations occurred in Iraq, Kuwait, Mauritania, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, Somalia and Sudan.

The Egyptian protests in Egypt were not centred around religion-based politics, but nationalism and social
consciousness.[332] Before the uprising, the best-organised and most-prominent opposition movements in
the Arab world usually came from Islamist organisations with members who were motivated and ready to
sacrifice. However, secular forces emerged from the revolution espousing principles shared with religious
groups: freedom, social justice and dignity. Islamist organisations emerged with a greater freedom to
operate. Although the cooperative, inter-faith revolution was no guarantee that partisan politics would not
re-emerge in its wake, its success represented a change from the intellectual stagnation (created by decades
of repression) which pitted modernity and Islamism against one another. Islamists and secularists are faced
with new opportunities for dialogue on subjects such as the role of Islam and Sharia in society, freedom of
speech and the impact of secularism on a predominantly Muslim population.[333]

Despite the optimism surrounding the revolution, commentators expressed concern about the risk of
increased power and influence for Islamist forces in the country and region and the difficulty of integrating
different groups, ideologies and visions for the country. Journalist Caroline Glick wrote that the Egyptian
revolution foreshadowed a rise in religious radicalism and support for terrorism, citing a 2010 Pew Opinion
poll which found that Egyptians supported Islamists over modernizers by an over two-to-one margin.[334]
Another journalist, Shlomo Ben-Ami, said that Egypt's most formidable task was to refute the old paradigm
of the Arab world which sees the only choices for regimes repressive, secular dictatorships or repressive
theocracies. Ben-Ami noted that with Islam a central part of the society, any emergent regime was bound to
be attuned to religion. In his view, a democracy which excluded all religion from public life (as in France)
could succeed in Egypt but no genuine Arab democracy could disallow the participation of political
Islam.[335]
Since the revolution Islamist parties (such as the Muslim Brotherhood) have strengthened in the democratic
landscape, leading constitutional change, voter mobilization and protests.[336][337] This was a concern of
the secular and youth movements, who wanted elections to be held later so they could catch up to the
already-well-organized groups. Elections were held in September 2011, with Liberty and Justice (the
Muslim Brotherhood party) winning 48.5 percent of the vote. In 2014 in Upper Egypt, several newspapers
reported that Upper Egypt wanted to secede from the rest of the country to improve its standard of
living.[338]

Alexandria church bombing

Early on New Year's Day 2011 a bomb exploded in front of an Alexandria church, killing 23 Coptic
Christians. Egyptian officials said that "foreign elements" were behind the attack.[339] Other sources claim
that the bomb killed 21 people only and injured more than 70.[340][341] Some Copts accused the Egyptian
government of negligence;[342] after the attack, many Christians protested in the streets (with Muslims
joining later). After clashing with police, protesters in Alexandria and Cairo shouted slogans denouncing
Mubarak's rule[343][344][345] in support of unity between Christians and Muslims. Their sense of being let
down by national security forces was cited as one of the first grievances sparking 25 January uprising.[346]
On 7 February a complaint was filed against Habib al-Adly (interior minister until Mubarak dissolved the
government during the protests' early days), accusing him of directing the attack.[347]

Role of women

Egyptian women have been participating actively in the revolution,

in the same way that they played an active role in the strike
movement in the few last years, in several cases pressurizing the
men to join the strikes.[349] In earlier protests in Egypt, women
only accounted for about 10 per cent of the protesters, but on Tahrir
Square they accounted for about 40 to 50 per cent in the days
leading up to the fall of Mubarak. Women, with and without veils,
participated in the defence of the square, set up barricades, led
debates, shouted slogans and, together with the men, risked their
lives.[349] Some participated in the protests, were present in news
clips and on Facebook forums and were part of the revolution's
leadership during the Egyptian revolution. In Tahrir Square, female
protesters (some with children) supported the protests. The diversity
of the protesters in Tahrir Square was visible in the women who
participated; many wore head scarves and other signs of religious
conservatism, while others felt free to kiss a friend or smoke a
cigarette in public. Women organised protests and reported events;
female bloggers, such as Leil Zahra Mortada, risked abuse or Female protester wearing a niqāb[348]
imprisonment by keeping the world informed of events in Tahrir
Square and elsewhere.[350] Among those who died was Sally
Zahran, who was beaten to death during one of the demonstrations. NASA reportedly planned to name one
of its Mars exploration spacecraft in Zahran's honour.[351]

