Central Forces

PH 1010 - PHYSICS I
PH-2 Batch Teacher : Dr. A.R. Ganesan
Roll List
ED10B001 to ED10B060 (60)
ME10B017 to ME10B042 (26)
NA08B001 (1)
CH09B049 (1)
NA10B001 to NA10B029 (29) ---- Total = 117
Welcome to IIT Madras and welcome to PH 1010 Course
A bit of Introduction about the Course
A few Dos and Don’ts in this Course

1
Please remember that ALL of you equally competent –
So you are all here
You all have done enough of Physics and Solved very many problems
All of you have toiled for the JEE and other Examinations
If you are not intelligent, you will not be here
You are here with a great ambition of learning
You are all here with a specific purpose : of getting a good

B Tech Degree of world standard
We want to see you as GOOD ENGINEERS
The foundation of Good Engineering is a good, clear basic Physics
2
I wish to remind you a few important points about the teaching and
about the course
We teach concepts
This is the reason why YOU SHOULD ATTEND ALL THE CLASSES
Attendance is COMPULSORY.
If you are absent to more than 15% of the classes, You will NOT BE ELIGIBLE
to Write the exams.
The exams will be only Problems or short answer type questions based on
what has been taught in the class and Tutorials.
There will be questions in the exams based on Lectures and Tutorial sheets.
3
Our Class Time Table : Class Room : CRC 102
Monday : TUTORIAL : 4th Hour : 1100 – 1150 Hrs
Tuesday : Lecture : 3rd Hour : 1000 –1050 Hrs
Wednesday : Lecture : 2nd Hour : 0900 – 0950 Hrs
We propose to conduct : MID SEMESTER exam (exact date will be announced

shortly)
End Semester exam: NOVEMBER 25 (THURS DAY)
Tutorial is problem solving class
You will be given the Tutorial sheets ONE WEEK in advance
You have to come prepared to the class and may be one of you will be asked to
solve the problems
4
All Course related material :
Syllabus
Lecture presentations
Problem sheets
Solutions
will be posted at :
http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/index_files/courses/PH1010.html
5
In case of any need and necessity, we may ask you to come for
an extra class on
THURS DAY 3rd Hour (G1 Slot) : 100-1050 Hrs
Please Elect TWO representatives from your Batch : PH 2
We all the EIGHT teachers will have periodic meeting with them
to Know your problem

your concerns
your thoughts and opinions on the course.
We are here to teach you and help you learn
6
I am going to be an Engineer / Technologist
Why do I need Physics?
Let us take the example of the Design

of Measurement Systems
(Instrumentation Engineer)
What to measure ?
How to measure ?
How best to measure ?
Measurands
• Measurement of various parameters in everyday life has
become absolutely vital.
• Just to quote some of the parameters, we can say,
measurement of length, mass, time, velocity, momentum,
acceleration, torque, rpm, density, voltage, current,
resistance, power, frequency, phase, charge, magnetic
field, electric field, flow rate, and a lot more …….
• In all fields: for example, even in the biomedical field, one
needs measurement of Blood Pressure, Heart contraction
/ expansion, heart valve movement and ……the list goes
on…
Measurement requirements
• Take the simplest example of measuring the length and
the means to do it…..
• Distance between two cities –
• Length of a room –
• Length of a table –
• Length of a pen –
• Length of a short rod –
• Diameter of a small rod –
• Perhaps you could answer all the above….

Measurement challenges
• Now look at the following requirements ---
• -- To measure the thickness of a paper
• -- To measure the thickness of a human hair
• -- To measure the sag at the centre of a road bridge across

a river when a truck with full load is running on the bridge
• -- To measure the distance between the earth and the

moon
Order of Measurand
• Frequency measurement – order of few Hertz, or KHz,
MHz, GHz, THz …..electrical signal or an e.m. wave?
transverse or longitudinal ?...
• Voltage measurement – order of a few Volts, KV, MV, mV,

µV, nV, pV, still down???…..a.c. or d.c.?
• Time measurement – order of seconds, hours, years,

millisecond, micro, nano, pico second….
• Same is the case with several measurement requirements

Parameters to be considered in
measurement design
• Accuracy & Error
• Precision
• Repeatability/Reproducibility
• Range
• Threshold, Linearity
• Resolution & Sensitivity
• Size, Weight , Cost
• Reliability
• Ease of operation & Maintenance
• Feasibility of manufacturing / performing
Methodology Selection
Choice of underlying Physics / Physical concept for the
measurement.
Eg. Liquid bulb Thermometer – expansion due to heat.
Resistance Thermometer - change in resistance.
Voltmeter – Magnetic field produced by current.
-Requirement of contact or non-contact type
- Active or Passive
- Taking fraction of measurand from the source or not
- Requirement of in-situ measurement or in a lab
- Measurement Instrument (voltmeter, ammeter…)
- or Measurement Procedure (Young’s modulus, Refractive
Index, Permittivity…)
Acceptance, Compatibility, Safety, Noise levels, Effectiveness

Durability, Life Cycle & Recycle.
What is that we are going to learn in PH 1010:
We will learn :
Newtonian Mechanics (You know),

Conservative and non-conservative forces,
conservation of energy,
Force and energy methods to solve problems in Physics,
Velocity, acceleration and force require direction to be specified
- hence Vectors,
Definition of Cartesian coordinates, right handed coordinate system ,
Newtonian space,
Vector algebra : Vector addition, subtraction, multiplication:
Dot and cross products (why there is no vector division?),
a few physical examples
You might now feel that most of the material you already KNOW.
Let us see at the end of the semester.
14
As you all know:
There are only FOUR forces in Nature :
- Gravitational
- Electro-magnetic
- Strong Nuclear force
- Weak Nuclear force
If you know how many forces are acting on a body, you can calculate
the motion of the body at any given time.
But, we encounter forces which we do not know : Frictional force
Friction is important for motion

(without friction, the body slips or skids) (you cannot even walk)
Friction is a NON CONSERVATIVE force.

15
What is Conservative force
What is a NON-CONSERVATIVE Force?
How do you define it ?
Force methods of solving problems in Physics is rather limited.
So, what is the next alternative?
Energy methods:
How many energies are there ? Potential and Kinetic
What is conservation of energy ?
What is the relation between energy and force ?
16
If a force is applied to move this table ……….
I am applying the force, but the table is not moving at all
Tell me, how much work is done ?
The earth is moving round the sun : how much work is done?
What is the force involved?
When an electron is moving round the nucleus, how much work

is done? What is the energy involved? Where it comes from ?
If I move an object in any arbitrary direction and if I come to the

same point as I started, how much work is done?
How much energy is spent?
17
Imagine a body is moving under the influence of a force :
Say, an electron is moving under the influence of
electric and magnetic forces…..Describe the motion.
How are you applying the Electric field + and - ve plates

How are you applying the magnetic field ?
N – S or S – N w.r.t to what
18
Direction MUST be specified to state your problem.
The body can move with uniform velocity or with

uniform acceleration
How do you describe the motion ?
Direction should be specified to describe the motion?
How do you express the direction?
19
If the body is moving with constant acceleration and if the frame of
reference also moves with same acceleration, how do you describe
the motion?
What is an INERTIAL Frame?
What is Newtonian space ?
How many coordinates you require to specify a body?
What is a generalized coordinate ?
(If I wear a Green shirt every day, you can identify me with a Green
shirt !!)
This is a Generalized coordinate !
20
Types of Energy
Example: Falling Body
• Kinetic Energy m
EK = mv2/2
• Potential Energy v
EP = mgh
h
• Rest Energy
ER = mc2
Classical Physics
Picture prior to 20th Century:
• Energy and matter were separate and distinct
substances.
• Although appearing continuous to the naked eye,
matter was composed of discrete, localized atoms.
• Light was a form of electromagnetic wave, the
vibration of a continuous cosmic field, the aether,
and regarded as a form of "pure energy."
• Gravity was a continuous action-at-a-distance field.
Modern Physics
Current picture:
Energy and matter are the same stuff:

E = mc2
• The discrete nature of matter is confirmed. Energy is also

discrete.
• There is no evidence for an ether or any other continuous

medium in universe. Light is composed of particulate matter:
photons. Fields are composed of discrete particles ("quanta").
• General relativity explains gravity in terms of the curvature of

space rather than as a force field.
Matter
Molecules
Atoms
Nuclei and Electrons
Protons and Neutrons
Quarks
The Standard Model of Matter
Three generations of quarks and leptons
u c t
d s b
νe νµ ντ
e µ τ
plus antiparticles.
Familiar matter : u, d, e
proton = uud neutron = udd
Mass of a Proton
Proton is made of u u d quarks
Mass of proton
= Mass of u and d quarks
+ Kinetic Energy of quarks
+ Potential Energy between quarks
Most of Proton mass comes from energy components!
As far as we know,
Quark, Lepton and Force carrying Bosons are fundamental
Where does their mass comes from?

27
Let us come back to the problem of Forces :
29
The Standard Model of Forces
Forces result from the exchange of particles:
• Electromagnetism photon
• Strong nuclear gluons (8)
• Weak nuclear weak bosons (4)
(No quantum theory of gravity as yet)
While these force particles are described by
quantum fields in the theory, no continuous
medium, like the ether, is involved.
The Cosmos
Mass Budget
Radiation 0.005 %
Ordinary visible matter 0.5 %

Nature of dark matter and dark
energy still unknown.
Ordinary nonluminous matter 3.5 % But not “immaterial” since carry
mass.
Exotic dark matter 26 %
Even more exotic dark

“energy” 70 %
32
So, it is all the same whether we talk of
- Forces
- Matter
- Energy
It is only the language of Physics.
The Conservation of Energy, Conservation of Matter and

Conservation of Charge are of fundamental importance
These are the basic laws of Nature
These basic laws of Nature can also be Derived from Symmetry
33
Transformations and Invariance
• Transformations y
• Changes from one
reference frame to
another.
Invariance
A physics equation is invariant if it
does not change under a
X
transformation.
Covarient : The formula looks the same but meaning of each term is different
Symmetries
• Objects that are invariant

under transformations are
said to possess symmetry.
• This object is symmetric in
horizontal direction but
not the vertical direction.
Noether’s Theorem
For every continuous

symmetry of the laws of
physics there exists a
conservation law and vice
versa. -Emmy Noether
(1915)
Conservation “laws” follow from point-of-view

invariance.
Conservation of Linear
Momentum
• Follows from space-translation symmetry–

• when there is no special position in space.
Breaking Space-Translation
Symmetry
•When space translation symmetry is

broken, momentum is no longer
conserved. We describe the “cause” as
a force.
Conservation of Angular
Momentum
• Follows from space-rotation symmetry–

• when there is no special direction in space.
Conservation of Energy
• Follows from time translation symmetry–

• when there is no special moment in time.
So, the same laws of Physics are told in different languages
What ever they talk, they talk of one and the same thing:
Forces of Nature
Energy principles
Formation of Matter
Interaction of Matter with Energy
All this understanding of Nature is translated into Products :
called ENGINEERING.
41
Once you know the language, you can understand
what is happening
Once you know the tools, you can understand your

work.
These are the tools we teach in this PH 1010 :
Language of Physics and Engineering
42
Let us come back to our Newtonian Physics
Inertial Reference Frames

• An inertial reference frame is one in which
Newton's laws hold.
• An accelerating elevator is a non-inertial frame.
• A reference frame at rest or with constant
velocity is an inertial frame.
43
Let us fix our frame of reference as INERTIAL Frame
Now we describe the motion of a particle under the influence of a force
Force must have a direction :
The body moving must also have a direction.
We can include direction to the Physical observables by VECTORS
Before we define the Vector, let us fix our coordinate system.
We work with Cartesian co-ordinate system x, y, and z.
But remember, to describe the complete motion, we need

THREE space coordinates and ONE time coordinate
The THREE space co-ordinates must specify the body and its direction
of motion un-ambiguously.
44
Reference Frame
3 Space + 1 Time
are sufficient to describe nature!

What is that we are going to learn in PH 1010:
We will learn :
Newtonian Mechanics (You know),

Conservative and non-conservative forces,
conservation of energy,
Force and energy methods to solve problems in Physics,
Velocity, acceleration and force require direction to be specified
- hence Vectors,
Definition of Cartesian coordinates, right handed coordinate system ,
Newtonian space,
Vector algebra : Vector addition, subtraction, multiplication:
Dot and cross products (why there is no vector division?),
a few physical examples
You might now feel that most of the material you already KNOW.
Let us see at the end of the semester.
1
As you all know:
There are only FOUR forces in Nature :
- Gravitational
- Electro-magnetic
- Strong Nuclear force
- Weak Nuclear force
If you know how many forces are acting on a body, you can calculate
the motion of the body at any given time.
But, we encounter forces which we do not know : Frictional force
Friction is important for motion

(without friction, the body slips or skids) (you cannot even walk)
Friction is a NON CONSERVATIVE force.

2
What is Conservative force
What is a NON-CONSERVATIVE Force?
How do you define it ?
Force methods of solving problems in Physics is rather limited.
So, what is the next alternative?
Energy methods:
How many energies are there ? Potential and Kinetic
What is conservation of energy ?
What is the relation between energy and force ?
3
If a force is applied to move this table ……….
I am applying the force, but the table is not moving at all
Tell me, how much work is done ?
The earth is moving round the sun : how much work is done?
What is the force involved?
When an electron is moving round the nucleus, how much work

is done? What is the energy involved? Where it comes from ?
If I move an object in any arbitrary direction and if I come to the

same point as I started, how much work is done?
How much energy is spent?
4
Imagine a body is moving under the influence of a force :
Say, an electron is moving under the influence of
electric and magnetic forces…..Describe the motion.
How are you applying the Electric field + and - ve plates

How are you applying the magnetic field ?
N – S or S – N w.r.t to what
5
Direction MUST be specified to state your problem.
The body can move with uniform velocity or with

uniform acceleration
How do you describe the motion ?
Direction should be specified to describe the motion?
How do you express the direction?
6
If the body is moving with constant acceleration and if the frame of
reference also moves with same acceleration, how do you describe
the motion?
What is an INERTIAL Frame?
What is Newtonian space ?
How many coordinates you require to specify a body?
What is a generalized coordinate ?
(If I wear a Green shirt every day, you can identify me with a Green
shirt !!)
This is a Generalized coordinate !
7
Types of Energy
Example: Falling Body
• Kinetic Energy m
EK = mv2/2
• Potential Energy v
EP = mgh
h
• Rest Energy
ER = mc2
Classical Physics
Picture prior to 20th Century:
• Energy and matter were separate and distinct
substances.
• Although appearing continuous to the naked eye,
matter was composed of discrete, localized atoms.
• Light was a form of electromagnetic wave, the
vibration of a continuous cosmic field, the aether,
and regarded as a form of "pure energy."
• Gravity was a continuous action-at-a-distance field.
Modern Physics
Current picture:
Energy and matter are the same stuff:

E = mc2
• The discrete nature of matter is confirmed. Energy is also

discrete.
• There is no evidence for an ether or any other continuous

medium in universe. Light is composed of particulate matter:
photons. Fields are composed of discrete particles ("quanta").
• General relativity explains gravity in terms of the curvature of

space rather than as a force field.
Matter
Molecules
Atoms
Nuclei and Electrons
Protons and Neutrons
Quarks
The Standard Model of Matter
Three generations of quarks and leptons
u c t
d s b
νe νµ ντ
e µ τ
plus antiparticles.
Familiar matter : u, d, e
proton = uud neutron = udd
Mass of a Proton
Proton is made of u u d quarks
Mass of proton
= Mass of u and d quarks
+ Kinetic Energy of quarks
+ Potential Energy between quarks
Most of Proton mass comes from energy components!
As far as we know,
Quark, Lepton and Force carrying Bosons are fundamental
Where does their mass comes from?

