BIOLOGY REVIEWER

Organisms and their Relationships

Ecology – the scientific discipline in which the relationships among living organisms and the interaction the
organisms have with their environments are studied; was introduced in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, a German
biologist; comes from the Greek words oikos meaning “house” and logos meaning “to study”
Biosphere – the portion of Earth that support life; forms a thin layer around Earth; it extends several kilometers
above Earth’s surface into the atmosphere; extends several kilometers below the ocean’s surface to the deep
ocean vents; includes landmasses, bodies of freshwater and saltwater, and all locations below Earth’s surface
that support life
Biotic factors – the living factors in an organism’s environment, include all of the organisms that live in water,
organisms that live in the land adjacent to the water and migratory animals
Abiotic factors – the nonliving factors in an organism’s environment; include temperature, air or water currents,
sunlight, soil type, rainfall or available nutrients
Levels of Organization:
Organism – an individual living thing
Population – group of organisms of the same species that interbreed and live in the same place at the same
time
Biological community – all of the populations of species that live in the same place at the same time; group of
interacting organisms that occupy the same geographical area at the same time
Ecosystem – a biological community and all of the abiotic factors that affect it
Biome – group of ecosystems that share the same climate and have similar types of communities
Biosphere – highest level of organization
Ecosystem Interactions
Habitat – an area where an organism lives
Niche – the role or position that an organism has in its environment
Community Interactions
Competition – when more than one organism uses a resource at a time
Predation – act of one organism pursuing and consuming another organism for food
Predator – the organism that pursues another Prey – organism that is pursued
Symbiotic relationships
Symbiosis – the close relationship between two or more species live together
Mutualism – the relationship between two or more organisms that live closely together and benefit from each
other
(e.g. fungi and algae)
Commensalism – a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is neither helped or
harmed
(e.g. clownfish and sea anemones)
Parasitism – a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another
Cooperation
Predation – one organism pursues/consumes another organism
Competition – has two types: intraspecies (same) and interspecies (different)

Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem

Autotroph – organism that collects energy from sunlight or inorganic substances to produce food; known as
primary producers (eg. green plants)
*organisms that contain chlorophyll absorb energy during photosynthesis and use it to convert the inorganic
substances, carbon dioxide and water to organic molecules
Heterotroph – an organism that gets its energy requirements by consuming other organisms; also called as
consumers
Kinds of Heterotrophs:
Herbivores – heterotrophs that eat plants Carnivores – heterotrophs that prey on other heterotrophs
Omnivores – organisms that eat both plants and animals
Scavengers – eat scraps of secondary consumers (e.g. vulture & hyena)
Detritivores – eat fragments of dead matter in an ecosystem; return nutrients to the soil, air and water where
the nutrients can be reused by organisms; include worms, and many aquatic insects that live on stream
bottoms
Decomposers – break down dead organisms by releasing digestive enzymes
Trophic Level – each step in a food chain or food web
*autotrophs make up the first trophic level in all ecosystems
*heterotrophs make up the remaining levels
Food chain – a simple model that shows how energy flows in an ecosystem
Food web – a model representing the many interconnected food chains and pathways in which energy flows in
a group of organisms
Pyramid of energy – each level represents the amount of energy that is available to that trophic level
Ecological pyramid – another model that ecologists use to show how energy flows through ecosystems
Pyramid of numbers – represents the number of individual organisms
Pyramid of Biomass – represents the amount of biomass consumed by the level above it
Biomass – the total mass of living matter at each trophic level

Cycling of Matter
Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass; provides the nutrients needed for organisms to function
Nutrient – a chemical substance that an organism must obtain from its environment to sustain life and to
undergo life processes
*the cycling of nutrients in the biosphere involves both matter in living organisms and physical processes found
in other organisms*
Weathering – breaks down large rocks into particles that become part of the soil used by plants and other
organisms
Biogeochemical cycle – the exchange of matter through the biosphere; involves living organisms, geochemical
processes and chemical processes

Water Cycle (evaporation – condensation – precipitation – runoffs and groundwater)

