Kahane&Saporta: The Verbal Categories of Judeo-Spanish

The Verbal Categories of Judeo-Spanish (I)
Author(s): Henry R. Kahane and Sol Saporta

Source: Hispanic Review, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Jul., 1953), pp. 193-214
Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press
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THE VERBAL CATEGORIES OF JUDEO-SPANISH (I)
0. Introduction
0.1. PURPOSE. This study applies the methods of structural lin-
guistics to an investigation of the system of the verbal categories
(i.e., the grammatical elements in verb forms: inflections, auxilia-
ries, or the bound form se) in (Oriental) Judeo-Spanish.
0.2. SOURCEMATERIAL
AND METHOD. Extensive use has been made
of informants, and the study describes their common speech pat-
terns together with conversational material derived from texts. The
texts used and the corresponding abbreviations are the following:
bar Baruch,Kalmi, "El judeo-espaiiolde Bosnia,"Reevistade Filologia
Espaiiola, XVII (1930), 113-154.
let A letter by an informantfrom Athens.
lur Luria,Max A., "A Study of the MonastirDialect of Judeo-Spanish
Based on Oral Material Collected in Monastir, Yugo-slavia,"
Revue Hispanique, LXXIX (1930), 323-583.
sim Simon, Walter, "Charakteristikdes judenspanischenDialekts von
Saloniki," Zeitschrift fur romanische Philologie, XL (1920),
655-689.
wagk Wagner, Max L., Beitriige zur Kenntnis des Judenspanischen von
Konstantinopel. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissensehaften:
Schriften der Balkankommission(Vienna, 1914).
wagor Wagner, Max L., Caracteres generales del judeo-espaiol de oriente.
Revista de Filologia Espaniola,Anejo 12 (Madrid,1930).
Examples appearing without abbreviations were taken in direct

conversation from our informants, Matmazel ['Mademoiselle']
Kaden Strugo and Madam Luna Abdul, both from Izmir. No at-
tempt has been made to analyze differences between the various
dialects of the informants and texts investigated. Patterns which
were unacceptable to the informants have been excluded. The re-
cent study by E. Alarcos Llorach, Gramcdticaestructural (Madrid,
1951), was found very stimulating. Essentially, however, the basis
of this study is the system devised by Henry R. Kahane and Har-
riett S. Hutter in their study, "The Verbal Categories of Colloquial
193
194 Kahane and Saporta HR, XXI (1953)
Brazilian Portuguese," published in Word, IX (1953), No. 1.

Since the theoretical analysis is the same for both studies, ex-
planations are included here only when there is deviation from
the Kahane-Hutter system.
0.3. ARRANGEMENT. The main divisions of the study correspond
to the four archcategories of time (1-2), mood (3), voice (4), and
agreement (5) and are followed by a summary (6). The four arch-
categories constitute the linguistic expression of the relationship
between the action and the action-modifiers.
0.4. TRANSCRIPTION. As phonetic phenomena are not under dis-
cussion, the transcription of the material derived from texts or
informants has been standardized by the use of a phonemic rather
than a phonetic transcription, but the phonemic systems of the
vowels of the various dialects involved have not been standardized.
The phonemic system used is the following:
vowels: i u
e o
a
consonants:
stops-
affricates fricatives nasals
labials p b f v m
dental-
alveolars t d s z n
palatals g s fi
velars k g
liquids: glides:
lateral 1 palatal y
vibrant: velar w
single r glottal h
multiple rr
[Accents and capital letters have been used in accordancewith the
modernconventionalspelling of Spanish.]
1. Time: Tense
The archcategory TIMEis the linguistic expression of the rela-
tionship between the action and the adverb of time (structurally,
a non-required action modifier), either expressed or unexpressed.
There are two types of adverbial modifiers referring to time.
Verbal Categories of Judeo-Spanish 195
Primary adverbs, always present either in actuality or by implica-

tion, are those that refer to date (in the broadest sense), and the
verb forms in relation with them express the category of TENSE(1).
Secondary adverbs, which may be used in addition to the primary
adverbs, are those that refer to patterns of perfectivity, and the
forms in relation with them express the category of ASPECT(2).
Both tense and aspect are, therefore, sub-divisions of the arch-
category time. In Judeo-Spanish, the tense system is ternary:
tenses are either PAST (1.1), PRESENT (1.2), or FUTURE (1.3).
1.1. PAST. The tense past may be expressed either by a SIMPLE

FORM (1.11) or by a COMPOUND FORM (1.12). The two may be in
free variation, as in the following sentences: Lo ke m'avta dico mi
muzer ez vedrad ['What my wife told me is true.'] (wagk 71); and
Es todo vedrad lo ke me diso eya ['What she told me is all true.']
(wagk 71).
1.11. SIMPLE PAST. Two verb forms appear in the simple past,
namely the preterite (i) and the imperfect (ii), with aspect de-
termining the selection between them.
(i) The simple past is the preterite.
Ayer resevt tu letra. ['I received your letter yesterday.']

(let 1). I Ayer vino Bohor i me konto una istoria tan larga ke ni
la entendi. ['Yesterday Bohor came and told me such a long
story that I didn't even understand it.'] | Agoranaiio, mi ermano
no tenia paras, se empresto mil grosiz de Ishak. ['A year ago,
my brother didn't have any money; he borrowed 1000 gros from
Ishac.'] ] Yo kuando era cika, lavori mui munco. ['When I was
young, I worked a lot.'] [ Antiz mil anus il guvernu tuvu une
gerre mui fuerti. ['A thousand years ago, the government had a
very big war.'] (lur 347). Yo no m'akordu . . . siendu ai mil
anus ki ya pasarun. ['I don't remember . . . because a thousand
years have passed already.'] (lur 347). | Di anoci no kumimos.
['We haven't eaten since last night.'] (lur 368). I Despues ke ya
butyo el awa, yamo al izo. ['After the water had boiled, she called
her son.'] I El mes pasado, el estava aki, avia dos semanas ke
skapo su lavoro. ['Last month, he was here; he had finished his
work two weeks before.']
(ii) The simple past is the imperfect.