14
Let us come back to the problem of Forces :
16
The Standard Model of Forces
Forces result from the exchange of particles:
• Electromagnetism photon
• Strong nuclear gluons
• Weak nuclear weak bosons
(No quantum theory of gravity as yet)
While these force particles are described by
quantum fields in the theory, no continuous
medium, like the ether, is involved.
The Cosmos
Mass Budget
Radiation 0.005 %
Ordinary visible matter 0.5 %

Nature of dark matter and dark
energy still unknown.
Ordinary nonluminous matter 3.5 % But not “immaterial” since carry
mass.
Exotic dark matter 26 %
Even more exotic dark

“energy” 70 %
19
So, it is all the same whether we talk of
- Forces
- Matter
- Energy
It is only the language of Physics.
The Conservation of Energy, Conservation of Matter and

Conservation of Charge are of fundamental importance
These are the basic laws of Nature
These basic laws of Nature can also be Derived from Symmetry
20
Transformations and Invariance
• Transformations y
• Changes from one
reference frame to
another.
Invariance
A physics equation is invariant if it
does not change under a
X
transformation.
Covarient : The formula looks the same but meaning of each term is different
Symmetries
• Objects that are invariant

under transformations are
said to possess symmetry.
• This object is symmetric in
horizontal direction but
not the vertical direction.
Noether’s Theorem
For every continuous

symmetry of the laws of
physics there exists a
conservation law and vice
versa. -Emmy Noether
(1915)
Conservation “laws” follow from point-of-view

invariance.
Conservation of Linear
Momentum
• Follows from space-translation symmetry–

• when there is no special position in space.
Breaking Space-Translation
Symmetry
•When space translation symmetry is

broken, momentum is no longer
conserved. We describe the “cause” as
a force.
Conservation of Angular
Momentum
• Follows from space-rotation symmetry–

• when there is no special direction in space.
Conservation of Energy
• Follows from time translation symmetry–

• when there is no special moment in time.
So, the same laws of Physics are told in different languages
What ever they talk, they talk of one and the same thing:
Forces of Nature
Energy principles
Formation of Matter
Interaction of Matter with Energy
All this understanding of Nature is translated into Products :
called ENGINEERING.
28
Once you know the language, you can understand
what is happening
Once you know the tools, you can understand your

work.
These are the tools we teach in this PH 1010 :
Language of Physics and Engineering
29
Let us come back to our Newtonian Physics
Inertial Reference Frames

• An inertial reference frame is one in which
Newton's laws hold.
• An accelerating elevator is a non-inertial frame.
• A reference frame at rest or with constant
velocity is an inertial frame.
• Example: playing billiards on a moving train
30
Let us fix our frame of reference as INERTIAL Frame
Now we describe the motion of a particle under the influence of a force
Force must have a direction :
The body moving must also have a direction.
We can include direction to the Physical observables by VECTORS
Before we define the Vector, let us fix our coordinate system.
We work with Cartesian co-ordinate system x, y, and z.
But remember, to describe the complete motion, we need

THREE space coordinates and ONE time coordinate
The THREE space co-ordinates must specify the body and its direction
of motion un-ambiguously.
31
Reference Frame
3 Space + 1 Time
are sufficient to describe nature!
We stick to Right handed Coordinate System

Scalars and Vectors: Definitions
• A Physical Quantity with units/ A Physical

Quantity with unit and direction
• Tensor of Zero Order/rank/ Tensor of First Order/rank
– (We learn about Tensors shortly)
• A quantity which is observer independent/ A
quantity which is observer dependent
• A set of three quantities that transforms from
one co-ordinate system to another as the co-
ordinate system itself transform.
Examples
SCALARS VECTORS
• Speed
• Velocity
• Temperature
• Pressure • Acceleration
• Power • Force
• Mass • Momentum
• Charge
• Density • Displacement
• Length/distance
• Volume
• Energy
• Time
Invariance of Physical Laws
• Laws of physics (in the mathematical representation)

should be observer independent (in inertial frame).
• Experimentally measurable quantity may be observer
dependent.
Example: Newton’s Second Law
 
F = ma
Vector Representation
• Position Vector (Cartesian Co-ordinate)
 
A = Ax eˆx + Ay eˆ y + Az eˆz = A eˆ A
êz
P
Az
Ax Ay ê y
êx
Magnitude and Direction Cosine
Similarly for three dimensions

êz A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
z
Az γ
θ
Ay ê y Az
 α β
Ay = A cosθ ; Az = A sin θ Ax
y

A = A = Ay2 + Az2
Ay
x
Ax Ax
l x = cos α = = direction cosine
A ( Ax + Ay + Az
2 2 2
) 1
2
Basic Algebra
Equivalence of two vector
   
A= B A = −B
êz
A
B
B
ê y
êx
Ax = Bx ; Ay = B y ; Az = Bz ;
Ax =
− Bx ; Ay =
− By ; Az =
− Bz ;
General rule for Addition, Subtraction and Scalar
Multiplication
   
Commutative A + B = B + A
   
A − B = −B + A
 
sA = As
     
Associative ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
  
m(nA) = (mn) A = n(mA)
  
Distributive (m + n)C = mC + nC
   
m( A + B) = mA + mB
Commutative
B
A+B
A
B
B
A
B+A
A
Vector Multiplication
Scalar or Dot or Inner product
   
A.B = AB cosθ = B. A (Commutative)
      
A.( B + C ) = A.B + A.C ( Distributive)
     
m( A.B) = (mA).B = A.(mB) = mAB cosθ ( Associtive)
• Invariant under change of basis, i.e. coordinate system

• Magnitude of one vector multiplied by the component of
second vector in the direction of first vector.
• Example: Work done by a force
 
F .D = ( F cosθ ) D
Commutative

A
θ

A cosθ B
In the component form
 
A.B = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz ??
and
 
A. A = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az = A 2
components
  
A.eˆx = Ax ; A.eˆ y = Ay ; A.eˆz = Az
Einstein Summation Convention
This is a method to write equation involving several
summations in a uncluttered form
Example:   1 i = j
A.B = Aiδ ij B j where δ ij = 
0 i ≠ j
or = Ai Bi
•Summation runs over 1 to 3 since we are in 3 dimension

•No indices appear more than two times in the equation
•Indices which is summed over is called dummy indices appear
only in one side of equation
•Indices which appear on both sides of the equation is free
indices.
Vector or Cross or Outer Product
   
A × B = AB sin θ nˆ = − B × A ( Not Commutative)
      
A × ( B + C ) = A × B + A × C ( Distributive)
     
m( A × B) = (mA) × B = A × ( mB) = mAB sin θ nˆ
       ( Not Associtive)
 A × ( B × C ) ≠ ( A × B) × C
 Product varies under change of basis, i.e. coordinate system

 Direction of the product is given by right hand screw rule
 Product gives the area of the parallelogram consisting the two
vectors as its arms
Cross Product: Graphical Representation
n̂