The participation and contributions by Egyptian women to the protests were attributed to the fact that many
(especially younger women) were better educated than previous generations and represent more than half
of Egyptian university students. This is an empowering factor for women, who have become more present
and active publicly. The advent of social media also provided a tool for women to become protest
leaders.[350]
Role of the military

The Egyptian Armed Forces initially enjoyed a better public

reputation than the police did; the former was seen as a professional
body protecting the country, and the latter was accused of systemic
corruption and lawless violence. However, when the SCAF
cracked down on protesters after becoming the de facto ruler of
Egypt the military's popularity decreased. All four Egyptian
presidents since the 1950s have a military background. Key
Egyptian military personnel include defense minister Mohamed One of two army vehicles burnt
Hussein Tantawi and armed forces chief of staff Sami Hafez during the army attacks on 9 April
Enan.[352][353] The Egyptian military numbers about 468,500 2011
active personnel, plus a reserve of 479,000.[354]

As head of Egypt's armed forces, Tantawi has been described as

"aged and change-resistant" and is attached to the old regime. He
has used his position as defense minister to oppose economic and
political reform he saw as weakening central authority. Other key
figures (Sami Hafez Anan chief among them) are younger, with
closer connections to the U.S. and the Muslim Brotherhood. An
important aspect of the relationship between the Egyptian and
American military establishments is the $1.3  billion in annual
military aid provided to Egypt, which pays for American-made An Egyptian blocking a SWAT van in
military equipment and allows Egyptian officers to train in the U.S. response to the protests
Guaranteed this aid package, the ruling SCAF is resistant to
reform.[355][356][357] One analyst, conceding the military's
conservatism, says it has no option but to facilitate democratisation. It will have to limit its political role to
continue good relations with the West, and cannot restrict Islamist participation in a genuine
democracy.[335]

The military has led a violent crackdown on the Egyptian revolution since the fall of Mubarak. On 9 March
2011 military police violently dispersed a sit-in in Tahrir Square, arresting and torturing protesters. Seven
female protesters were forcibly subjected to virginity tests.[358] During the night of 8 April 2011 military
police attacked a sit-in in Tahrir Square by protesters and sympathetic military officers, killing at least
one.[359] On 9 October the Egyptian military crushed protesters under armed personnel carriers and shot
live ammunition at a demonstration in front of the Maspero television building, killing at least 24.[360] On
19 November the military and police engaged in a continuous six-day battle with protestors in the streets of
downtown Cairo and Alexandria, killing nearly 40 and injuring over 2,000.[361] On 16 December 2011
military forces dispersed a sit-in at the Cabinet of Ministers building, killing 17.[362] Soldiers fired live
ammunition and attacked from the rooftop with Molotov cocktails, rocks and other missiles.[363]

Impact on foreign relations

Foreign governments in the West (including the U.S.) regarded Mubarak as an important ally and supporter
in the Israeli–Palestinian peace negotiations.[44] After wars with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973,
Egypt signed a peace treaty in 1979 (provoking controversy in the Arab world). According to the 1978
Camp David Accords (which led to the peace treaty), Israel and Egypt receive billions of dollars in aid
annually from the United States; Egypt received over US$1.3 billion in military aid each year, in addition to
economic and development assistance.[364] According to Juan Cole many Egyptian youth felt ignored by
Mubarak, feeling that he put the interests of the West ahead of theirs.[365] The cooperation of the Egyptian
regime in enforcing the blockade of the Gaza Strip was deeply unpopular with the Egyptian public.[366]

Online activism and social media

The 6 April Youth Movement (Arabic: ‫ أبريل‬6 ‫ )حركة شباب‬is an

Egyptian Facebook group begun in spring 2008 to support workers
in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, an industrial town, who were planning to
strike on 6 April.
Activists called on participants to wear black and
stay home the day of the strike. Bloggers and citizen journalists
used Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, blogs and other media tools to
report on the strike, alert their networks about police activity,
organize legal protection and draw attention to their efforts. The
New York Times has called it the political Facebook group in Egypt Man holding a poster reading
with the most dynamic debates.[367] In March 2012 it had "Facebook, #jan25, The Egyptian
325,000[368] predominantly young and members, most previously Social Network" during the 2011
inactive politically, whose concerns included free speech, nepotism protests
in government and the country's stagnant economy. Their
Facebook forum features intense and heated discussions, and is
frequently updated.