Ke fazies a tu tiempu? ['What did you do formerly?'] (lur
350). | Em mi uiltima te dezia ke te vo mandar . . . ['In my last
letter I told you I would send you . . .'] (let 1). I Kuando yo
estava en Izmir, yo lavorava pantalonez de ombres. ['When I was
in Izmir, I used to make men's trousers.']' Kuando mos kaiamos,
moz dezia ansina mi mama. ['Whenever we fell, my mother would
say that to us.'] I T'akordas . .. i kuando si'nsindia el kandil,
s'impisava a kantar il kidus. ['You remember, . . . and when
they'd light the candle, they'd start to sing the kiddush.'] (bar
149). Ya t'akordaz bos ki tinga. ['You remember what a voice
he had.'] (bar 149). 1 Sieti milioniz di valor tinien, sieti di dieziz
di valor tienin. ['They were worth seven millions, and now they
are worth nothing (seven tens).'] (lur 359). i Salam6 Algazi,
tam bueno kantava ke lo yamarom para kantar para el rei.
['Solomon Algazi used to sing so well that they called him to sing
for the Sultan (king).'] Bohor venia kada dia em muestra kaza
porke era mui amigo de la famiya. ['Bohor used to come to our
house every day, because he was a good friend of the family.']
1.12. COMPOUND PAST. THE AUXILIARY MAY BE EITHER PRESENT
(1.121) or PAST (1.122). The system of compound tenses is not
very clear. Little or no difference in meaning seems to exist be-
tween the simple preterite and the compound forms, on the one
hand, and between the compound form with the auxiliary present
(present perfect) and the compound form with the auxiliary past
(past perfect), on the other hand. The auxiliary in the compound
past may be either aver (i) or tener (ii); the two are in free
variation.
1.121. THE AUXILIARY IS IN THE PRESENT.
(i) The auxiliary is aver.

La avez visto a Kaden oi? -Fin agora no la ave visto. ['Have
you seen Kaden today? -I haven't seen her up to now.'] | No
aven traido savon oi? ['Haven't they brought any soap today?']
| Este kaze la mirki yo, ma no l'a pagadu ainde. ['I bought this
house, but I haven't paid for it yet.'] (lur 369). I Se ave visto
a Sultana en la kaye? ['Did anyone see Sultana in the street?'] I
No te az enfasiado de borrekaz de espinaka? ['Aren't you tired

of spinach patties ?']
(ii) The auxiliary is tener.

Yo tengo eco mucas kozas em mi vida. ['I've done many things
in my life.'] No tengu sintidu di esti modu di kozes. ['I've
never heard anything like it.'] (lur 390). I Tu tienis kumido
este modo de savor de komida? ['Have you ever eaten so tasty a
meal?'] No kreo ke tengo ido. ['I don't think I was ever
there.'] Yo tengo ido trez vezes. ['I went three times.']
1.122. THE AUXILIARY IS IN THE PAST.
(i) The auxiliary is aver.

Esto ez lo ke yo avia prometido. ['This is what I promised.']
(sim 668). 1 Avian dico ke era para los provis. ['They said it was
for the poor.'] En Izmir se avia eco el teatro Izmir. ['In Izmir
they built the Izmir (theatre).'] | Lo ke m'avia dico mi muzer ez
vedrad. ['What my wife told me is true.'] (wagk 71). .. .. mi
sifnor padre ke se avia sikileado tanto la otra semana. ['. . my
father who was so upset last week.'] (wagor 92).
(ii) The auxiliary is tener. The auxiliary tener may appear

either in the imperfect (a) or preterite (b). No semantical dis-
tinction between the two forms is discernible.
(a) The auxiliary tener is imperfect.

Ke karar de prove ke era ke no tenia gustado bulema. ['He
was so poor he had never tasted bulema (a kind of pastry).']
(wagk 59). I Tumo luz otros ki lus tinie prisiadu pur diez lires.
['He took the others that he had appraised at ten lire.'] (lur 402).
(b) The auxiliary tener is preterite.

Nunka tuve gostado este modo de dulse. ['I've never tasted
this kind of pastry.']
1.2. PRESENT. The present tense appears in four different en-

vironments: either IT IS IN RELATION WITH AN ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
MEANING PRESENT (1.21), or IT IS IN RELATION WITH AN ADVERBIAL
MODIFIER MEANING PAST (1.22), or IT IS IN RELATION WITH AN AD-

VERBIAL MODIFIER MEANING FUTURE (1.23), or IT IS NOT IN RELATION
WITH ANY ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF TIME (1.24).
1.21. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS PRESENT.
I agore sta hazine. ['And now she's sick.'] (lur 365). 1 Agore
keru ki mi laz des. ['Now I want you to give them to me.']
(lur 347). I Agora kualo tienez en la mano ke sto viendo? ['What
do I see you holding in your hand?'] Oi kerez alguna koza ke
vinitis? ['Did you come because you want something today?']' Oi
tengo un dolor de kavesa ke m'esta matando. ['I have a headache
today that's killing me.'] | Luna, ke bus'kas por aki esta ora?
['Luna, what are you doing around here at this time?'] I Estu ki
tengu a la manu, lu kue es? ['What's this that I have in my
hand?'] (lur 351).
1.22. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS PAST.
Yo lo vide i me dize ke . . . ['I saw him, and he told me that

.'] | Impues . . . mi dimando si sta bivu o sta muartu. ['Then
. . he asked me whether he was alive or whether he was dead.']
(bar 141). De la mafiana ke la embio . . . i eya inda no viene.
['I sent her this morning . . . and she still hasn't come back.']
(sim 670). I Di muestre cikes ki istamus siempri intrimitidus kun il
mildar. ['Since our childhood, we've always kept busy reading.']
(lur 398). J
Te dezia ke te vo mandar ... $130 .... Oi troko
de idea. ['I told you I would send you . .. $130. . . . Today I
changed my mind.'] (let 1). J Mira lo ke me pasa oi. Estava en
la gudria i lo vide a Yakov. ['Look what happened to me today.
I was in the market and I saw Yakov.'] [ Mi digueli aka, mi
digueli aya, mi truseron aka. ['It hurt me here, it hurt me there,
so they brought me here.'] (lur 353). 1 Ai doz dias ke te esto
buskando. De ke no vienis afirmar el papel? -Porke no pude.
['I've been looking for you for two days. Why haven't you come
to sign the paper? -Because I couldn't.']
1.23. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS FUTURE.
Maiiana te do las paras. ['I'll give you the money tomorrow.']