Bsinθ
B
θ

A
Examples:
Magnetic force on a moving charge
  
Fmag=. qv × B
Torque on a body
  
τ= r × f
f
θ
r
 eˆx eˆy eˆz 
   
A× B = Ax AY AZ 
 BX BY BZ 
  
= ex ( Ay Bz − Az By ) + ey ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) + ez ( Ax By − Ay Bx )
In the Einstein summation notation

 
ε ijk Aj Bk
( A × B )i =
Where εijk is a Levi-Civita Tensor
What is a Tensor?
A Tensor is a method to represent the Physical Properties in an

anisotropic system
For example:
You apply a force in one direction and look for the effect
in other direction (Piezo-electricity)
Elasticity : Elastic Tensor

Dielectric constant : Dielectric Tensor
Conductivity : Conductivity Tensor
Tensor notation
 p1 
• In tensor notation a superscript  2
stands for a column vector P i = ( p i ) i =1, 2,3 =p 
 p3 
• a subscript for a row vector  
(useful to specify lines)
• A matrix is written as
Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
You know about Matrix Methods
 m11 m12 m31   M i1 
 2   2 
M i =  m1
j
m22 m3  =  M i
2

 m3
 1 m23 m33   M i3 

= ( M 1j , M 2j , M 3j )
50
This generalized notation allows an easy
writing of equations of the continuum
mechanics, such as the generalized Hook's
law :
2nd rank tensors

 Stress, strain
 Conductivity ( J i = σ ij E)j
 susceptibility
 Kroneker Delta δij
3rd rank tensors
 Piezoelectricity
 Levi-Civita
4th rank tensors
 Elastic moduli
nth rank tensor has 3n

components in 3 - dimensional
space
Rank of a Tensor
Rank = 0 : Scalar Only One component
Rank = 1 : Vector Three components
Rank = 2 Nine Components
Rank = 3 Twenty Seven Components
Rank = 4 Eighty One Components
Symmetry plays a very important role in evaluating these components

Tensor notation
• Tensor summation convention:
– an index repeated as sub and superscript in a
product represents summation over the range of
the index.
• Example:
Li P = l1 p + l2 p + l3 p
i 1 2 3
53
Tensor notation
• Scalar product can be written as
Li P i = l1 p1 + l2 p 2 + l3 p 3
where the subscript has the same index as the superscript.
This implicitly computes the sum.
• This is commutative
Li P = P Li
i i
• Multiplication of a matrix and a vector
P j = M ij Pi
• This means a change of P from the coordinate system i to
the coordinate system j (transformation).
54
Line equation
• In R2 a line is defined by the equation

ax + by + c = 0
• In homogenous coordinates we can write this as
 x
T   
L ⋅ P = ( a , b, c ) ⋅  y  = 0
1
In tensor notation we can write this  as
Li P = 0
i
55
The tensor operator Eijk and Eijk
• The tensor Eijk is defined for i,j,k=1,...,3 as
 0 unless r, s, and t are distinct


Erst = + 1, if rst is an even permutation of 123
 - 1, if rst is an odd permutation of 123

odd even
321 123
132 231
213 312
56
Determinant in tensor notation
(
Mi = m ,m ,m
j
1
j
2
j
3
j
)
det( M i ) = Eijk m m m
j i
1 2
j k
3
57
Cross product in tensor notation
  
c = a ×b
ci = (a × b) i = Eijk a b
j k
58
Example
• Line equation in tensor notation
 p1   q1 
Li = Eijk P Q j k  2 k  2
P =  p , Q =  q 
j
 1  
  1
Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
l1 = p 2 q 3 − p 3 q 2 = p 2 − q 2
l 2 = p 3 q 1 − p 1q 3 = p1 − q1
l3 = p1q 2 − p 2 q1
l1 x + l2 y + l3 = 0
59
Example
• Intersection of two lines
• L: l1x+l2y+l3=0, M: m1x+m2y+m3=0
• Intersection:
l 2m3 − l 3m2 l 3m1 − l1m3
x= ,y=
l1m2 − l 2m1 l1m2 − l 2m1
• Tensor:
• Result: P = E LjM k
i ijk
p1 = l2 m3 − l3 m2
p 2 = l3 m1 − l1m3
p 3 = l1m2 − l2 m1
60
Translation
• Homogenous
• Classic coordinates
x2 = x1 + t x  x 2   1 0 tx  x1 
    
y2 = y1 + t y  y 2  =  0 1 ty  y1
 1   0 0 1  1 
    
• Tensor notation
P B = TAB P A with A, B = 1,2,3
• T is a transformation from the system A to B
61
Rotation
• Homogenous
x2 = cos(a) x1 − sin( a) y1  x 2   cos(a ) − sin( a ) 0  x1 

    
y2 = sin( a) x1 + cos(a ) y1  y 2  =  sin( a ) cos(a ) 0  y1
1  0  1 
   0 1  
• Tensor notation
P B = RAB P A with A, B = 1,2,3
62
Value of Levi-Civita tensor is given as:
ε=
123 ε=
231 ε=
312 1 (Cyclic order )
ε=
213 ε=
132 ε=
321 −1 ( Non cyclic)
ε=
112 ε=
113 ε=
221 0 (Two identical indices )
Kroneker Delta ( δij ) is a tensor of rank two
  1 i = j
0 i ≠ j
or = Ai Bi
Levi-Civita tensor is a tensor of rank 3
ε=
123 ε=
231 ε=
ε=
213 ε=
132 ε=
ε=
112 ε=
113 ε=
 
ε ijk Aj Bk
( A × B )i =
Scalar Triple Product
 Ax Ay Az 
          
C.( A × B)= A.( B × C )= B.(C × A)=  Bx By Bz 
C Cy Cz 
 x
Can we take these vectors in any

other sequence?
vector triple product
The cross product of a vector with a cross product The
expansion formula of the triple cross product is
Exercise: Prove it: Hint: use ε ijk = ε ilm δ jlδ km − δ jmδ kl


This vector is in the plane spanned by the vectors b and c

(when these are not parallel).
Note that the use of parentheses in the triple cross products is necessary, since the cross
product operation is not associative, i.e., generally we have
Coordinate Transformations: translation
In engineering it is often necessary to express vectors in different coordinate

frames. This requires the rotation and translation matrixes, which relates
coordinates, i.e. basis (unit) vectors in one frame to those in another frame.
Translation of Coordinate systems

eˆz'
Position coordinate
êz '  

eˆy' A= A − T
T

A
eˆx' ê y
êx
coordinate transformations : rotation
blue: (x, y, z) : ‘old’ system

eˆz ' red: (x’, y’, z) : ‘new’ system
êz
eˆ y '
θ
ê y
θ
êx
ˆx'
e Positive rotation about z axis
Relationship between
various quantities =eˆx' cos θ eˆx + sin θ eˆy
involved in rotation
− sin θ eˆx + cos θ eˆy
eˆy' =
eˆz ' = eˆz
 eˆ '   cos θ sin θ 0   eˆx 
 x  − sin θ
eˆy'  =  cos θ 0  eˆy 
   0 0 1   eˆz 
 eˆz ' 
 A' x   cos θ sin θ 0   Ax 
 '   − sin θ
A y =  cos θ 0   Ay 
 A' z   0 0 1   Az 
 
Transformation back from the primed to unprimed
coordinate systesm
 eˆx   cos θ sin θ 0