Water vapor – water in the atmosphere
90% of water vapor – evaporates from oceans, lakes and rivers
10% of water vapor – evaporates from the surfaces of plants through a process called transpiration
Evaporation (transpiration and perspiration)
Transpiration – process in which water evaporates from the inside of leaves through the stomata
Perspiration – process of producing and excreting a watery, saline fluid that evaporates from the skin
Condensation – the formation of clouds when the cooling water vapor condenses into droplets around dust
particles in the atmosphere
Precipitation – H20 returns to the earth’s surface (rain, snow, hail, sleet)
Groundwater and runoff from land surfaces flow into streams, rivers, lakes and oceans where they evaporate
in the atmosphere

The Carbon and Oxygen Cycles

Green plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates and release oxygen back into the air
CO2 is recycled when autotrophs and heterotrophs release it back to the air during cellular respiration
Carbon enters a long-term cycle when organic matter is buried underground and converted to pent, coal, oil or
gas deposits
Carbon is released from fossil fuels when they are buried which adds CO2 to the atmosphere
Carbon and oxygen can combine with calcium and create CaCO3
CaCO3 – found in the shells of planktons and animals such as corals, clams and oysters
Carbon and oxygen remain trapped in the vast deposits of limestone rock until the rocks are exposed to
weathering and erosion; carbon and oxygen ae released.

Nitrogen cycle
*nitrogen is an element found in proteins*
Nitrogen fixation – process of capture and conversion of nitrogen into a form that is usable by plants; process
of fixing or converting N2 gas into nitrate (NO3-) by nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil and lightning
Animals get the nitrogen that they need by consuming plants which contain nitrogen within organic
molecules
Mineralization/Ammonification – when nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms such as ammonium salts
(NH4+) as dead organisms decompose
Nitrification process – when these ammonium salts are absorbed by the clay in the soil and are chemically
altered by bacteria into nitrate (NO2-) and then nitrate (NO3-)
Dentrification – a process in which some soil convert fixed nitrogen compounds back into nitrogen gas which
returns it to the atmosphere

Phosphorus cycle
*phosphorus is a factor that limits the growth of producers*
Short-term cycle: Phosphorus is cycled from the soil to producers and then from the producers to consumers.
When organisms die or produce waste products, decomposers return the phosphorus to the soil where it can
be used again.
Long-term cycle: (process of short-term cycle) -> precipitation and sedimentation to form rocks
Weathering or erosion of rocks that contain phosphorus slowly adds phosphorus to the cycle

Community Ecology
Community – a group of interacting populations that occupy the same area at the same time
Limiting factor – any abiotic or biotic factor that restricts the numbers, reproduction or distribution of organisms
• Abiotic limiting factors – include sunlight, climate, temperature, water, nutrients, fire, soil chemistry and space
• Biotic limiting factors – include living things
Tolerance – the ability of any organism to survive when subjected to abiotic factors or biotic factors
Ecological succession – change in an ecosystem that happens when one community replaces another as a
result of changing abiotic and biotic factors
▪ Primary succession – establishment of a community in an area of exposed rock that does not have any
topsoil
*pioneer species help to create soil by secreting acids that help to break down rocks
Climate community – the stable, mature community that results when there is a little change in the composition
of species
▪ Secondary succession – the orderly and predictable change that takes place after a community of organisms
has been removed but the soil has remained intact; the community of organisms changes over a period of time
Succession’s end point – cannot be predicted after a disturbance

Biodiversity and Conservation

Extinction – a process wherein entire species permanently disappear from the biosphere when the last
member of the species dies
Biodiversity – the variety of life in an area that is determined by the number of different species in that area;
increases the stability of an ecosystem; contributes to the health of the biosphere
Three types of biodiversity:
Genetic diversity – the variety of genes or inheritable characteristics that are present in a population
Species diversity – the number of different species and relative abundance of each species in a biological
community
Ecosystem diversity – the variety of ecosystems that is present in the biosphere
Factors of Biodiversity:
Density-independent factors – any factor in the environment that does not depend on the number of
members in a population per unit area; usually are abiotic factors and include natural phenomenon such as
weather events
Density-dependent factors – any factor in the environment that depends on the number of members in a
population per unit area; often biotic factors such as predation, disease, parasitism and competition
Importance of biodiversity:
• Direct economic value • Indirect economic value • Aesthetic and Scientific values