Maniane ya vus kontu todu lu kue mi pas6 oi. ['Tomorrow I'll
tell you everything that happened to me today.'] (lur 345). 1 Esta-
Verbal Categories of Judeo-Spanish7 199
moz mui agile, en una ora moz vamos. ['We're in a great hurry,
we'll go in an hour.'] I Di amanana in um mez ya es purim.
['Only a month from tomorrow is Purim.'] (bar 148). | I si no
las trayis, yo ti matu. ['And if you don't bring them, I'll kill
you.'] (lur 350). I Si no me daz lo ke me deves, mira ke m'arravio.
['If you don't give me what you owe me, I'm going to be angry.']
1.24. THERE IS NO ADVERBIALMODIFIER OP TIME.
Todoz los pasaroz no kantan. ['Not all birds can sing.']

Melda mui bueno, ez um mansevo struido. ['He reads very well,
he's an intelligent boy.'] | Yo, komu no do, no dimandu. ['If I
don't give, I don't ask.'] (lur 349). 1 Il ki da unu, il Dio li da
dos. ['To him who gives one, God gives two.'] (lur 354). A
una persona ke faze mal a el rei, merese matado. ['A person who
does wrong to the king deserves to be killed.'] (sim 672).
1.3. FUTURE. The future either DOESNOT EXPRESSCONTINGENCY
(1.31) or DOES EXPRESS CONTINGENCY (1.32).
1.31. THE FUTURE DOES NOT EXPRESS CONTINGENCY. The non-con-

SIMPLE FORM (1.311) or by
tingent future is expressed either by a
a COMPOUND FORM WITH THE AUXILIARY PRESENT (1.312). The two
forms are in free variation, but the compound form is by far the
more common.
1.311. SIMPLE FORM.
Maniana me okupare para mandar . . . ['Tomorrow, I'll take

care of sending . . .'] (let 1). I Aspera, tomare un sigariko.
['Wait, I'll get a cigarette.'] | Mirare la karne ke no se keme.
['I'll look at the meat so that it doesn't burn.'] I Kumiremoz
imprimero para ki tengas fuersaz de lavorar. ['We'll eat first so
you'll have strength to work.'] I Dami las paras i dispues ti dare
la misirke. ['Give me the money, and then I'll give you the
turkey.'] (lur 342). 1 Lo empleare kuando se ard de menester.
['I'll use it when it's necessary.'] (let 1).
1.312. COMPOUND FORM WITH THE AUXILIARY IN THE PRESENT.
Amafiana v'ir a gastar. ['Tomorrow I'm going shopping.'] I Ti

la vo a trayer a maniane. ['I'll bring it to you tomorrow.'] (lur
347). 1 Al afio ke viene se v'ir a Izmir. ['Next year he's going to

go to Izmir.'] ] Komu si la vaz arruvar? ['How are you going to
steal it from him?'] (lur 342). | Kuandu ti vo a dizir ki ya tupi
las paras . . . ['When I tell you I found the money . . .'] (lur
344). I Este es haham; mafiana va kantar en la kirla. ['This man
is a rabbi; tomorrow he's going to sing in the synagogue.'] Te
dezia ke te vo mandar . . . ['I told you I'd send you . . .'] (let
1). I Lu stave aspirandu ki va pasar. ['He was waiting for him to
pass.'] (lur 344). | Meldi en el gornal ke Yakov se va kazar.
['I read in the paper that Yakov is/was going to get married.'] I Ya
no te dise ke no vaz a ir al parke? ['Didn't I tell you that you
aren't/weren't going to go to the park?'] | Bohor gur6 ke no va
pagar, i no pago. ['Bohor swore he wouldn't pay, and he didn't
pay.'] Ya no ti disi . . . ki vo a tumar las paras . . . i ti laz
vo a dar? ['Didn't I tell you . . . that I'd take the money . . .
and I'd give it to you?'] (lur 342).
1.32. THE FUTURE EXPRESSESCONTINGENCY. The contingent fu-
ture is expressed by a compound form with the auxiliary past.
When the future is coordinate (3.1) with a verb in the past, two
patterns emerge. In the first (1.312), no question of contingency
arises since the form of the future, a compound form containing
an auxiliary in the present, is identical with the form used when
the future is coordinate with a verb in the present. The second
pattern, however, shows contingency: the expressing of the future
by means of a compound form with an auxiliary in the past is
found only when the coordinate verb is in the past. The morpho-
logical contrast, therefore, between the compound future with an
auxiliary in the present and the compound future with an auxiliary
in the past expresses the categorical contrast between NON-CON-
TINGENCY (1.312) and CONTINGENCY (1.32). The auxiliary may
be ir (i) or, rarely, aver (ii).
(i) The auxiliary is ir.

Lo ke paresi6 ke le iva a morder. ['It looked as if he were going
to bite him.'] I Ayer me diso ke iva a kantar. ['Yesterday he told
me he was going to sing.'] Me paresi6 ke ayer iva a azer munco
frio. ['I thought it was goirngto be very cold yesterday.'] I Moson
no savia k'el kavayo lo iva a matar. ['Moshon didn't know that
the horse would kill him.'] No savian ke . . . les ivamos a dar
una tepine. [' They didn't know that we were going to kick them.']
(wagor 77).
(ii) The auxiliary is aver.

Disu ki il kavayu lu avie a matar. ['He said that the horse
was going to kill him.'] (lur 400).
2. Time: Aspect
ASPECT is the expression of the relationship between the verb
and the secondary adverb of time, which has the meaning perfec-
tivity. This adverb may be expressed or unexpressed. Aspect
may be ABSOLUTE (2.1) or RELATIVE (2.2). Relativity means gram-
matical non-autonomy which is demonstrated by the presence of
a time-base, i.e., another (expressed or unexpressed) element be-
longing to the linguistic environment and establishing the aspec-
tual frame. Absolute means, then, in contrast to relative, ir-
relevancy as to time-base. ABSOLUTE ASPECT is expressed in non-
compound forms (plus the one compound form: preterite of ser
plus participle) with irrelevancy of time-base, whereas the com-
pound forms with a time-base yield the category of RELATIVE
ASPECT.
2.1. ABSOLUTEASPECT. Absolute aspect occurs only in the past;