−1  eˆ ' 
eˆ  =  − sin θ   x
 y  cos θ 0 eˆy' 
 eˆz   0 0 1   
 eˆz ' 
.
R=
T
= 1
R RR T
Transformation matrices are orthogonal so that their

inverse is equal to their transpose
In general, the transformation matrix can be written in
terms of dot product of unit vectors
 A' x   eˆx' .eˆx eˆx' .eˆy eˆx' .eˆz   AX 

 '    
 A y  = eˆy' .eˆx eˆy' .eˆy eˆy' .eˆz   AY 
 A' z   eˆ .eˆ A 
eˆz' .eˆz   Z 
   z ' x eˆz ' .eˆy
In Einstein summation notation

direction cosine of new unit vector
w.r.t. old unit unit vector
A = Rij Aj
i
'
where Rij = eˆi ' .eˆ j

Transformation of a general tensor
A tensor is transformed as
A = R AR
' T
Where R is the appropriate transformation matrix
Exercise: Prove that Kroneker delta and Levi-Civita Tensor are

invariant under rotation.
Parity Transformation
A parity transformation is the simultaneous flip in the sign of all spatial coordinates
(inversion of co-ordinate system):
A 3×3 matrix representation of P would have determinant equal to -1, and hence
cannot reduce to a rotation. In a two-dimensional plane, parity is the same as a
rotation by 180 degrees.
For a rotation
R=
T
=
R RR T
1
 −1 0 0  êz
  and det R = 1
 0 −1 0 
eˆx'
eˆy ' ê y
 0 0 −1
  êx
eˆz '
Reflection transformation
Reflection along y-z plane
 −1 0 0  eˆz'
 
 0 1 0 êz
 0 0 1
 
eˆx'
ê y eˆy'
êx
pseudo vectors or axial vectors
A typical vector (such as the position vector) is transformed to its

negative under inversion of its coordinate axes. Such "proper"
vectors are known as polar vectors. A vector-like object which is
invariant under inversion is called a pseudo vector, also called an
axial vector
Cross Product of the two polar vector is a axial vector
  
C= A × B
axial vector (pseudo vector) is a vector which does not
transform like a position vector under reflection
eˆz'
Polar vector

êz 
c
c

b 
b

 a
a
eˆy' 
c
Axial vector
ê y
êx
eˆx'
Pseudo vector has sense of rotation or handedness of the basis

Algebra of Pseudo Vector and Examples
Algebra: Examples:
Polar x Polar = Axial Torque   
τ=
Angular Momentum r× f
  
L = r × p
Polar x Axial = Polar Angular velocity   
Magnetic field v= ω × r
  
Axial x Axial = Axial Fmag=. qv × B
Magnetic moment
Axial . Polar = Pseudo- scalar   
Volume τ= µ × B
Important: A axial vector can never be

equated with polar vector
 −1 0 0  eˆz'
 
 0 1 0 êz
 0 0 1
 
eˆx'
ê y eˆy'
êx
Vector Representation
• Position Vector (Cartesian Co-ordinate)
 
êz
P
Az
Ax Ay ê y
êx
Magnitude and Direction Cosine
Similarly for three dimensions

êz A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
z
Az γ
θ
Ay ê y Az
 α β
Ay = A cosθ ; Az = A sin θ Ax
y

A = A = Ay2 + Az2
Ay
x
Ax Ax
l x = cos α = = direction cosine
A ( Ax + Ay + Az
2 2 2
) 1
2
Basic Algebra
Equivalence of two vector
   
A= B A = −B
êz
A
B
B
ê y
êx
Ax = Bx ; Ay = B y ; Az = Bz ;
Ax =
− Bx ; Ay =
− By ; Az =
− Bz ;
General rule for Addition, Subtraction and Scalar
Multiplication
   
Commutative A + B = B + A
   
A − B = −B + A
 
sA = As
     
Associative ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
  
m(nA) = (mn) A = n(mA)
  
Distributive (m + n)C = mC + nC
   
m( A + B) = mA + mB
Commutative
B
A+B
A
B
B
A
B+A
A
Vector Multiplication
Scalar or Dot or Inner product
   
A.B = AB cosθ = B. A (Commutative)
      
A.( B + C ) = A.B + A.C ( Distributive)
     
m( A.B) = (mA).B = A.(mB) = mAB cosθ ( Associtive)
• Invariant under change of basis, i.e. coordinate system

• Magnitude of one vector multiplied by the component of
second vector in the direction of first vector.
• Example: Work done by a force

 
F .D = ( F cosθ ) D
Commutative

A
θ

A cosθ B
 
A.B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
and
 
A. A = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az = A2
components
  
=A.eˆx A=
x; A.eˆy A=
y; A.eˆz Az
Einstein Summation Convention
This is a method to write equation involving several
summations in a uncluttered form
Example:   1 i = j
0 i ≠ j
or = Ai Bi
•Summation runs over 1 to 3 since we are in 3 dimension

•No indices appear more than two times in the equation
•Indices which is summed over is called dummy indices appear
only in one side of equation
•Indices which appear on both sides of the equation is free
indices.
Vector or Cross or Outer Product
   
A × B =AB sin θ nˆ =− B × A ( Not Commutative)
      
A × ( B + C ) = A × B + A × C ( Distributive)
     
m( A × B ) = ( mA) × B = A × ( mB ) = mAB sin θ nˆ
       ( Not fully Associtive)
 A × ( B × C ) ≠ ( A × B ) × C
 Product varies under change of basis, i.e. coordinate system

 Direction of the product is given by right hand screw rule
 Product gives the area of the parallelogram consisting the two
vectors as its arms
Cross Product: Graphical Representation
n̂

Bsinθ
B
θ

A
Examples:
Magnetic force on a moving charge
  
Fmag=. qv × B
Torque on a body
  
τ= r × f
f
θ
r
 eˆx eˆy eˆz 
   
A× B = Ax AY AZ 
 BX BY BZ 
  
= ex ( Ay Bz − Az By ) + ey ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) + ez ( Ax By − Ay Bx )
In the Einstein summation notation

 
ε ijk Aj Bk
( A × B )i =
Where εijk is a Levi-Civita Tensor
Scalar Triple Product
 Ax Ay Az 
          
C.( A × B)= A.( B × C )= B.(C × A)=  Bx By Bz 
C Cy Cz 
 x
Can we take these vectors in any

other sequence?
vector triple product
The cross product of a vector with a cross product The
expansion formula of the triple cross product is
Exercise: Prove it: Hint: use ε ijk = ε ilm δ jlδ km − δ jmδ kl

This vector is in the plane spanned by the vectors andb
 
c
(when these are not parallel).
Note that the use of parentheses in the triple cross products is necessary, since the cross
product operation is not associative, i.e., generally we have


eˆz'
Position coordinate
êz '  

eˆy' A= A − T
T

A
eˆx' ê y
êx

êz
eˆ y '
θ
ê y
θ
êx
ˆx'
eˆy' =
eˆz ' = eˆz
 eˆ '   cos θ sin θ 0   eˆx 
 x  − sin θ
eˆy'  =  cos θ 0  eˆy 
   0 0 1   eˆz 
 eˆz ' 
 A' x   cos θ sin θ 0   Ax 
 '   − sin θ
A y =  cos θ 0   Ay 
 A' z   0 0 1   Az 
 
coordinate systesm

−1  eˆ ' 
eˆ  =  − sin θ   x
 y  cos θ 0 eˆy' 
 eˆz   0 0 1   
 eˆz ' 
.
R=
T
= 1
R RR T


 '    
 A' z   eˆ .eˆ A 
eˆz' .eˆz   Z 
   z ' x eˆz ' .eˆy

A = Rij Aj
i
'

A = R AR
' T

For a rotation
R=
T
=
R RR T
1
 −1 0 0  êz
 0 −1 0 
eˆx'
eˆy ' ê y
 0 0 −1
  êx
eˆz '
 −1 0 0  eˆz'
 
