Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration: The Big Picture split in half. In the process, a small amount of
Everyday activities require energy. Humans, like all energy is released and captured in ATP. For many
living organisms, need to fuel their actions, similar organisms, glycolysis is just the first of three steps
to the way a car requires fuel to run. To fuel all of —together called cellular respiration—in which
this physical work, our bodies break down food glucose is completely broken down and used to
molecules and extract their energy. We rely on this produce a much larger amount of ATP.
process, called cellular respiration, to run smoothly
so that we will have the energy needed to exert Glycolysis has two distinct phases: an "uphill"
ourselves or just relax. preparatory phase and a "downhill" payoff phase.
One way to understand the two phases of
In cellular respiration, plants, animals, and all other glycolysis is to compare the process to a downhill
living organisms harvest energy by breaking down bike ride. Glucose has a lot of potential energy. A
energy-rich molecules. In this example, a bison cyclist at an uphill starting spot has a lot of potential
ingests grass, digests the food, and delivers food energy, too. With little effort, the rider taps the
molecules to cells of its body. potential energy and coasts to the downhill spot.

As energy is released by the reactions of cellular But sometimes, to reach a downhill spot, the cyclist
respiration, cells capture and store the energy in must first go uphill—investing energy to get to the
the bonds of ATP molecules, the chief energy top of the hill. But on the way down, the cyclist gets
currency of the cell. This plentiful, readily available back most of that energy investment, along with the
stored energy in ATP can then be used as needed reward of a longer ride.
to fuel the activities of the organism.
Glycolysis is similar. Although glucose is packed
Cellular respiration requires oxygen, which the with energy, the energy is not readily released
animal inhales, and releases carbon dioxide, which unless energy from ATP is first added. When ATP
the animal exhales. Water is also released during is added to the reaction, the resulting sugar
these reactions. molecule now has two phosphate groups, which
makes it less stable than before—and ripe for
Cellular respiration is a bit like photosynthesis in chemical breakdown.
reverse. Note that in photosynthesis, oxygen and
sugar are products of the reaction, while they are In the payoff phase, three reactions now yield
inputs in cellular respiration. In cellular respiration, energy. In one reaction, each of the halves from
carbon dioxide and water are products of the glucose is attached to a high-energy phosphate
reaction, while in photosynthesis they are inputs. In group, and each donates high-energy electrons,
photosynthesis, the sun provides the energy to along with protons (also called hydrogen ions), to
power the reactions, while in cellular respiration, electron carriers called NAD+.
the released energy is stored in the bonds of ATP.
The resulting NADH molecules are high-energy
Cellular respiration occurs in three basic steps— electron carriers that are used later in cellular
glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron respiration for an even greater energy payoff. The
transport chain. During these processes food essential difference between NAD+ and NADH is
molecules such as glucose are gradually broken that NADH carries one additional proton and two
down, and their energy is used to produce ATP. additional high-energy electrons.

As glycolysis continues and more bonds from the

Glycolysis two halves of glucose are broken, the energy
Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions in the released is quickly recaptured by attaching
cytoplasm of a cell in which glucose is essentially
phosphate groups to molecules of ADP, creating molecules and two NADH are now formed. Note
energy-rich ATP molecules. that two of the six carbon atoms from glucose are
now in the form of two carbon dioxide molecules.
Two molecules of water are also produced during
glycolysis. Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle, where the
remaining four carbon atoms that originated from
Near the end of glycolysis, two ADP molecules take glucose will soon be released as carbon dioxide. In
the remaining phosphate groups, forming two the first step of this pathway, acetyl-CoA combines
additional ATP molecules. By the end of glycolysis, with water and a molecule called oxaloacetate. The
a molecule of glucose has been broken down into first outcome of the Krebs cycle is the production of
two molecules of pyruvate. a molecule with six carbon atoms—four from
oxaloacetate and two that originated from glucose.
Glycolysis results in the production of 2 NADH and
4 ATP molecules. However, two ATP molecules This six-carbon molecule is rearranged by the
were originally invested (represented by the two removal and then the addition of water. Another
remaining ADP molecules), so glycolysis nets 2 important outcome of the Krebs cycle occurs next,
ATP and 2 NADH molecules per molecule of when the molecule is stripped of two molecules of
glucose. However, much more energy still remains carbon dioxide, which are exhaled. At the same
in the pyruvate molecules. Cells get much more time, high-energy electrons and protons are
"energy bang" for their "food buck" if they now donated to molecules of NAD+, creating NADH
perform the Krebs cycle and the electron transport molecules.
chain.
Another important outcome of the Krebs cycle
The Krebs Cycle occurs in the next reaction, which draws energy
The second step in cellular respiration, called the from the remaining molecule to join inorganic
Krebs cycle, picks up where glycolysis left off. phosphate and ADP into a molecule of ATP.
Recall that in glycolysis, glucose is split into two
molecules of pyruvate. Note that these two In addition to NAD+, another molecule called FAD
pyruvate molecules retain the original six carbon plays a role in as a high-energy electron carrier.
atoms from glucose, as well as most of glucose's The four-carbon molecule donates protons and
energy. high-energy electrons to these carriers. The
molecule then becomes slightly rearranged by the
Before the Krebs cycle can begin, the pyruvate addition of water, after which more electrons and a
molecules must be transported from the cytoplasm, proton join with NAD+ to form NADH. The final
where glycolysis occurs, into mitochondria, where outcome of the Krebs cycle is the re-formation of
the Krebs cycle takes place. the cycle's starting molecule, oxaloacetate.