Natural Hazards
 Red tide – caused by dinoflagellates; results to death of fishes due to competition
* Marine organisms get their oxygen from water. However, the dinoflagellates block the sunlight (which is
needed for photosynthesis by the marine plants to produce oxygen) to penetrate light to the water, therefore
there is limited amount of oxygen *

 La Niña/ Flood
 typhoon
 earthquakes
 volcanic eruptions
Climate change – caused by the following: volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels, pollutions, coral reef
destructions

Man-made Hazards
- bombings - deforestation - pollutions - coral reef destructions

coral reef destructions

- dynamite - cyanide - dive tourism - muro ami

Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction rates
Background extinction – the gradual process of species becoming extinct
Mass extinction – an event in which a large percentage of all living species become extinct in a relatively short
period of time; occurred about 65 million years ago
Factors that threaten biodiversity
■ Current high rate of extinction is a result of the activities of a single species – Homo Sapiens
■ Evolving species might not have the natural resources that they need natural resources – materials and
organisms found in the biosphere, including minerals, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, plants, animals, soil, clean
water, clean air and solar energy
■ Overexploitation – excessive use, of species that have economic value
■ Habitat loss – if a habitat is destroyed or disrupted, the native species might have to relocate or they will die
■ Destruction of habitat – has a direct impact on global biodiversity
* The removal of so much of the natural forest will cause many species on Earth to become extinct as a result
of habitat loss *
■ Disruption of habitat – a declining population of one species can affect an entire ecosystem
■ Edge effects – different environmental conditions that occur along the boundaries of an ecosystem; do not
always create a disadvantage for all species
■ Pollution – changes the composition of air, soil, and water
□ Biological magnification – the increasing concentration of toxic substances in organisms as trophic levels
increase in a food chain or food web
■ Acid precipitation – removes calcium, potassium and other nutrients from the soil, depriving plants of these
nutrients; damages plant tissues and slows growth
■ Eutrophication – destroys underwater habitats for fish and other species; occurs when fertilizers, animal
waste, sewage or other substances rich in nitrogen and phosphorus flow into waterways, causing extensive
algae growth
■ Introduced species – nominative species that are either intentionally or unintentionally transported to a new
habitat; not a threat to biodiversity in their native habitats; often reproduce in large numbers because of a lack
of predators and became invasive species in their new habitat; a worldwide environmental problem

Conserving Biodiversity
Natural Resources
Renewable resources – resources that are replaced by natural processes faster than they are consumed
(e.g. solar energy, agricultural plants, animals, clean water and clean air)
Non-renewable resources – resources that are found on Earth in limited amounts or that are replaced by
natural processes over extremely long periods of time (e.g. fossil fuels and mineral deposits, such as
radioactive uranium)
Sustainable use – using resources at a rate at which they can be replaced or recycled while preserving the
long-term environmental health of the biosphere
Protecting Biodiversity
• Protected areas in the Philippines
• International protected areas
Biodiversity hot spots
Endemic species – species that are only found in that specific geographic area and critical levels of habitat
loss
Hot spots – must have at least 1500 species of vascular plants that are endemic; must have lost at least 70%
of its original habitat
Corridors between habitat fragments
• used to connect smaller parcels of land; allow organisms from one area to move safely to the other area
Restoring ecosystems
Ecologists use two methods to speed the recovery process of these damaged ecosystem: bioremediation and
biological augmentation
Bioremediation – the use of living organisms to detoxify a polluted area
Biological augmentation – adding natural predators to a degraded ecosystem