IMPERFECTIVITY (2.11) is expressed by the simple imperfect, and
PERFECTIVITY (2.12) either by the simple preterite or by the pret-
erite of ser plus participle. Since the simple present takes both
imperfective and perfective adverbial modifiers, it expresses ir-
relevancy of aspect.
2.11. IMPERFECTIVITY.
Kuando no lavorava, me davan kada semana. ['When I wasn't

working, they used to give me something every week.'] I Kuando
eramos cikas en Izmir, aziamos kuna en loz arvoles kuazi kada dia.
['When we were young, in Izmir, we used to swing in the trees
almost every day.'] En el verano moz ivamoz al ke. ['In the
summer we used to go to the pier.'] I K6mu di lokez muzeris tinie
mi maridu! ['What crazy wives my husband used to have!']
(lur 394). | Yo tinia a las kriaturas cikas, mi s'asentavan al diridor.
['My children were young; they would sit around me.'] (bar
202 Kahane and Saporta HB, XXI (1953)
149). 1 Onde si iva el sol, si iva Kaden. ['Kaden would go where-

ever the sun would.'] Para sivot, m'akordu ... el kandil
inciamoz di sirezas. ['For Shabuoth, I remember . . . we used
to fill the candle with cherries.'] (bar 149). 1 Loz rikos ivan, los
provis ivan a kaminar a ver. ['The rich people went in; the poor
went just to look.']
Perfectivity may be expressed IN COMBINA-

2.12. PERFECTIVITY.
TION WITH THE CATEGORYTENSE (2.121) or NOT IN COMBINATION
WITH THE CATEGORYTENSE (2.122).
2.121. IN COMBINATION WITHTHECATEGORY TENSE. There are two

forms: in the active (i) the simple preterite is used; in the passive
(ii) the preterite of ser plus participle.
(i) Active.
Vinu . . . s'arruvo il patu i si fuyo. ['He came . . . he stole

the duck, and he ran away.'] (lur 352). | Pagili . .. la munede
ki ti dio. ['Pay him the money he gave you.'] (lur 348). | Son
d'un amigu . . . ki mi laz di6. ['They belong to a friend . . .
who gave them to me.'] (lur 344). | Kuando vido al polls se fuyo
komo un salvaze. ['When he saw the cop he ran like a wild
man.'] Ayer vinu Luna a kaza i estuvo avlando komo trez oras.
['Yesterday Luna came to the house and talked and talked for
about three hours.'] I Avram me dio mucas paras el aiio pasado, i
dempuez ya me las tomo6. ['Abraham gave me a lot of money last
year, but later he took it back from me.']
(ii) Passive.
Il otru . . . sta . . .kuntenti . . . ki fue kundinadu il pidridu.

['The other man . . . is . . . happy . . . that the one who lost was
condemned.'] (lur 362). DIempues, el ciko fue aharvado por su
padre. ['Then, the young boy was beaten by his father.'] Mi
iziko fue lavado por la sierva. ['My little boy was washed by the
maid.'] I El ermano de Mose fue matado por un aleiiari. ['Moe's
brother was killed by a gangster.'] j La famiya muestra fueron
struidos por la skola. ['Our family was educated in school.']
2.122. NOT IN COMBINATION WITH THE CATEGORY TENSE.
Agora se vido ke Sabetai es un aleiiari. ['Now we see that

Sabetai is a gangster.'] Agore ya s'intindio di suyu. ['Now it's
obvious.'] (lur 350). Apenaz resivo tu letra me asento i te
respondi. ['As soon as I receive your letter, I sit down and answer
you.'] (let 1). I Si merki esto mafiana, ya me se skaparon las pa-
ras. ['If I buy this tomorrow, my money will be gone.'] I Si no
fui el martes, no va tener maz ora. ['If I don't go Tuesday, I
won't have any other time.'] | Di amafiana in um mez ya es purim
. i ya mos paso i este invierno. ['Only a month from tomorrow
is Purim . . . and here is winter over already.'] (bar 148). 1 Al
anio ke viene, si moz viene, k'el Di6 guarde, una malatia, ya se
destruyo el mundo. ['Next year, if sickness comes to us, God
forbid, the world will come to an end.'] ] Si s'estruyo el mundo,
no lo va desar kon su kavesa. ['Even if the world comes to an end,
he won't let him have his way.'] (wagor 89).
2.2. RELATIVEASPECT. Relative aspect is expressed by compound
forms with the auxiliary estar (and sometimes [2.222] tener).
There are two patterns: estar plus gerund and estar plus participle.
The contrast in form between estar plus gerund and estar plus
participle is accompanied by the categorical contrast between IM-
PERFECTIVITY (2.21) and PERFECTIVITY (2.22). The very quality
of relativity gives to an estar form (estava kantando) the meaning
of actuality, in contrast to a simple form (kantava) which expresses
irrelevancy of actuality.
2.21. IMPERFECTIVITY. The auxiliary may be estar (i), an estar
substitute (ii), or estar in zero form (iii).
(i) The auxiliary is estar.

Siempre ke vengo yo a kaza, Goha estd durmiendo. ['When-
ever I come home, Goha is sleeping.'] | Siente ke bueno ke estdn
kantando los pasaros. ['Listen to how beautifully the birds are
singing.'] I Estu ki m'istds kuntando ya ez verdad. ['What you're
telling me is true.'] (lur 347). [ Kuando yo lo fui a ver a Menahem,
estava komiendo. ['When I went to see Menahem, he was eat-
ing.'] I En lo ke stava friendo en el kampiko vido munEa gente.
['While he was frying in the hall, he saw a lot of people.'] (wagk
69).
(ii) The auxiliary is an estar substitute.

Ke tal vas pasandu? ['How's it going?'] (lur 406). | Miralo
a este komo va tosiendoakomo um perro. ['Look at this fellow,
coughing like a dog.'] j Mira ke se sent6 i se kedo durmiendo.
['Look at him; he sat down and he's still asleep.'] | El iziko lo
estaz mirando? Va yorando asta ke la madre lo tome em brasos.
['Just look at the kid. He's going to go on crying until his mother
picks him up.']
(iii) The auxiliary is estar in zero form.

Kito um priguneru, diziendu: ['He made a public announce-
ment, saying:'] (lur 347). | Yo un dia kaminando . . . vide . . .
['Walking one day ... I saw .. .'] (sim 668). | Mira komo se
eco em baso, durmiendo komo um burraco. ['Look at the way he
lay on the floor, sleeping like a drunkard.'] | Bohor, kantando, ya
s'olvida sus sohoras. ['Bohor forgets his worries when he's sing-
ing.']
2.22. PERFECTIVITY. The relative aspect of perfectivity appears
in both voices, the PASSIVE(2.221) or the ACTIVE(2.222).
2.221. PASSIVEPERFECTIVITY.The auxiliary may be estar (i), an

estar substitute (ii), or estar in zero form (iii).
(i) The auxiliary is estar.