 0 1 0 êz
 0 0 1
 
eˆx'
ê y eˆy'
êx

axial vector
  
C= A × B
Magnetic field is a pseudovector. A loop of wire (black), carrying a current,
creates a magnetic field (blue). When the wire is reflected in a mirror (dotted line),
the magnetic field is not just reflected in the mirror:
Instead, it is reflected and reversed. The position of the wire and its current are
vectors, but the magnetic field is a pseudovector.
eˆz'
Polar vector

êz 
c
c

b 
b

 a
a

eˆy' c
ê y
Axial / pseudo vector
êx
eˆx'

Algebra: Examples:   
Polar x Polar = Axial Torque τ = r × f
Angular Momentum L=
 
r×p
  
Polar x Axial = Polar
Angular velocity

v= ω × r
 
Fmag=. qv × B
Magnetic field
Axial x Axial = Axial   
Magnetic moment τ= µ × B
Axial . Polar = Pseudo- scalar Volume

What is a Tensor?

anisotropic system
For example:

Tensor notation
 p1 
 p3 
(useful to specify lines)
Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
 m11 m12 m31   M i1 
 2   2 
M i =  m1
j
m22 m3  =  M i
2

 m3
 1 m23 m33   M i3 

= ( M 1j , M 2j , M 3j )
29
This generalized notation allows an easy writing of
equations of the continuum mechanics, such as the
generalized Hooke's law :
2nd rank tensors

 Stress, strain
 Conductivity ( J i = σ ij E )j nth rank tensor has 3n
 susceptibility components in 3 -
dimensional space
3rd rank tensors
 Levi-Civita
4th rank tensors
 Elastic moduli
Rank of a Tensor

Tensor notation
the index.
• Example:
Li P = l1 p + l2 p + l3 p
i 1 2 3
32
Tensor notation
Li P i = l1 p1 + l2 p 2 + l3 p 3
Li P = P Li
i i
P j = M ij Pi
33
Line equation
• In Cartesian coordinates a line is defined by the
equation ax + by + c = 0

 x
T   
L ⋅ P = ( a , b, c ) ⋅  y  = 0
1
 
• In tensor notation we can write this as
Li P i = 0
34



odd even
321 123
132 231
213 312
35
(
Mi = m ,m ,m
j
1
j
2
j
3
j
)
j i
1 2
j k
3
36
  
c = a ×b
j k
37
Example
 p1   q1 
Li = Eijk P Q j k  2 k  2
P =  p , Q =  q 
j
 1  
  1
Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
l1 = p 2 q 3 − p 3 q 2 = p 2 − q 2
l 2 = p 3 q 1 − p 1q 3 = p1 − q1
l3 = p1q 2 − p 2 q1
l1 x + l2 y + l3 = 0
38
Example
• L: l1x+l2y+l3=0, M: m1x+m2y+m3=0
• Intersection:
l 2m3 − l 3m2 l 3m1 − l1m3
x= ,y=
l1m2 − l 2m1 l1m2 − l 2m1
• Tensor:
• Result: P = E LjM k
i ijk
p1 = l2 m3 − l3 m2
p 2 = l3 m1 − l1m3
p 3 = l1m2 − l2 m1
39
Translation
• Homogenous
x2 = x1 + t x  x 2   1 0 tx  x1 
    
y2 = y1 + t y  y 2  =  0 1 ty  y1
 1   0 0 1  1 
    
• Tensor notation
40
Rotation
• Homogenous
x2 = cos(a) x1 − sin( a) y1  x 2   cos(a ) − sin( a ) 0  x1 

    
y2 = sin( a) x1 + cos(a ) y1  y 2  =  sin( a ) cos(a ) 0  y1
1  0  1 
   0 1  
• Tensor notation
41
  1 i = j
0 i ≠ j
or = Ai Bi
ε=
123 ε=
231 ε=
ε=
213 ε=
132 ε=
ε=
112 ε=
113 ε=
 
ε ijk Aj Bk
( A × B )i =
Lecture 3
We have learned : Vector Algebra , Tensors
We can ask a simple question: WHY THERE IS NO VECTOR DIVISION?
Now we shall move on to
Coordinate system : Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical Polar coordinates ,

Why coordinate system,
symmetry of the problems : Planetary system, hydrogen atom
and spherical symmetry,
Cylindrical waves and cylindrical symmetry.
Spherical coordinate system, Projection of spherical system onto
Cartesian coordinate system and the relation between (r,θ,φ) to (x,y.z)
Cylindrical coordinate system, relation between (ρ,φ,z) to (x,y,z)
One example each
Position Vector (Cartesian Co-ordinate)
 
êz
êz
ê y
êx r1
S
r2
êy
  
s = r2 − r1 êx
We have to represent the Physical Quantities like:
Velocity
Acceleration
So, let us look into Vector Differentiation.
We also have to do Vector Integration
Source : Vector Analysis : Schaum Series (by Spiegel)

Vector differentiation
   
R (u + ∆u ) ∆R = R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
  
∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= 
∆u ∆u O R (u )
   
dR ∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= lim = lim
du ∆u →0 ∆u ∆u →0 ∆u
2

We can also define d R
du 2
êz ∆r = r(u+ ∆u) – r(u)
Space Curve
Position vector r(u),
u is a variable (time, distance)
As u changes, the terminal point

describes a space curve êy
Parametric equations are
x = x(u), y = y(u) and z=z(u) êx
  
∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u )
= is a vector in the direction of ∆r
∆u ∆u
   
d r ∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u ) 
= lim = lim = T
du ∆u → 0 ∆u ∆u → 0 ∆u
will be tangent to the space curve at (x,y,z)
Unit Tangent and Normal Vector
If u = s, where s is the arc length measured from a fixed point on C,
Then,

dr
 
dr dt v
= = = Tˆ Is a unit tangent vector to C
ds ds v
  
dt êz Tˆ (r + δ s ) − Tˆ (r )
Unit Normal Vector 
Tˆ (r )
 d ˆT   ˆ 
∆Tˆ T (r + ∆s ) − T (r )
ˆ  
Tˆ (r + δ s )
=
N = lim = lim
ds ∆s →0 ∆s ∆s →0 ∆s
êy
êx
 dTˆ
Tˆ has constant length, the vector N = is orthogonal to Tˆ
dS
(Hint: Take derivative of Tˆ.Tˆ = 1 w.r.t. S)
dTˆ
Therefore, κ N =
ˆ where N̂ is unit normal vector 
dS dT
The rate at which Tˆ changes with S is a measure of curvature κ=
dS
ρ = 1/κ is the radius of curvature
1 dTˆ dTˆ
=N = ρ
ˆ
κ dS dS
A unit vector B̂perpendicular to the plane of Tˆ and N̂ such that
Bˆ= Tˆ × Nˆ
is called the bi-normal to the curve
Tˆ N̂ B̂ forms a right-handed rectangular coordinate
system at any specific point C. This coordinate system is
called Trihedral or triad at the point. As S changes, the
coordinate system changes. And hence this is also known as
moving trihedral
B̂
ˆ 
T (r )
N̂
Tangential and normal components of Acceleration
 
 dr dr ds ˆ ds
v= = × =T (1)
dt ds dt dt
Differentiating (1)
 ˆ ds 
 d T 
 dv  dt  d s ˆ ds dTˆ
2
=
a = = 2
T+
dt dt dt dt dt
2
 ˆ
d s ˆ ds dT ds  d 2
s ˆ ds  ˆ ds 
= T+  = T + κ N 
dt 2
dt  ds dt  dt 2
dt  dt 
2
 ds  ˆ
2
d s ˆ
= T +κ   N
 dt 
2
dt

=
a aT Tˆ + aN Nˆ
2
d s dv  ds 
2
aT = 2 = =aN κ=
  κ v
2
dt dt  dt 

aN
a
aT
aT is measure of the rate of change of magnitude of v
aN is a measure of the rate of change of direction of v

Now let us look into Polar coordinate system:
Why Polar coordinates?