To prepare for the Krebs cycle, pyruvate is modified The entire cycle occurs again with the second
in three quick steps involving NAD+ and another acetyl-CoA molecule. As the second round
molecule called coenzyme A. In one of these continues, more NADH, more carbon dioxide, more
modifications, carbon dioxide is released from ATP, and more FADH2 molecules result. If these
pyruvate and eventually exhaled from the body. In molecules are added to those made from the
the other modifications, the 2-carbon molecule that preparation reactions, we can see that all six of the
remains is attached to coenzyme A, while a proton carbon atoms from glucose have been released in
(also called a hydrogen ion) and high energy the form of carbon dioxide. Although a small
electrons are donated to NAD+, yielding the high- amount of ATP has been formed in the Krebs cycle,
energy electron carrier NADH. The new molecule is it is the NADH and FADH2 molecules that
called acetyl-CoA. Because two pyruvate represent the most energy for the cell.
molecules emerged from glycolysis, two acetyl-CoA
These electron carriers enter the next phase of
cellular respiration, called the electron transport As electrons move from one complex to another in
chain. NADH and FADH2 molecules must give up the chain, they transfer some of their energy to
their extra electrons to the electron transport chain proteins that pump protons, also known as
so that they may revert back to NAD+ and FAD and hydrogen ions, across the membrane. With each
help in the Krebs cycle again. The electron transfer, the electrons lose energy, which is used to
transport chain uses the energy from the electrons pump more protons. The process of electron
to produce a large number of ATP molecules. Note transfer results in a difference in the concentration
that the electron transport chain absolutely requires of protons on the two sides of the membrane. This
oxygen to operate. Because the Krebs cycle relies concentration difference—called a gradient—is a
on a functioning electron transport chain to accept form of potential energy.
electrons from NADH and FADH2, the Krebs cycle
will shut down along with the electron transport The oxygen that we breathe is essential for electron
chain if oxygen disappears. transport. Oxygen is exceptionally electron greedy
and snatches electrons from the end of the electron
Q Question transport chain. After grabbing electrons, it
Aerobic training can cause our bodies to produce combines with protons to form water.
more mitochondria in muscle cells. Why might this
be beneficial? From the operation of the electron transport chain,
a concentration gradient of protons forms across
An increase in mitochondria means that the cell has the membrane. Like water held behind a dam,
more cellular machinery to perform the Krebs cycle given the opportunity, the protons will tend to flow
and the electron transport chain. Because so much across the membrane barrier. A complex in the
ATP is produced in the electron transport chain, membrane provides a passageway for the protons,
such an increase in mitochondria can provide the and uses the energy from the proton flow to power
cell with more energy to sustain physical activity, the production of ATP. The protons will tend to flow
provided oxygen is available. in this direction until the concentrations are the
same on both sides of the membrane—that is, until
The Electron Transport Chain the gradient disappears. If the electron transport
The last step in cellular respiration, called the chain stops for any reason, such as a lack of
electron transport chain, takes place in oxygen to capture electrons at the end of the chain,
mitochondria. This step is essential for producing the gradient will quickly disappear, turning off ATP
enough ATP for animals and many other organisms production.
to survive. The first two steps in cellular respiration
—glycolysis and the Krebs cycle—produced a The NAD+ molecules left over from the electron
small amount of ATP from the breakdown of transport chain are later recycled back to glycolysis
glucose. These steps also produced NADH and and the Krebs cycle, where they will capture more
FADH2 molecules. Through the electron transport high-energy electrons from food molecules.
chain, the cell can now use the energy in NADH
and FADH2 molecules to make many more ATP, produced in plenty during this last stage of
molecules of ATP. cellular respiration, contains energy that had its
origin in a molecule of glucose. Along the way, the
The mitochondrion has two membranes, an outer energy took many forms, including the energy held
membrane and an inner membrane, and is by electron carriers, the energy released by
essentially a bag within a bag. The proteins of the transporting electrons in the electron transport
electron transport chain reside in the inner chain, and the energy stored in a concentration
membrane. Both NADH and FADH2 donate gradient across a membrane. In the form of ATP,
electrons to the chain. We will use NADH as an the energy originally in the bonds of glucose can be
example. used to fuel cellular work.
Q Question
Why is cyanide such a deadly poison?

Cyanide is a deadly poison because it cripples the

electron transport chain. Cyanide binds to the last
complex in the chain and, in so doing, blocks
oxygen from binding.

Recall that during the operation of the electron

transport chain, NADH donates electrons to the
beginning of the chain. The process of electron
transport fuels the pumping of protons across the
membrane. However, with cyanide already bound,
oxygen cannot grab the electrons at the end of the
chain. Therefore, no new electrons from NADH can
be added at the beginning.

Under these conditions, electron transport and

proton pumping grind to a halt. Without the active
pumping of protons to one side of the membrane,
the proton concentrations on both sides soon
equalize.

No longer do protons rush through the ATP-

producing complex, and no more ATP is produced.
Cells can't live long on the small quantity of ATP
made by glycolysis, so without the ATP that comes
from the electron transport chain, cells die.