We are all Khaled Said is a Facebook group which formed in the

aftermath of Said's beating and death. The group attracted hundreds
of thousands of members worldwide, playing a prominent role in
spreading (and drawing attention to) the growing discontent. As the
protests began, Google executive Wael Ghonim revealed that he
was behind the account. He was later detained for a few days until
the government was able to get a hold of certain information that People take to the streets on 7 April
2008, in Mahalla, Egypt. In the days
they needed. Many questions were left around that subject, no one
following the planned strike on 6 April
really understood what had actually happened or what has had
that was shut down by government
been said.[369] In a TV interview with SCAF members after the
force, a series of uprisings and
revolution, Abdul Rahman Mansour (an underground activist and
military reprisals turned the city of
media expert) was disclosed as sharing the account with
Mahalla, about two hours north of
Ghonim.[370] Another online contribution was made by Asmaa Cairo, into a conflict zone. Rising
Mahfouz, an activist who posted a video challenging people to food prices fueled the unrest. The 6
publicly protest.[371] Facebook had previously suspended the April Movement was formed in the
group because some administrators were using pseudonyms, a wake of the uprisings which fed
violation of the company's terms of service.[372] revolutionary sentiment and helped
lead to the 2011 revolution.
Social media has been used extensively.[373][374][375][376] As one
Egyptian activist tweeted during the protests, "We use Facebook to
schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world."[377] Internet censorship has
also been extensive, in some cases to the extent of taking entire nations virtually offline.[378]

Facebook, Twitter and blogging helped spread the uprising. Egyptian businessman Khaled Said was beaten
to death by police in June 2010, reportedly in retaliation for a video he posted showing Egyptian police
sharing the spoils of a drug bust. Wael Ghonim's memorial Facebook page to Said grew to over 400,000
followers, creating an online arena where protestors and those discontented with the government could
gather and organise. The page called for protests on 25 January, later known as the "Day of Wrath".
Hundreds of thousands of protestors flooded the streets to show their discontent with murder and corruption
in their country. Ghonim was jailed on 28 January, and released 12 days later.

Egyptian activist and 6 April Youth Movement member Asmaa Mahfouz posted a video urging the
Egyptian people to meet her at Tahrir Square, rise up against the government and demand democracy. In
the video, she spoke about four protesters who had immolated themselves in protest of 30 years of poverty
and degradation. On 24 January Mahfouz posted another video relating efforts made in support of the
protest, from printing posters to creating flyers. The videos were posted on Facebook and then YouTube.
The day after her last video post, hundreds of thousands of Egyptians poured into the streets in protest.

Since 25 January 2011, videos (including those of a badly beaten Khaled Said, disproving police claims
that he had choked to death), tweets and Facebook comments have kept the world abreast of the situation in
Egypt. Amir Ali documents the ways in which social media was used by Egyptian activists, Egyptian
celebrities and political figures abroad to fan the protests.[379]

Democracy Now! journalist Sharif Abdel Kouddous provided live coverage and tweets from Tahrir Square
during the protests, and was credited with using social media to increase awareness of the protests.[380][381]
The role of social media in the Egyptian uprising was debated in the first edition of the Dubai Debates:
"Mark Zuckerberg – the new hero of the Arab people?"[382] Amir Ali has argued that, based in part on the
Egyptian revolution, social media may be an effective tool in developing nations.[383]

Critics who downplay the influence of social networking on the Arab Spring cite several points:

Fewer than 20 percent of Egyptians had internet access, and the internet reached less than
40 percent of the country[384]
Social-networking sites were generally unpopular in the Middle East,[385][386]
Such sites were not sufficiently private to evade authorities[387]
Many people did not trust social networking as a news source[388]
Social-networking sites were promoted by the media[389]
Social-networking sites did not involve non-activists in the revolution[390]

Some protesters discouraged the use of social media. A widely circulated pamphlet by an anonymous
activist group titled "How to Protest Intelligently" (Arabic: ‫)كيف لالحتجاج بذكاء؟‬, asked readers "not to use
Twitter or Facebook or other websites because they are all being monitored by the Ministry of the
Interior".[391]

Television, particularly live coverage by Al Jazeera English and BBC News, was important to the
revolution; the cameras provided exposure, preventing mass violence by the government in Tahrir Square
(in contrast to the lack of live coverage and more-widespread violence in Libya).[392] Its use was important
in order to portray the violence of the Egyptian government, as well as, building support for the revolution
through several different mediums. On one front was social media giving minute by minute updates via
YouTube, Facebook and Twitter, and in the other hand was the use of the mainstream media to report to a
wider audience about the overall developments occurring in Egypt.[393] The ability of protesters to focus
their demonstrations on a single area (with live coverage) was fundamental in Egypt but impossible in
Libya, Bahrain and Syria, irrespective of social-media use. A social-media expert launched a network of
messages with the hashtag #jan25 on 11 February 2011, when Mubarak's resignation was announced.[394]

Social media helped secure solidarity for the revolutionaries from people outside of Egypt. This is evident
through movements like the "March of Millions", "Voice of Egypt Abroad", "Egyptians Abroad in Support
of Egypt" and "New United Arab States", who had their inception during the revolution inside the realms
of Twitter and Facebook.[393]

Journalism scholar Heather Ford studied the use of infoboxes and cleanup templates in the Wikipedia article
regarding the revolution. Ford claims that infoboxes and cleanup tags were used as objects of "bespoken-
code" by Wikipedia editors. By using these elements, editors shaped the news narrative in the first 18 days
of the revolution. Ford used the discussion page and the history of edits to the page. She shows how
political cartoons were removed, and how the number of casualties became a source of heated debate. Her
research exemplifies how editors coordinated and prioritized work on the article, but also how political
events are represented through collaborative journalism.[395]

Role of media disruption on 28 January 2011

During the early morning hours of 28 January the Mubarak regime shut down internet and cell phone
networks in the whole country. This media shutdown was likely one of the reasons why the numbers of
protestors exploded on 28 January.

While the regime disrupted the media, people needed to engage in face-to-face communication on a local
level, which the regime could not monitor or control. In such a situation it is more likely that radicals will
influence their neighbors, who are not able to see the public opinion displayed in social media, therefore
these people are then more likely to also engage in civil unrest.[396]

This vicious circle can be explained through a threshold model of collective behavior, which states that
people are more likely to engage in risky actions if other people inside their networks (neighbors, friends,
etc.) have taken action. Radicals have a small threshold and are more likely to form new networks during
an information blackout, influencing the people.

Disrupting the media and communication had 2 main results: it increased the local mobilization of people
and empowered radicals who influenced their surroundings, which resulted in an increase in protests.[397]

During 28 January the increased local mobilization pushed a large amount of apolitical Egyptians into
action, either to look after their friends and family in the absence of mobile communication or to complain
about the shutdown, resulting in large protests not only in Cairo. Meanwhile, the Mubarak regime was
unable to communicate a possible threat to the protestors via social media and was therefore unable to
dissuade the crowds through this mean, which spread the protests further.[396]

Post-revolutionary art

The 25 January Revolution and the fall of Hosni Mubarak the following month ushered in a new artistic era
reflecting a changed social and political environment;[398] "the revolution triggered a new public
culture".[399] Since its beginning, artists played a significant role in the protests; street art and music (electro
or techno sha'bi) were used to craft a public culture.[400] Artists documented and captured the essence of
the revolution, distributing their art through online and face-to-face social networks.[401]