Para yo ke est6 embezada es kolai. ['It's easy for me because
I'm used to it.'] Estava mui tomadu del frio. ['The cold
bothered him a great deal.'] | Di ke staz d'esti modu icade?
['Why are you lying down like that?'] (lur 394). [ Mira este bovo
komo estd ecado ai em baso. ['Look at this fool, lying down on the
floor.'] I Sarota, aide, meneate, la komida ya esta eca. ['Sarota,
hurry up, get a move on, the meal is ready.'] ] Esta bamia sta
buena, dame una oka. -No puedo, esta vendida. ['This okra is
good, give me a kilo. -I can't, it's sold.']
(ii) The auxiliary is an estar substitute.

Yo mi tupi apritadu. ['I was in a tight spot.'] (lur 364).
Kuando vine a kaza la komida ya se top6 eca. ['When I came
home, the meal was ready.'] | Kuando se kedaron kayadas, lez diso
. . ['When they were quiet, he told them . . .'] (wagor 91). I I

il . . . si kazo kum mi, i kidi kazade kun tu sifior. ['And he .
married me, and I was married to your father.'] (lur 405). 1 Azia
munca luvia i kuando vine en kaza, kedi mocada. ['It was raining
a lot, and when I came home, I was wet.'] I Estuvieron avlando i
avlando asta ke enfin se kedaron kayados. ['They talked and
talked until at last they were quiet.']
(iii) The auxiliary is estar in zero form.

Lo estaz mirando ai ecado? ['Do you see him there, lying
down?'] I Goha, ecado en su kama, no le importa nada. ['Goha,
lying in his bed, doesn't care about anything.'] | II rei imbilikadu
in la ideye dil sehel ki mirko si sta diziendu entri si . . . ['The
king, absorbed by the thought of the wisdom he had bought, is
saying to himself . . .'] (lur 363). I Kuando fui a kaza, topi la
komida eca. ['When I went home, I found the meal ready.']
2.222. ACTIVE PERFECTIVITY.The auxiliary is tener. The dis-

tinction between the tener compounds expressing irrelevancy of
aspect (1.12) and the tener compounds expressing relative aspect
is morphological and syntactical. In contrast to the forms ex-
pressing irrelevancy of aspect, the forms of relative aspect express
gender and usually require the placing of the object between the
finite and the non-finite elements.
Tengo una karta eskrita, me la kerez ecar a la posta? ['I have

written a letter; do you want to mail it for me?'] I Yo tengo las
kamizas adovadas, las keres tomar? ['I have mended the shirts; do
you want to take them?'] | Abasa, Sal, ya tengo ecaz laz borrekas.
['Come down, Sol, I have the patties ready.']
2.3 NEUTRALIZATION.In the present tense, the pattern estar plus

participle may lose the category of perfectivity. This happens be-
cause the pattern ser plus participle (which expresses irrelevancy
of perfectivity) does not exist in the present in the speech of our
informants and is replaced by other patterns, one of which is
present of estar plus participle. (The form ser plus participle is
not relative, nor is it perfective. The form ser plus participle is
a passive form with the temporal and aspectual characteristics of
the corresponding active form. The difference is in voice [4]. Our
informants do not use this form in the present, but do use the past
of ser plus a participle to express the passive voice.)
El viernes por la noce, el kidus estd kantado por el grande de la

kaza. ['On Friday nights, the kiddush is sung by the head of the
house.'] But in the past: Ama el viernes pasado fue kantado por
Goha porke el fue musafir. ['But last Friday it was sung by Goha,
because he was a guest.'] I Siempre ke meldez el gornal vez un
artikulo ke un ombre estd matado por un aleiiari. ['Whenever
you read the paper, you see in an article that a man is killed by a
gangster.'] But in the past: El ermano de Mose fue matado por
un alefiari. ['Moe's brother was killed by a gangster.']
3. Mood
The archcategory MOOD is the linguistic expression of the rela-
tionship between the action and another verb in the sentence.
There are three patterns of relationship: both verbs are autono-
mous, yielding the category of COORDINATION
(3.1); one verb is
autonomous and the other non-autonomous, yielding the category
of SUBORDINATION (3.2); or both verbs are non-autonomous, yielding
the category of MUTUALCONTINGENCY(3.3). There is a correla-
tion between the patterns of autonomy and the verbal forms: co-
ordination is expressed by the indicative, subordination by the
subjunctive or a non-finite form, and mutal contingency by the
imperfect or conditional.
3.1 COORDINATION.Coordination is expressed by the indicative.
The relation of the two verbs is interpreted here, of course, inde-
pendently of the pattern of function classes in a given sentence.
In an example like Ti lo topas ke el ez bueno ['You find him to be
a good man.'], the ke clause is, as far as function class is concerned,
an object, but the verb is here considered as coordinated to the verb
topas, since the sentence can be transposed to: El ez bueno; ansina
t( lo topas.
Ya dizen ke ez una sivdeka aparte. ['They say it's a little

city all by itself.'] I Kunesi lu kue tode mode di pirsone tieni a
su kuras6n. ['He knows what all kinds of people have in their
hearts.'] (lur 360). ] Mos aprometio ke kada dia va mirar . . .
['He promised us he'd look every day . . .'] (wagor 92). [ Yo no

kreo ke Luna aze mal a dingunos. ['I don't think Luna does harm
to anyone.'] Ni se kuando vieni ni se kuando si va. ['I don't
know when he comes or when he goes.'] (bar 148). j Dempues ke
yo skapo de lavorar te ayudo. ['After I finish working, I'll help
you.'] I Si Pepe te eskrive . . . vaz a dezir ... ['If Pepe writes
you . . . say . . .'] (let 1).
3.2. SUBORDINATION.The category of subordination may be ex-
pressed by the SUBJUNCTIVE(3.21) or a NON-FINITEVERB FORM
(3.22).
3.21. SUBORDINATION IS EXPRESSED BY THE SUBJUNCTIVE. There
are two subjunctives: the present subjunctive and the past sub-
junctive. If the superordinate verb is past, the subordinate is
either present subjunctive or past subjunctive in free variation; if
the superordinate verb is not past, the subordinate verb is present
subjunctive. The subjunctive expresses subordination in four
different patterns: the superordinate verb is (or the superordinate
plus subordinate verb correspond to) a FUTURE(3.211), an IMPERA-
TIVE (3.212), an IMPLIEDNEGATIVE(3.213), or an EXCLAMATION
(3.214). The subjunctive structures are interpreted through the
application of the principle of transposition.
3.211. CONTINGENCYUPON THE FUTURE. There are two types of
contingency upon the future:
(i) A structure containing an autonomous future and a subordi-
nate subjunctive may be equivalent to a structure containing two
coordinate futures. For example, the sentence: Yo no va azerlo
antes ke tu vengas ['I won't do it until you come.'] can be trans-
posed to: Tt vaz venir: asta intonsez yo no va azerlo. THEAUTONO-
MOUS FUTURE MAY APPEAR IN THE FUTURE (a) or IN THE PRESENT (b).
(a) The autonomous future appears in the future.