Earth is spherical (somewhat)
If you want to specify any point on earth, it is difficult to specify with

x, y, and z coordinates.
But if you express in terms of spherical coordinates, it is very easy

Polar Co-ordinate System
Plane Polar coordinate (ρ,φ) :
Y

=
r xeˆx + y eˆy P(x,y) or
P(ρ,φ)
x ρ=
cos ϕ , y ρ sin ϕ ρ y
Inverse relations are φ
x X
y
ρ =+
x y and ϕ =
2
tan2 −
x ρ ⇒0≤ ρ <∞
and
ϕ ⇒ 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
ρ Is defined as distance from the origin (radial co-ordinate) and φ is
called the azimuthal angle
Unit Vector in Plane Polar coordinate (ρ,φ) :
Directions of (êρ, êφ) changes from point to point
êρ and êφ depend on the value of φ at any point.
Y êy êρ
êφ
φ êx
X
O
êϕ ê y êρ
φ
eˆρ cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy φ
ρ
êx
P
− sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy ê y
eˆφ =
φ
êx
Transformation matrix ??
Inverse transformation ??
φ at origin ??

Position vector in plane polar is r =ρ eˆ ρ
=eˆρ cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy deˆρ deˆϕ
− sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy
eˆϕ = = = 0
dρ dρ
deˆρ
=eˆϕ ⇒ deˆρ =dϕ eˆϕ
dϕ
ê y
eˆρ (ϕ + dϕ ) deˆϕ
eˆϕ (ϕ ) =−eˆρ ⇒ deˆϕ =−dϕ eˆρ
dϕ
eˆρ (ϕ )
eˆϕ (ϕ + dϕ ) φ
dφ dφ Infitesimal displacement

φ eˆx d r =d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ d eˆ ρ
⇒ d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ dφ eˆ ϕ

Infinitesimal displacement d r =d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ dϕ eˆ ϕ
ρ dϕ
dρ

r =ρ eˆ ρ

Area Element dA =d ρ eˆ ρ × ρ dϕ eˆ ϕ =
ρ d ρ dϕ eˆz
Any vector can be represented as

=A Aρ eˆρ + Aϕ eˆϕ
ρ Is a constant
φ Is variable
y is a constant
x is a variable
φ Is a constant
ρ Is variable
X is a constant
Y is a variable
z
ρ y
φ
x
z
Area Vector
  
Az = drρ × drφ = ρ d ρ dφ eˆz
P   
Aφ = drz × drρ = dzd ρ eˆφ
  
z Aρ = drφ × drz = ρ dφ dzeˆρ
ρ y
φ
dz ρ dφ
x
dρ Volume is given by
  
) ρ d ρ dφ dz
= drz .(drρ × drφ=
V
z êr
Spherical Polar Coordinate êφ
r êθ
(r,θ,φ) θ
rcosθ
r 0≤r≤ ∞ y
θ 0≤ θ ≤ 180° φ r sinθ cosφ
φ 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°
r sinθ sinφ
x
Scalar Transformation
ρ=r sinθ; z=r cosθ ρ x2 + y 2
x=r sinθ cosφ; y= r sinθ sinφ ; z=r cosθ tan θ= =
z z
Reverse transformation x2 + y 2
⇒θ =tan −1
r 2 = ρ 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 z
y
φ = tan −1
x
z
x
Unit vector transformation
θ
Rotation along y-axis by θ angle
θ eρ
Rotation along z-axis by φ angle
eˆr =sinθ eˆ ρ + cos θ eˆ z

eˆθ =cosθ eˆ ρ − sin θ eˆ z
eˆφ = eˆφ
eˆr =sinθ cos φ eˆ x + sinθ sin φ eˆ y + cos θ eˆ z
eˆθ =cosθ cos φ eˆ x + cos θ sin φ eˆ y − sin θ eˆ z

− sin φ eˆ x + cos φ eˆ y
eˆφ =
eˆr , eˆθ , eˆφ forms right handed triad of orthogonal vector
Cross and dot product of unit vectors ??
Differentials of unit vectors ∂eˆr ∂eˆθ ∂eˆφ

= = = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr
∂θ
∂eˆφ
=0
∂θ
∂eˆr
= sin θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆθ
= cos θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆφ
= −eˆρ = − cos θ eˆθ − sin θ eˆr
∂φ
Infinitesimal Displacement

Position vector r=r eˆr
  ∂eˆr ∂eˆr
dr=dr eˆr + r deˆr ⇒ dr=dr eˆr + r δθ + r δφ
∂θ ∂φ

dr=dr eˆr + r dθ eˆθ + rsinθ dφ eˆφ

dA r =r dθ eˆθ × rsinθ dφ eˆφ
= r 2sinθ dθ dφ eˆr Sphere

dAθ =rsinθ dφ eˆφ × dreˆr
= rsinθ drdφ eˆθ Cone
dAφ =dreˆr × r dθ eˆθ
= rdrdθ eˆφ Half Circle dv=r 2sinθ drdθ dφ
Velocity and acceleration


v =r eˆr + r θeˆθ + rsinθφeˆφ

 dv  
a = (r - rθ -r sin θφ )eˆr
=  2 2 2
dt
+ (2rθ − r sin θ cos θφ2 + rθ)eˆθ
+ (2rθ sin θ + 2rφθ   cos θ + r sin θφ)eˆ
φ
Generalized Curvilinear Coordinates
u3
x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 )
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u1 = c1
Surface intersect at right angle- u2 = c2 P
Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
∂r

∂r
 u3 = c3
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1
∂u1 ∂u1 u2
  u1
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ2 h2 eˆ2
∂u2 ∂u2
  h1, h2, h3 are called scale factor
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ3 h3eˆ3 Unit vectors ??
∂u3 ∂u3
Cylindrical coordinates
x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ
z=z
   
r = ρ cos φex + ρ sin φe y + zez
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1
Exercise: Find scale parameters for spherical polar coordinates

 
How to calculate scale parameter ∂r ∂r
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
Infinitesimal displacement
dr = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
=h1du1eˆ1 + h2 du2 eˆ2 + h3du3eˆ3
For orthogonal curvilinear coordinate

Area elements
dA1 = h2 h3 du2 du3eˆ1

dA2 = h3 h1du3 du1eˆ2

dA3 = h1h2 du1du2 eˆ3
Volume elements dV = h1h2 h3 du1du2 du3


eˆz'
Position coordinate
êz '  

eˆy' A= A − T
T

A
eˆx' ê y
êx

êz
eˆ y '
θ
ê y
θ
êx
ˆx'
eˆy' =
eˆz ' = eˆz
 eˆ '   cos θ sin θ 0   eˆx 
 x  − sin θ
eˆy'  =  cos θ 0  eˆy 
   0 0 1   eˆz 
 eˆz ' 
 A' x   cos θ sin θ 0   Ax 
 '   − sin θ
A y =  cos θ 0   Ay 
 A' z   0 0 1   Az 
 
coordinate systesm

−1  eˆ ' 
eˆ  =  − sin θ   x
 y  cos θ 0 eˆy' 
 eˆz   0 0 1   
 eˆz ' 
.
R=
T
= 1
R RR T