Cellular Discovery and Theory

History of the Cell theory
In 1665, an English scientist named Robert Hooke made a simple microscope and looked at a piece of cork,
the dead cells of old bark. Hooke observed small, box-shaped structures. He called them cellulae (the Latin
word meaning small rooms) because the boxlike cells of cork reminded him of the cells in which monks in a
monastery. It is from Hooke’s work that we have the term cell
During the late 1600s, Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek designed his own microscope after he was
inspired by a book written by Hooke.
Zacharias Janssen (1590) – first compound microscope
Robert Hooke – observed a piece of cork; honeycomb-like boxes and was called cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1683) – observed microorganisms
Robert Brown (1830) – darkly staining structure at the middle of the cell (nucleus)
Matthias Schleiden – all plants are made up of cells
Cell – the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms
The Cell Theory – one of the most fundamental ideas of modern biology and includes the following three
principles:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and organization of all living organisms
3. Cells arise only from previously existing cells, with cells passing copies of their genetic material on to
their daughter cells

Microscope Technology
Compound light microscope – consists of a series of glass lenses and uses visible light to produce a
magnified range
Electron microscope – developed during World War II; can magnify up to 500 000x, but the spectrum must
be dead
*this type of electron microscope is called a transmission electron microscope because electrons are passed or
transmitted through a specimen to a fluorescent screen
Scanning electron microscope – directs electrons over the surface of the specimen, producing a three-
dimensional image
Disadvantage of TEM and SEM: Only nonliving cells and tissues can be observed
Scanning tunneling electron microscope – has enabled scientists to create three-dimensional images of
objects as small as atoms; bringing the charged tip of a probe extremely close to the specimens; can be used
with living specimens

Basic Cell Types

All cells have at least one physical trait in common: they all have a structure called plasma membrane
Plasma membrane – a special boundary that helps control what enters and leaves the cell
Two categories of cell: prokaryotic and eukaryotic
*Organelles – specialized structures that carry out specific cell functions; enable cell function to take place in
different parts of the cell at the same time
Prokaryotic cells – defined as cells without a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
Prokaryotes – organisms that are made up of prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells – contain a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by membranes, also referred to as
membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotes – organisms that are made of eukaryotic cells
Nucleus – a distinct central organelle that contains the cell’s genetic material in the form of DNA

Origin of Cell Diversity

• Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells million years ago
• According to the endosymbiont theory, a symbiotic relationship involves one prokaryotic cell living inside of
another and both cells benefiting from the relationship

The Plasma Membrane

Function of the Plasma Membrane
• primarily responsible for homeostasis
• allows nutrients into the cell and allows waste and other products to leave the cell
Plasma membrane – a thin, flexible boundary between a cell and its environment
Selective permeability – key property of the plasma membrane; a membrane allows some substances to
pass through while keeping the others out
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid – a molecule that has a glycerol backbone, two fatty chains and a phosphate-containing group
The phospholipid bilayer – plasma membrane layers composed of phospholipid molecules arranged with
polar heads facing the outside and nonpolar tails facing the inside; critical for the formation and function of the
plasma membrane

Other components of the plasma membrane:

Transport proteins – needed substances or waste materials through the plasma membrane and therefore
contribute to the selective permeability of the plasma membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model – a plasma membrane with components constantly in motion, sliding past one another
within the lipid bilayer
 Structures and Organelles
Cytoplasm and cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm - the environment inside the plasma membrane in a semifluid material; break down sugar to
generate the energy used for other functions
*Scientists thought that cell organelles floated in a sea of cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton – supporting network of long, thin protein fibers that form a framework for the cell and provide
an anchor for the organelles inside the cell; has a function in cell movement and other cellular activities; made
of substructures called microtubules and microfilaments
Microtubules – long, hollow-protein cylinders that form a rigid skeleton for the cell; assist in moving
substances within the cell
Microfilaments – thin protein threads that help give the cell shape and enable the entire cell or parts of the cell
to move
Functions of microtubules and microfilaments: rapidly assemble and disassemble; allows cells and organelles
to move
Cell structures
Nucleus – the cell’s managing structure; contains most of the cell’s DNA, which stores information to make
proteins for cell growth, function and reproduction
Nuclear envelope – a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
Ribosomes – organelles that help manufacture proteins
Nucleolus – the site of ribosome production
Endoplasmic reticulum – a membrane system of folded sacs and interconnected channels that serve as the
site for protein and lipid synthesis
Golgi apparatus – flattened stack of membranes that modifies, sorts and packages proteins into sacs called
vesicles
Vesicles – can fuse with the cell’s plasma membrane to release to the environment outside the cell
Vacuoles – a sac to store food, enzymes, and other materials needed by the cell
Lysosomes – vesicles that contain substances that digest excess or worn-out organelles and food particles;
digest bacteria and viruses that have entered the cell; can fuse with vacuoles and dispense their enzymes into
the vacuoles
Centrioles – groups of microtubules; organelles made of microtubules that function during cell division; located
in the cytoplasm of animal cells and most protists
Mitochondria – “powerhouses” of cells; convert fuel particles into usable energy
Chloroplasts – organelles that capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy; belong to a group of
plant organelles called plastids
Cell wall – a thick, rigid, mesh of fibers that surrounds the outside of the plasma membrane, protects the cell
and gives it support
Cilia – short, numerous projections that look like hairs; used to sweep substances along surfaces
Flagella – larger, less numerous than cilia; projections that aid in locomotion and feeding
 Cellular Transport
• moves substances within the cell and moves substances into and out of the cell
Diffusion – the net movement of particles from an area where there are many particles of the substance to an
area where there are fewer particles of the substance
Concentration – the amount of a substance in a particular area
Dynamic equilibrium – there is continuous movement but no overall charge
Main factors that affect the rate of diffusion:
Concentration: when concentration is high, diffusion occurs more quickly because there are more particles
that collide
Temperature and Pressure: when temperature or pressure increases, the number of collisions increases,
thus increasing the rate of diffusion
Size
Diffusion across the plasma membrane
• Facilitated diffusion – uses transport proteins to move other ions and small molecules across the plasma
membrane; substances move into the cell through a water-filled transport protein, called a chanel protein, that
opens and closes to allow the substance to diffuse through the plasma membrane
• Carrier-protein – another type of transport protein, that can help substances diffuse across the plasma
membrane; change shape as the diffusion process continues to help move the particle through the membrane

Osmosis: Diffusion of Water

• the diffusion of water across a selective permeable membrane
• water molecules diffuse toward the side with the greater concentration – the right side
• as water moves to the right, the concentration (solute) of the solution decreases
• the water continues to diffuse until dynamic equilibrium occurs – the concentration is the same on both sides
• during dynamic equilibrium, water molecules continue to diffuse back and forth across the membrane, but the
water concentrations on each side no longer change
TONICITY – refers to the strength of solution in relation to osmosis
Cells in an isotonic solution – when a cell is in a solution that has the same concentration of solute; water
molecules move at the same rate; retain their normal shape
- water = solute (inside & outside)
Cells in a hypotonic solution – the concentration of the solute outside of the cell is higher than it is inside;
cell will swell and burst
- water < solute (inside) - water > solute (outside)
Cells in a hypertonic solution - the concentration of the solute outside of the cell is lower than it is inside; cell
will shrivel and shrink
- water > solute (inside) - water < solute (outside)
Active Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane against a concentration gradient
requires energy; helps maintain homeostasis
Na+/K+ pump – one common active transport pump; also called the sodium-potassium ATPase pump; found in
the plasma membrane of animal cells; maintains the level of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) inside
and outside of the cell
Protein pump – an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of an energy-storing molecule; uses energy to
transport three sodium ions out of the cell while moving two potassium ions into the cell
Na+/K+ pump
1. Protein in the membrane binds intercellular sodium ions
2. ATP attaches to protein with bound sodium ions
3. The breakdown of ATP causes shape change in protein, allowing
Transport of Large Particles
Endocytosis – the process by which a cell surrounds a substance in the outside environment, enclosing the
substance in a portion of the plasma membrane
Exocytosis – the secretion of materials at the plasma membrane; require the input of energy; expel wastes
and to secrete substances such as hormones