Yo me vo a kedar kayadu asta ke tu me digas. ['I'm going to
remain quiet until you tell me.'] | Sin ki iskapi di favlar, tu vaz a
kidar kayadu. ['Until I finish speaking, you will remain quiet.']
(lur 347). f Dispues ki yo iskapi di favlar, vaz a dizir tu ki . . .
ez o verda o mintires. ['After I finish talking, you will say that
. . . (it) is the truth or a lie.'] (lur 347).
208 Kahane and Saporta THR,XXI (1953)
(b) The autonomous future appears in the present.

Lo estaz mirando ai eeado? No se alevanta antes ke se levante
el sol. ['You see him lying there? He won't get up until the sun
rises.'] I El iziko lo estaz mirando? Va yorando asta ke la madre
lo tome em brasos. ['Just look at the kid! He's going to go on
crying until his mother picks him up.']
(ii) A binary expression containing a superordinate plus a sub-

ordinate verb often corresponds to one single future. The sub-
ordinating function words which often appear in this pattern are
keno, no, and zero. For example, the sentence: Puedi ser mi den
algune koze ['Maybe they'll give me something.'] is equivalent to:
Posivlemente me van a dar algune koze.
M'ispantu ki no mi matis. ['I'm afraid you'll kill me.'] (lur

359). M'ispanto este maldico Ar6n no me diga alguna koza negra.
['I'm afraid that blasted Aaron will say something horrible to
me.'] Puedi ser mi den algune koze. ['Maybe they'll give me
something.'] (lur 354).
3.212. UPON THE IMPERATIVE. A binary expression
CONTINGENCY
consisting of a superordinate verb plus subordinate verb often
corresponds to a single imperative. The transposition from the
single imperative to a corresponding binary type may be an actual
equivalent of a single imperative (kero ke kantes is equal to kanta!),
or may constitute a change in linguistic environment from indirect
to direct speech (Mira a Luna ke viene. -Ke venga em buenora.
['Here comes Luna. -She's welcome.'] is equivalent to Luna,
ven em buenora!). The superordinate verb is expressed (i) or
not expressed (ii).
(i) The superordinate is expressed.

Kero ke me mostres ande ez el comerco. ['I want you to show
me where the custom-house is.'] | Veyu di gustu ki stes im prizi6n.
['I find it just that you go to prison.'] (lur 349). | Te est6 diziendo
ke lavorez mas fuerte. ['I'm telling you to work harder.'] | Yo te
forso ke vayaz a ver a Aron. ['I force you to go see Aaron.'] | Ez
di minister ki m'amostris kuantu valgu. ['You have to show me
how much I am worth.'] (lur 403). 1 Lu kue vuz arrogu ez . . . ki
mi mites ai . . . i no digds nade. ['What I beg you is . . . to

put me there . .. and don't say anything.'] (lur 352). [ A mi
me ambez6 mi mama ke no refuze nunka. ['My mother taught me
never to refuse.'] (sim 668). I Los pasazeros eyoz mizmos kalen
ke pagen. ['The passengers themselves have to pay.'] (wagk
77). 1 Dimandale ke te aga saver de algun lavoro en la gudria.
['Ask him to let you know of some work in the market.'] Prigun-
tili ki ti dige si sos . . . ['Ask him to tell you if you are . .']
(lur 359). | Ti disi ki no mi fursares. ['I told you not to force
me.'] (lur 405).
(ii) The superordinate is not expressed. Here are included ex-
amples containing parake plus subjunctive: a sentence such as Yo
lo va azer para ke tengas paras ['I'll do it so that you may have
money.'] is interpreted as Kero ke tengas pards; intonsez lo va azer.
Ke te vea tu papu. ['Let your grandfather see you.'] Esto

ke sea de leson. ['Let this be a lesson.'] (let 1). Va ande Goha;
ke te diga la verda. ['Go to Goha; let him tell you the truth.']
Ondi ki lu desi? ['Where shall I leave it?'] (lur 343). 1 Aki esta
la tenike. Ande ke la meta? ['Here's the can. Where shall I
put it?'] I Oi ti vo a dar venti lires. -Asin ke seye. ['Today
I'm going to give you twenty lire. -Fine.'] (lur 370). Pur ke
k'afirmi? ['Why should I sign?'] (lur 348). ] Komo ke le page
kuando no tengo paras? ['How can I pay him when I have no
money?'] I Mirare la karne ke no se keme. ['I'll look at the meat
so that it doesn't burn.'] | Kumiremoz imprimero para ki tengas
fuersaz de lavorar. ['We'll eat first so you'll have strength to
work.'] | Yo lo va azer para ke tengas paras. ['I'll do it so that
you may have money.'] | Yo te do sigarikos para ke fumes. ['I'll
give you cigarettes so you can smoke.'] [ Kititi il mintam para ki
no ti s'inkaii. ['Take off your shirt so that it doesn't get dirty.']
(lur 344).
3.213. CONTINGENCY UPON AN IMPLIED NEGATIVE. The pattern
function word of negation plus subjunctive is equivalent to the
pattern negative plus indicative. For example the sentence: Este
s'est6 dando aires komo si fuera mui riko ['This man is giving him-
self airs as if he were very rich.'] can be transposed to Este no ez
mui riko; ama s'esta dando aires. When the function word is
komosi, the subjunctive is past subjunctive.
Mi kurasom batia fuerti komo ki si ablara di una koza kerida.