See also
2011 virginity tests of protestors in Egypt
Cross border attacks in Sabah
1997 Asian financial crisis#Indonesia
1967 Hong Kong riots
Lebanese Civil War
 Grigoris Lambrakis, a similar greek political activist
Syrian civil war
Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa
Muslim Brotherhood in post-Mubarak electoral politics of Egypt
Mohamed Mahmoud graffiti
Freedom in the World
List of freedom indices
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
List of modern conflicts in North Africa
Financial crisis of 2007–2008
2007–2008 world food price crisis
Asmaa Mahfouz – political activist
Ahmed Seada – political activist
2019 Egyptian protests
2016–17 Egyptian protests
Canada convoy protest

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original (https://gephi.org/2011/the-egyptian-revolution-on-twitter/) on 25 December 2011.
Retrieved 26 December 2011.
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of-the-new-egypt) on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
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Further reading
Bradley, John R. (2008). Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a
Revolution (https://archive.org/details/insideegyptlando00brad). New York: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8477-7.
El-Mahdi, Rabab; Marfleet, Philip, eds. (2009). Egypt: The Moment of Change. London: Zed.
ISBN 978-1-84813-021-0.
Faris, David (2010). "Revolutions Without Revolutionaries? Social Media Networks and
Regime Response in Egypt" (http://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/116). Publicly
Accessible Penn Dissertations. Publicly accessible Penn Dissertations. Paper 116.
Maurushat, Alana, Chawki, Mohammed, Al-Alosi, Hadeel, and el Shazly, Yassin (2014),
"The Impact of Social Networks and Mobile Technologies on the Revolutions in the Arab
World—A Study of Egypt and Tunisia", MDPI (http://www.mdpi.com/2075-471X/3/4/674)
Radsch, Courtney C. (2008). "Core to Commonplace: The Evolution of Egypt's
Blogosphere" (http://www.arabmediasociety.com/?article=692). Arab Media and Society.
American University of Cairo (6, Fall).
 Rutherford, Bruce K. (2008). Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the
Arab World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13665-3.
Albrecht, Holger (2014). "The Myth of Coup-proofing Risk and Instances of Military Coups
d’état in the Middle East and North Africa, 1950–2013" (http://afs.sagepub.com/content/early/
2014/08/08/0095327X14544518.abstract) Armed Forces & Society Available Online

General
Egypt Resources (https://web.archive.org/web/20121104170631/https://www.google.com/cri
sisresponse/egypt.html) from Google Crisis Response
Egyptian revolution of 2011 (http://botw.org/top//Regional/Africa/Egypt/Society_and_Culture/
Politics/Protests_2011/) at the Best of the Web Directory
Media library (http://iamjan25.com/) documenting Egypt's 25 Jan revolution with thousands
of videos & photos
Digital Library (http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/) includes photos, videos, visual art,
and oral histories contributed by student activists, academics, security officers, and
demonstrators in and around Cairo.
Web Archive (http://archive-it.org/collections/2358) includes archived versions of blogs,
Twitter feeds, local and regional media coverage, and other sites related to the 25 January
Revolution.
Middle East and North Africa in turmoil – Tracking the Protests (https://www.washingtonpost.
com/wp-srv/special/world/middle-east-protests/). Chart provided by The Washington Post to
keep up day by day with all of the anti-government protests which as off May 2011 are
spreading rapidly through the Middle East and North Africa.
Timeline: Transition in Egypt (https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/special/egypt-tr
ansition-timeline/index.html). Key events leading up to the first presidential election since
the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak and subsequent developments as provided by The
Washington Post
Egypt Elections: Key Events Timeline In Egyptian Uprising And Transition (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20130525052917/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/24/egypt-uprising-elect
ion-timeline_n_1622773.html?ref=topbar) as provided by Agence France-Presse
Egypt's revolution: Interactive map (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-1232799
5) as provided by BBC News Middle East
Vox Populi: ongoing project by Lara Baladi which includes a series of media initiatives, art
projects, publications and a portal into web based archives (http://www.tahrirarchives.com/)

