Ethics, generally speaking, is

1. about matters such as the good thing that we should pursue and the bad thing that we
should avoid;
2. the right ways in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting.
3. It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior.

A descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral
valuation without making any judgment either for or against these valuations.

A normative study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the
question: what could or should be considered as the right way of acting? In other words, a
normative discussion describes what we ought to maintain as our standard or bases for moral
valuation.addresses questions about what practices are right and wrong. And what our
obligations to other people or future generations are.

Human Action = Right or Wrong

Metaethics talks about the nature of ethics and moral reasoning. Discussions about whether
ethics is relative and whether we always act from self-interest are examples of meta-ethical
discussions.

Applied Ethics attempts to deal with specific realms of human action and to craft criteria for
discussing issues that might arise within those realms.

HUMAN ACT. An act that is performed only by a human being and thus is proper to man.
Human acts are actions which man performs knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. Human acts are
actions done intentionally, free, and deliberate of a person. An act is done when the doer acts by
his own initiative and choice without being forced.

ACT OF MAN. When a human being does acts shared in common by man and other animals.
These are actions that happen in man; they are instinctive and are not within the control or
direction of will. Acts of man are instinctive, such as physiological in nature. These are actions
done under the circumstances of ignorance, passion, fear, violence, and habits.

1.PHYSICAL (PERSONAL)
- other persons (parents, siblings, friends, classmates, schoolmates, etc
- in relation to other persons
- What Ought I or You to do?

2.SOCIETAL
- immediate community (one’s neighborhood, barangay, or town),
- the larger sphere (one’s province, region, or country), or
- the whole global village is defined as the interconnection of the different nations of the
world.
Culture is a broad term:
- beliefs and practices a
- laws (e.g., injunctions against taboo practices),
- fields of knowledge (e.g., scientific, technological, and
- medical beliefs and practices at a given point in time), and
- customs of a community (e.g., the aforementioned rules of etiquette).

3.GLOBAL
A. Global Community
- interplay between the membership in her own society and her membership in the
larger human, that is, the global community.

4.Non-Human Community
- Applying rational deliberation to determine a person’s ethical responsibility to herself,
society, and environment is the overall goal of a college course in Ethics.
- Ethical thought and decision-making are done by an agent who is shaped and dictated
upon by many factors within her and without.
- Ethics serves to guide one through the potentially confusing thicket of an individual’s
interaction with her wider world of social roles, which can come into conflict with on
another or even with her own system of values.
- Ethics is clearly concerned with the right way to act in relation to other human beings
and toward self.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT:
Moral Valuation is also social reasoning. KOHLBERG'S LAW
1. LEVEL 1 (Pre-Conventional)
- STAGE 1: Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?)
- STAGE 2: Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? Aiming at a reward)
2. LEVEL 2 (Conventional)
- STAGE 3: Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms: good boy - good girl
attitude)
- STAGE 4: Authority and social order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)
3. LEVEL 3 (Post-Conventional)
- STAGE 5: Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law)
- STAGE 6: Universal ethical principles (Principle conscience)

Kinds of Valuation
A. AESTHETICS.
- There are instances that our value judgment is not considered as part of ethics, like, you
find a movie “good” or a song “bad,” or you know of a “good” sawsawan for sinugbang
tuna, or it is “wrong” to wear barong tagalog tuck in, all these are not part of ethics.
These are under aesthetics.
B. ETIQUETTE.
- “There are instances considered as trivial in nature, like how to knock at the door politely,
it’s wrong to barge at one’s office, use of please as gauge of politeness, mangulangot is
wrong if done in public, all these are part of etiquette, which is concerned with right and
wrong actions, but not grave enough to be part of ethics.

C. TECHNICAL VALUATION.
- There are technical valuation, like, learning how to bake, there are the right ways to do it
first in baking, there are rules in basketball, so there are right ways in playing.

Matters that concern human well- being such as poverty, inequality, or sexual identity are often
included in discussion of ethics. CONCERNS WITH HUMAN WELL-BEING, HUMAN
WELFARE, HUMAN LIFE, AND ENVIRONMENT

Morals
The term morals may be used to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts
that people perform. Sometimes it is said that an individual’s personal conduct is referred to as
his morals, and if he falls short of behaving properly, this can be described as immoral.
However, we also have terms such as “moral judgment” or “moral reasoning,” which suggest a
more rational aspect. The term ethics can be spoken of as the discipline of studying and
understanding ideal human behavior and ideal ways of thinking.

Ethics
The term ethics is acknowledged as an intellectual discipline belonging to philosophy. However,
acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are also generally described as ethical and unethical,
respectively. In addition, with regards to the acceptable and unacceptable ways of behaving in a
given field, we have the term professional ethics (legal ethics, medical ethics, media ethics, etc).