['My heart was beating fast as if someone were speaking of a be-
loved thing.'] (wagor 74). | Si fizieron viezas sin ke ni eyas sepan
k6mo. ['They became old without being aware of it.'] (bar 147).
3.214. UPON AN EXCLAMATION.The simple pattern
CONTINGENCY
exclamation (or interrogation) may be transposed to a binary con-
sisting of an indicative plus subjunctive. For example the sen-
tence: Es posivle ke sea doktor? ['Is it possible that he's a doc-
tor?'] is equivalent to Ez doktor!
Me ked6 kurioza ke Mose despuez de tanto lavorar no tenga

paras. ['I'm surprised that after working so much Moe doesn't
have any money.'] I No esta Yakov en la kirla. -Ez imposivle ke
no este; ai estava endagora. ['Jacob isn't in the synagogue. -He
must be there; he was there a moment ago.']
3.22. SUBORDINATION IS EXPRESSED BY NON-FINITE VERB FORMS. The
non-finite verb form may be either THE INFINITIVE (3.221), THE
GERUND(3.222), or THE PARTICIPLE(3.223).
3.221. THE NON-FINITEVERBFORMIS THE INFINITIVE. The infini-

tive in combination with a finite verb form is non-autonomous.
There are two types of non-autonomous infinitive patterns: either
the superordinate verb has the same actor as the subordinate (i),
or the superordinate does not (ii).
(i) The superordinate verb has the same actor as the subordinate.
Keriz vinir in kaze? ['Do you want to come home?'] (lur

353). | Kuando. . . nom puedez eskrivir . . . ['When . . . you
can't write . . .'] (let 1). | Di ke no vienis afirmar il papel?
['Why don't you come to sign the paper?'] (lur 348). [ Mose no
save avlar mui bueno. ['Moe doesn't know how to speak very
well.'] No puedez vinir a vizitarme amafiana? ['Can't you
come to visit me tomorrow?'] I No me kerez ayudar kon estaz
resikas? ['Don't you want to help me with these cookies?']
(ii) The superordinate verb does not have the same actor as the
subordinate. There are two patterns: THE ACTOROF THE SUBORDI-
NATE INFINITIVE APPEARS AS AN (EXPRESSED OR UNEXPRESSED) MODI-
FIER OF THE SUPERORDINATEVERB (a), or THE ACTOROF THE SUBORDI-
NATE INFINITIVE IS AN (EXPRESSED OR UNEXPRESSED) FREE FORM
WITH THE INFINITIVE (b).
(a) The actor of the subordinate infinitive appears as an (ex-

pressed or unexpressed) modifier of the superordinate verb.
Vuz vo a yivar a pasiar i a kumer. ['I'm going to take you out

to have fun and to eat.'] (lur 368). | Mando gente suya a bus.karlo.
['He sent some of his men to look for him.'] (wagor 68). Te deso
ir para ke vengas presto. ['I'll let you go so that you'll come back
soon.'] I Nunka no me vitis azer maitap a dingunos. ['You never
saw me make fun of anyone.'] | Im mi kaza vitis fazer bukadus
kum masa dilgada? ['In my house did you ever see me make food
with thin matzos?'] (bar 150).
(b) The actor of the subordinate infinitive is an (expressed or
unexpressed) free form with the infinitive.
Me mandaz um poko de paras para merkar yo kualkier koza.

['Send me a little money so that I can buy some thing.'] I Dame
um pesiko de pam para poder komer yo. ['Give me a little piece
of bread so that I can eat.'] | Me mandas el adreso para ir yo a
vizitarla. ['Send me the address so that I can go visit her.'] I
Mandas una . . . afin de no estar em penserio. ['Send a . . . so
that I won't be worried.'] (let 1).
3.222. THE NON-FINITEVERBIS THE GERUND. The gerund, usually
preceded by en, expresses subordination.
En yivando yo esto a su kaza, me dara um poko de paras. ['If

I take this to his house, he'll give me a little money.'] Mira, iziko,
en sintiendo bueno, puedez ambezar bastante. ['Look, son, if you
listen well, you can learn a lot.'] | En avansando um poko de
paras, podemos tener una kazika buena en Alai Bei. ['If we save
a little money, we can have a nice little house in Alai Bey.']
3.223. THE NON-FINITE VERB FORM IS A PARTICIPLE. After the ex-
pression se kere, the participle expresses subordination.
212 Kahane and Saporta HB, XXI (1953)
Si keri idu . . . i tmadu . . . ['Somebody has to go . . . and

take . . .'] (lur 343). I No si keri dimandadu di ti nade. ['Noth-
ing has to be asked of you.'] (lur 350). 1 Ya se kere komido kual-
unke koza. ['We ought to eat something.'] Ya se keria ido a
viiitar a Mazalto. ['We ought to go visit Mazalto.'] Ya se kere
tomadu munco kuidado kon este lavoro. ['A lot of care has to be
taken with this work.']
3.3. MUTUAL CONTINGENCY. In conditional sentences containing
two non-coordinate verbs (as distinct from conditional sentences
containing two coordinate verbs [3.1]), both verbs are non-autono-
mous: this yields the category of mutual contingency. There are
two patterns of mutal contingency: THE SUBORDINATECLAUSEIS EX-
PRESSED (3.31) or NOT EXPRESSED (3.32). This difference in struc-
tures is paralleled by a difference in verb forms.
3.31. THE SUBORDINATE
CLAUSEIS EXPRESSED. In this common pat-
tern of mutual contingency the imperfect is used both in the super-
ordinate and the subordinate elements. It should be noted that the
imperfect expressing mutual contingency is a mood, in contrast to
the imperfect expressing time which is in relation to an adverbial
modifier. The combination imperfect of ir plus infinitive which is
occasionally found in the conclusion is interpreted as an imperfect.
Si yo era riko, lo kue azia entonses? ['If I were rich, what

would I do, then?'] (wagor 99). I Si eraz riko, me emprestavas tui
paras? ['If you were rich, would you lend me money?'] I Si eya
no estava aki, yo no savia kualo azer. ['If she weren't here, I
wouldn't know what to do.'] I Si el era benadam moz azia un haire.
['If he were a good fellow ("son of Adam"), he would do us a
favor.'] [ Si no keriamos . . . no kalia komportarnoz negro. ['If
we didn't want . . . we ought not to behave badly.'] (wagor 91). 1
Si eya no me dava las paras, yo kualo iva azer? ['If she hadn't
given me the money, what would I do?'] Si eya nom me dava 45
groses . . . ke iva ser mi hal? ['If she hadn't given me the 45
gros, what difficulty I'd be in!'] (wagor 89).
3.32. THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE IS NOT EXPRESSED. If the sub-
ordinate element appears in the form of an infinitive or is not
expressed, the contingency of the superordinate verb is indicated by
the form conditional.
Ya seria bueno konoserlos. ['It would be good to know them.'] I