Live coverage
"Egypt's new era" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12307698). BBC News.
UK. 26 March 2011.
"Egypt protests live" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/series/egypt-protests). The
Guardian. UK. 1 February 2011.
"Egyptian Revolution – One Year On" (http://www.youtrust.org/themes/egyptian-revolution-o
ne-year-on/). Thomson Reuters Foundation. UK. 25 January 2012.
"Unrest in Egypt" (http://live.reuters.com/Event/Unrest_in_Egypt). Reuters. UK.
Egypt Real Time Video Stream (https://web.archive.org/web/20110218084111/http://www.fre
quency.com/topic/egypt) at Frequency

Crowdsourcing
 "Egypt's Revolution" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110129065812/http://english.aljazeera.
net/indepth/spotlight/anger-in-egypt/). Qatar: Al Jazeera. Archived from the original (http://en
glish.aljazeera.net/indepth/spotlight/anger-in-egypt/) on 29 January 2011.
Emergency Law and Police Brutality in Egypt (http://crowdvoice.org/emergency-law-and-poli
ce-brutality-in-egypt/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110130194542/http://crowdvo
ice.org/emergency-law-and-police-brutality-in-egypt/) 30 January 2011 at the Wayback
Machine at CrowdVoice
Citizen Media coverage on Egypt Protests (http://globalvoices.org/specialcoverage/egypt-pr
otests-2011/) by Global Voices Online
Testimonials From Egyptians (http://www.therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_conte
nt&task=view&id=33&Itemid=74&jumival=684) at The Real News
"Egyptian elections" (http://www.youtrust.org/packages/?id=2d45ee86-4a13-4cf3-b0f8-3416
251ff410&themeid=7feaa14f-7588-4a40-b4e5-77b2bfa674d2/). UK: Thomson Reuters
Foundation.
"University on the Square: Documenting Egypt's 21st Century Revolution" (https://archive.to
day/20121126235903/http://www.aucegypt.edu/onthesquare/). Egypt: American University
in Cairo. Archived from the original (http://www.aucegypt.edu/onthesquare/) on 26 November
2012.

Interviews
Interview with Wael Ghonim, Google mideast manager: Guardian via Dream TV, subtitled (ht
tps://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2011/feb/08/egypt-activist-wael-ghonim-google-vide
o); Full translation (https://web.archive.org/web/20110212133018/http://www.clipsandcomm
ent.com/2011/02/07/english-transcript-wael-ghonims-interview-with-dream-tv-egypt/)
"Egypt's 21st Century Revolution Oral Histories" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120701213
330/http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/cdm/landingpage/collection/p15795coll2). Egypt:
American University in Cairo. Archived from the original (http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.ed
u/cdm/landingpage/collection/p15795coll2) on 1 July 2012.

Documentaries
Egypt: A Nation in Waiting (Al Jazeera documentary focusing on past trends in Egypt's
political history and the events which led to the revolution.) (http://documentarystorm.com/a-n
ation-in-waiting/)
Revolution in Cairo (PBS Frontline documentary about the role of the 6 April youth
movement, cyberactivism and the Muslim Brotherhood in the revolution) (https://www.pbs.or
g/wgbh/pages/frontline/revolution-in-cairo/)
How to Start a Revolution (A multi-award winning British documentary on nonviolent action
and the Arab Spring focusing on Gene Sharp.) (http://howtostartarevolutionfilm.com/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120210160810/http://howtostartarevolutionfilm.co
m/) 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
Uprising (2012 film)
The Square (2013 film)
Tickling Giants

Analysis and criticism

Norman Finkelstein: An important analysis of the Egyptian revolution and counter-revolution
(http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/an-important-analysis-of-the-egyptian-revolution-and-cou
 nter-revolution/).
"Isqat Al-Nizam" (http://wiki.aucegypt.edu/isqatalnizam/index.php/Main_Page). Egypt:
American University in Cairo.
"Egyptian and Arab Revolution Scholarly Works" (http://dar.aucegypt.edu/handle/10526/236
4). Egypt: American University in Cairo.
Demonstrations in Tahrir Square: Two Years Later, What has Changed?: Hearing before the
Subcommittee on the Middle East and North Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs,
House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, 26 February
2013 (https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo37229)

External links
"Tahrir Documents" (http://www.TahrirDocuments.org/). University of California, Los Angeles.
"Collected from demonstrations in Cairo's Tahrir Square" 2011–present

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