ON SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

ORDINARY CONTRACT:
- Marriage, citizenship, and employment are all forms of contracts. Put simply, a contract
is an agreement between parties. If one party violates the terms of the agreement, the
contract is no longer valid.
.
SOCIAL CONTRACT
- A social contract is an act by which individuals agree to form a government
- According to social contract theory, governments are established by the people who
combine to achieve some goal

Actions under Moral Actions under Non-Moral Actions considered

Standard Standard Immoral/Unethical
 - Universal value - Moral Actions based - human action is not
- Fundamental value on Culture considered as
- Common good - Moral actions based acceptable based on
on Religion culture, faith, and
universal principle

MORAL DILEMMA
- Moral dilemmas are situations in which a person is forced to choose between two or
more conflicting options, neither of which solves the situation in a morally acceptable
way. Ex. Pagpili ng course: GUSTO NG ANAK VS GUSTO NG PARENTS
How do we use moral dilemmas effectively? 3 mistakes to avoid:
1. Don’t avoid the dilemma (I save both)
- Moral dilemma is testing principles. Do not find a way out of them
2. Don’t confuse morality with law
- Do not confuse morality with legal repercussions. Laws are either good or bad, fair or
unfair. They can change over time. They are different in different countries.
3. Distinguish the word Should (ought) from Would
- Should (ought) - duty and obligation (ethical theory called DEONTOLOGY)

How do we make out own moral dilemmas?

1. Start by identifying a moral principle you want to analyze.
2. Then make a situation to test it.
3. Identify a moral principle
- To kill is wrong, do not steal, do not lie, never break a promise, protect an innocent - construct
an opposite principle
4. Killing a person is wrong vs. to kill a person to save more lives - so there is tension so there is
a moral dilemma.

Utilitarianism - common good

Deontology - Duty and Obligation

Aristotle precisely points out that moral virtue goes beyond the mere act of intellectually
identifying the right thing to do. Instead, it is the condition of one’s character by which the agent
is able to manage her emotions or Feelings.

Moral Agent- Ramon Castillo Reyes

Epimeleia- know thyself

The 4 Cross-points
The Physical
- Who one is, firstly, is the function of the physical events in past and material factors in
the present that one did not have the choice in.
 - You are a member of the species Homo sapiens and reforepossess the capacities and
limitations endemic to human beings
- You inherited the genetic materia

The Interpersonal
- The person is a product of interpersonal cross-points of many factors and events outside
of one’s choosing.
- We did not choose who our parents are.

The Social
- “Who you is” is shaped by one’s society
- The term “society” here pertains to all the elements of the human group - as opposed to
the natural environment.
- that one is a member of. “Culture” in its varied aspects is included here.
- interact with the physical and interpersonal factors that the individual and her people are
immersed in or engaged in.

The Historical
- The historical is simply the events that one's people has undergone.
- History shapes “who one is” now.

for Reyes, “Who you is” isacross-point,but in an existential level, he argues that the meaning of
one’sexistenceis in the intersection betweenthefact that one’s being is a product of many forces
outside her choosing and her ideal future for herself.

SENSES OF THE SELF

SUBJECTIVISM
- Subjectivism claims that the ethical agent is the sole determinant of what is ethically
good or bad, right or wrong,
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM (DESCRIPTIVE)
- A cliche said that “Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all our actions are
always already motivated by self-interest.”
- “This is the stance of psychological egoism – this is the theory that describes the
underlying dynamic behind all human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct
one to act in any particular way. Instead, it points out that there is already an underlying
basis for how one acts. The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all our actions
are geared towards satisfying these interests.
ETHICAL EGOISM PRESCRIPTIVE
- Ethical egoism is a theory based on self-interest which assumes that everyone act for his
own self-interest.
- Ethical egoism describes how one should behave, that we should make our own ends,
- our own interests, as the single overriding concern.
Self-interest
- Self-interest is choosing an option that would result in the decision made in receiving the
benefit.
Enlightened self-interest
- means we are well aware and informed of our actions and decisions that would result in
present and future self-interest.
Selfishness
- Selfishness refers to lack of concern with the values of others, it refers to someone who
does not care about others, does not care about being famous.

ALTRUISTIC
- is used more broadly to refer to behavior that benefits others, regardless of its motive.
2 MOTIVES IN ONE ACTION
- A single motive cannot be characterized in both ways; but a single act can be
undertaken from both motives.
PURE ALTRUISM
- If someone performs an act entirely from altruistic motives—if, that is, self- interested
motives are entirely absent—we can describe his act as a case of “pure” altruism.
SELF-SACRIFICING BEHAVIOR:
- We should be careful to distinguish purely altruistic behavior from self-sacrificing
behavior: the former involves no gain for oneself, whereas the latter involves some loss.

Approaches
First Approach: It is in our interest to be altruistic
Second Approach: Moral thinking is not self-centered but impartial and impersonal
Third Approach: “Sentimentalism.” It says that man gives sympathy, compassion and personal
affection central in moral life. Sentimentalism is the bond among men. Man emotionally
responds to the state of others. Reasons are not the reason for this sentimentalism.

Utilitarianism
- puts every single stakeholder at par with everyone else, with no one being worth more
than any other.