Me agradaria tener una buena karosa kon kavayos. ['I'd like to
have a good horse and carriage.'] ] Yo seria mui rekonosiente a voz
de tener la konosensia de vuestro amigo. ['I would be very pleased
to meet your friend.'] (wagk 81). 1 Agora me komeria um pedaso
de karne buena. ['Now I could eat a piece of good meat.']
3.4. NEUTRALIZATION.There are two instances of the neutraliza-
tion of the subordinate infinitive: poder PLUS INFINITIVE (3.41) and
deber PLUS INFINITIVE(3.42). In both patterns of neutralization,
the two-verb structure superordinate verb plus subordinate verb
(i.e., finite verb plus non-finite) is transposed to a one-verb pattern
(i.e., a finite verb form of the non-finite verb).
3.41. NEUTRALIZATION OF poder (AND EQUIVALENTS) PLUS INFINI-
TIVE. There are two types: THE SUBORDINATE VERB MAY APPEAR IN
THE INDICATIVE (3.411) or IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE (3.412).
3.411. THE SUBORDINATE VERB IS IN THE INDICATIVE.
El pensa ke kanta, ama no save kantar. ['He thinks he can

sing, but he can't.'] I El kree ke guga bueno pastra, ma no puede
gugar. ['He thinks he can play pastra ("casino") well, but he
can't.'] ] Sultana dize ke kuze mui bueno, i yo kreigo ke ya save.
['Sultana says she can sew very well, and I think she really can.']
3.412. THE SUBORDINATE VERB IS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
No sea ke ez alguin kulebro? ['Can it be a snake?'] (wagk

14). j No seye il kezu ki fizitis estu? ['You can't have done that
to the cheese?'] (lur 394).
3.42. NEUTRALIZATION OF deber PLUS INFINITIVE. There are two
types: THE SUBORDINATEVERB MAY APPEAR IN THE FUTURE (3.421) or
IN THE CONDITIONAL(3.422). These patterns are conventionally
called the future and the conditional of probability. The future
expresses probability in the present, and the conditional expresses
probability in the past.
3.421. THE SUBORDINATE VERB APPEARS IN THE FUTURE.
Ainda estardn ayi. ['They are probably still there.'] (bar

145). I Ande esta il ilo, ai estard mi muzer. ['Whenever the
thread is, that's where my wife must be.'] (wagk 71). | Ke ora ez?
-Ya serd laz dos. ['What time is it? -It must be two o'clock
by now.'] No lo avemoz visto a Bohor; estard hazino. ['We
haven't seen Bohor; he's probably sick.']
3.422. THE SUBORDINATE VERB APPEARS IN THE CONDITIONAL.
Kreyes ke se las komeria? ['Do you think he could have eaten

them?'] (let 1). I No se. Fayarie d'algune vande o sta loku. ['I
don't know. Either he must have made a sale, or he's crazy.'] (lur
369). [ Kreyes ke se kazaria Le6n ? - Yo no se si se kaz6. ['Do
you think Leon could have gotten married? - I don't know
whether he got married.']
(To be continued)
HENRY R. KAHANE
SOL SAPORTA
University of Illinois

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The Verbal Categories of Judeo-Spanish (I)

Author(s): Henry R. Kahane and Sol Saporta

Examples appearing without abbreviations were taken in direct

Brazilian Portuguese," published in Word, IX (1953), No. 1.

Primary adverbs, always present either in actuality or by implica-

1.1. PAST. The tense past may be expressed either by a SIMPLE

(i) The simple past is the preterite.

Ayer resevt tu letra. ['I received your letter yesterday.']

(ii) The simple past is the imperfect.

1.121. THE AUXILIARY IS IN THE PRESENT.

(i) The auxiliary is aver.

No te az enfasiado de borrekaz de espinaka? ['Aren't you tired

(ii) The auxiliary is tener.

1.122. THE AUXILIARY IS IN THE PAST.

(i) The auxiliary is aver.

(ii) The auxiliary is tener. The auxiliary tener may appear

(a) The auxiliary tener is imperfect.

(b) The auxiliary tener is preterite.

1.2. PRESENT. The present tense appears in four different en-

MODIFIER MEANING PAST (1.22), or IT IS IN RELATION WITH AN AD-

1.21. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS PRESENT.

1.22. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS PAST.

Yo lo vide i me dize ke . . . ['I saw him, and he told me that

1.23. THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER MEANS FUTURE.

Maiiana te do las paras. ['I'll give you the money tomorrow.']

1.24. THERE IS NO ADVERBIALMODIFIER OP TIME.

Todoz los pasaroz no kantan. ['Not all birds can sing.']

1.31. THE FUTURE DOES NOT EXPRESS CONTINGENCY. The non-con-

1.311. SIMPLE FORM.

Maniana me okupare para mandar . . . ['Tomorrow, I'll take

1.312. COMPOUND FORM WITH THE AUXILIARY IN THE PRESENT.

Amafiana v'ir a gastar. ['Tomorrow I'm going shopping.'] I Ti

347). 1 Al afio ke viene se v'ir a Izmir. ['Next year he's going to

(i) The auxiliary is ir.

(ii) The auxiliary is aver.

2.1. ABSOLUTEASPECT. Absolute aspect occurs only in the past;

Kuando no lavorava, me davan kada semana. ['When I wasn't

149). 1 Onde si iva el sol, si iva Kaden. ['Kaden would go where-

Perfectivity may be expressed IN COMBINA-

2.121. IN COMBINATION WITHTHECATEGORY TENSE. There are two

Vinu . . . s'arruvo il patu i si fuyo. ['He came . . . he stole

Il otru . . . sta . . .kuntenti . . . ki fue kundinadu il pidridu.

2.122. NOT IN COMBINATION WITH THE CATEGORY TENSE.

Agora se vido ke Sabetai es un aleiiari. ['Now we see that

(i) The auxiliary is estar.

(ii) The auxiliary is an estar substitute.

(iii) The auxiliary is estar in zero form.

2.221. PASSIVEPERFECTIVITY.The auxiliary may be estar (i), an

(i) The auxiliary is estar.

(ii) The auxiliary is an estar substitute.

. . ['When they were quiet, he told them . . .'] (wagor 91). I I

(iii) The auxiliary is estar in zero form.

2.222. ACTIVE PERFECTIVITY.The auxiliary is tener. The dis-

Tengo una karta eskrita, me la kerez ecar a la posta? ['I have

2.3 NEUTRALIZATION.In the present tense, the pattern estar plus

El viernes por la noce, el kidus estd kantado por el grande de la

Ya dizen ke ez una sivdeka aparte. ['They say it's a little

['He promised us he'd look every day . . .'] (wagor 92). [ Yo no

(a) The autonomous future appears in the future.