REMEMBER THIS:
AN ACT IS MORAL OR ETHICAL OR RIGHT OR GOOD IF IT WILL BRING ABOUT THE
GREATEST GOOD (greatest happiness) FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER (majority) OF
THOSE AFFECTED BY THE ACTION (specific purpose).

CARE FOR SELF

(this also includes members of our family or others that we have a pesonal relations)
Bentham’s Utilitarianism
 - pleasure is not selfish for there is an extension of the greatest number. His greatest
happiness is quantity.
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism
- its emphasis on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, elevates the human element
above the animalistic and above the merely selfish.

CARE FOR OTHERS

- Utilitarianism is not complete, not perfect. There are real problems with it.

Natural Law Theory, puts more emphasis on the supposed

a) objective,
b) universal nature of what is to be considered morally good,
c) basing its reasoning on the theorized existence of a “human nature.”

Thomas Aquinas believed the following are part of human nature:

Natural Inclination
First natural inclination
- the innate tendency that all human beings share with all other existing things: namely,
the natural propensity to maintain oneself in one’s existence. Any action therefore that
sustains and cultivates one’s biological or physical existence is to be deemed good while
all actions that lead to the destruction of one’s existence is to be called bad or evil.
Second natural inclination
- gives an important value to production and care for offspring.
Third natural inclination
- says that part of human nature is to promote the truth and cultivate a harmonious life in
society with other humans. Same must be upheld by the individual in her relations with
family and friends.
- Care for others

Non-Human Environment, Animals, Plants, and Ecosystem

- Maybe, one can try to infer from Aquinas’ philosophy that certain actions should be
avoided because they do not produce a harmonious, peaceful society. One can argue
that neglecting the physical environment because of shortsighted economic goals (e.g.,
overfishing the waters off the coast of our islands or cutting down trees in our mountains
and hills) will eventually lead to disasters such as flooding or famine that will affect
society in a detrimental fashion.

Deontology
- is the moral framework (theory) that evaluates actions that are done because of duty.
- deon means “being necessay.”
- Kant believed that human beings have the faculty called rational will which is the
capacity to act according to principles that we determine ourselves.
- Kant’s discussion on rational starts with his distinction between human and animal
 - believes that there is always tension between base instincts and rational will.

Kantian deontology
- puts the premium on rational will, freed from all other considerations, as the only human
capacity that can determine one’s moral duty.

On Sentience or Sentient Animal

Sentience
- is an ability that an animal has the ability to perceive and navigate his external
environment.
- Humans are sentient animals, too, for the same reason. Humans interact in and with the
world, reacting to the external stimuli, and internal impulses to survive and thrive.
- Sentience shows that human and animal are the same.

On Rational Will
- Rational will points out the difference between animals and persons.
- This rationality consists of mental faculty to construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond
our immediate surroundings. This is the capacity for mental abstraction, which arises
from the operations of the faculty of reason. Thus, we have the ability to stop and think
about what we are doing.
- We cannot remove ourselves mentally from the immediacy of our surroundings and
reflect on our actions and how such actions affect the world. We can imagine a different
and better world, and create mental images of how we interact with other people in that
world.
- Animals cannot do all of those.
Rational will
- is our ability to enact and to make our thoughts real. Rational will refers to the faculty to
intervene in the world, to act in a manner that is consistent with our reason.
- is the capacity of a person to be the cause of her actions based on reasons and not
merely to mindlessly react to the environment and base impulses.

AGENCY is the ability of a person to act based on her intentions and internal states.

Greek words:
Autos - self
Heteros - other
Nomos - law

Auto + Nomos = autonomy = means self-law (or self-legislating)

Heteros + Nomos = heteronomy = means other law

Kant focuses on one’s autonomy as constitutive of what one can consider as moral law that is
free from all other ends and inclinations - including pain and pleasure as well as conformity to
the rules of the group. This shows Kant’s disdain for these rules as being authorities external to
one’s own capacity for rational will.

HUMAN CHOICE
- Ang autonomy is property of will only during instances when The action is determined by
pure reason.
- Self-legislating
- Autonomy

ANIMAL CHOICE
- When the action is determined by sensible impulses, despite the source of those
impulses being nevertheless internal, it is considered heteronomous.
- Heteronomy
- Sensible impulse

Care for Others

- Substantive moral theory, like the 10 comandmeents, has specific, unambiguous,
particular duties, in a straightforward manner, like “honor thy father and moter,” thou shall
not kill,”
- Kant endorses formal moral theory which does not providestraightforward rules or
commands, does not say what you may do or you may not do. It only provide a
framework or form of a moral theory by providing a procedure and the criteria for
determining, on one;s own, the rules and moral commands. He calls this as categorical
imperative.

Universalizability
- “Act only according to such a maxim, by which you can at once will that it become a
universal law.”

There are 4 key elements in the formulation of categorical imperative:

1. Action
2. Maxim
- A maxim is defined as a “subjective principle of action.” it consists of a rule that we live
by in our day-to-day lives, but it does not have the status of a law or a moral command
that binds us to to act in a certain way. Maxims is a pattern of our behavior. It is like SOP,
standard of operating procedure in our lives.

3. Will
4. Universal law