 '    
 A' z   eˆ .eˆ A 
eˆz' .eˆz   Z 
   z ' x eˆz ' .eˆy

A = Rij Aj
i
'

A = R AR
' T

For a rotation
R=
T
=
R RR T
1
 −1 0 0  êz
 0 −1 0 
eˆx'
eˆy ' ê y
 0 0 −1
  êx
eˆz '
 −1 0 0  eˆz'
 
 0 1 0 êz
 0 0 1
 
eˆx'
ê y eˆy'
êx
axial vector (It has reflection plus
sign flip)
  
C= A × B
Magnetic field is a pseudovector. A loop of wire (black), carrying a current,
creates a magnetic field (blue). When the wire is reflected in a mirror (dotted line),
the magnetic field is not just reflected in the mirror:
Instead, it is reflected and reversed. The position of the wire and its current are
vectors, but the magnetic field is a pseudovector.
eˆz'
Polar vector

êz 
c
c

b 
b

 a
a
eˆy' 
c
ê y
Axial / pseudo vector
êx
eˆx'

Algebra: Examples:   
Polar x Polar = Axial Torque τ = r × f
Angular Momentum L=
 
r×p
  
Polar x Axial = Polar
Angular velocity

v= ω × r
 
Fmag=. qv × B
Magnetic field
Axial x Axial = Axial   
Magnetic moment τ= µ × B
Axial . Polar = Pseudo- scalar Volume

What is a Tensor?

anisotropic system
For example:

Tensor notation
 p1 
 p3 
(useful to specify lines) Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
 m11 m12 m31   M i1 

 2 2  2 
= j
M i  m1 m2 =
2
m3  = M i  ( M 1j , M 2j , M 3j )
 m13 m23 m33   M i3 

14
This generalized notation allows an easy writing of
equations of the continuum mechanics, such as the
generalized Hooke's law :
2nd rank tensors

 Stress, strain
 Conductivity ( J i = σ ij E )j nth rank tensor has 3n
 susceptibility components in 3 -
dimensional space
3rd rank tensors
 Levi-Civita
4th rank tensors
 Elastic moduli
Rank of a Tensor

Tensor notation
the index.
• Example:
Li P = l1 p + l2 p + l3 p
i 1 2 3
17
Tensor notation
Li P i = l1 p1 + l2 p 2 + l3 p 3
Li P = P Li
i i
P j = M ij Pi
18
Line equation
• In Cartesian coordinates a line is defined by the
equation ax + by + c = 0

 x
T   
L ⋅ P = ( a , b, c ) ⋅  y  = 0
1
 
• In tensor notation we can write this as
Li P i = 0
19



odd even
321 123
132 231
213 312
20
If
j
(
Mi = m ,m ,m
1
j
2
j
3
j
) is a MATRIX
j i
1 2
j k
3
21
  
c = a ×b
j k
22
Example
 p1   q1 
Li = Eijk P Q j k  2 k  2
P =  p , Q =  q 
j
 1  
  1
Li = (l1 , l2 , l3 )
l1 = p 2 q 3 − p 3 q 2 = p 2 − q 2
l 2 = p 3 q 1 − p 1q 3 = p1 − q1
l3 = p1q 2 − p 2 q1
l1 x + l2 y + l3 = 0
23
Example
• L: l1x+l2y+l3=0, M: m1x+m2y+m3=0
• Intersection: l2 m3 − l3 m2 l3 m1 − l1m3
=x = ,y
l1m2 − l2 m1 l1m2 − l2 m1
• Tensor: P = E LjM k
i ijk
• Result: p1 = l2 m3 − l3 m2
p 2 = l3 m1 − l1m3
p 3 = l1m2 − l2 m1
24
Translation
• Homogenous
x2 = x1 + t x  x2   1 0 t x   x1 
    
y2 = y1 + t y y
 2 = 0 1 t y   y1 
 1  0 0 1  1 
    
• Tensor notation
25
Rotation
• Homogenous
=x2 cos(a ) x1 − sin(a ) y1  x2   cos(a ) − sin(a ) 0   x1 

    
=y2 sin(a ) x1 + cos(a ) y1 y
 2 = sin( a ) cos( a ) 0   y1 
1  0  1 
   0 1  
• Tensor notation
26
  1 i = j
0 i ≠ j
or = Ai Bi
ε=
123 ε=
231 ε=
ε=
213 ε=
132 ε=
ε=
112 ε=
113 ε=
 
ε ijk Aj Bk
( A × B )i =
Now we shall move on to
Coordinate system : Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical Polar,
Why various coordinate systems ????
symmetry of the problems : Planetary system, hydrogen atom -

spherical symmetry,
Cylindrical waves - cylindrical symmetry.
Spherical coordinate system, Projection of spherical system

onto Cartesian coordinate system and the relation
between (r,θ,φ) to (x,y.z)
Cylindrical coordinate system, relation between (ρ,φ,z) to (x,y,z)

One example each
 
êz
êz
ê y
êx r1
S
r2
êy
  
s = r2 − r1 êx
Velocity
Acceleration

   
R (u + ∆u ) ∆R = R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
  
∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= 
∆u ∆u O R (u )
   
dR ∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= lim = lim
du ∆u →0 ∆u ∆u →0 ∆u
2

du 2
êz ∆r = r(u+ ∆u) – r(u)
Space Curve

  
∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u )
∆u ∆u
   
d r ∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u ) 
= lim = lim = T
du ∆u → 0 ∆u ∆u → 0 ∆u
Then,

dr
 
dr dt v
ds ds v
  
Tˆ (r )
 d ˆT   ˆ 
∆Tˆ T (r + ∆s ) − T (r )
ˆ  
Tˆ (r + δ s )
=
N = lim = lim
ds ∆s →0 ∆s ∆s →0 ∆s
êy
êx
 dTˆ
Tˆ has constant length, the vector N = is
dS
orthogonal to Tˆ
dTˆ
Therefore, κ Nˆ = where N̂ is unit normal vector 
dS
dT
The rate at which Tˆchanges with S is a measure of curvature κ=
dS
1 dTˆ dTˆ
=Nˆ = ρ
κ dS dS
A unit vector B̂ perpendicular to the plane of and
Tˆ such
N̂ that
Bˆ= Tˆ × Nˆ
moving trihedral
B̂
ˆ 
T (r )
N̂
 
 dr dr ds ˆ ds
v= = × =T (1)
dt ds dt dt
Differentiating (1)
 ˆ ds 
 d T 
2
=
a = = 2
T+
dt dt dt dt dt
2
 ˆ
= T+  = T + κ N 
dt 2
dt  dt 
2
 ds  ˆ
2
d s ˆ
= T +κ   N
 dt 
2
dt

=
a aT Tˆ + aN Nˆ
2
d s dv  ds 
2
aT = 2 = =aN κ=
  κ v
2
dt dt  dt 

aN
a
aT

Now let us look into Polar coordinate system:
Why Polar coordinates?

Earth is spherical (somewhat)
If you want to specify any point on earth, it is difficult

to specify with x, y, and z coordinates.
But if you express in terms of spherical coordinates,

it is very easy
Y

=
P(ρ,φ)
x ρ=
x X
y
ρ =+
x y and ϕ =
2
tan2 −
x ρ ⇒0≤ ρ <∞
and
ϕ ⇒ 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
ρ is defined as distance from the origin (radial co-ordinate) and φ is
Y êy êρ
êφ
φ êx
X
O
êϕ ê y êρ
φ
ρ
êx
P
eˆφ =
φ
êx
φ at origin ??

eˆϕ = = = 0
dρ dρ
deˆρ
dϕ
ê y
dϕ
eˆρ (ϕ )


ρ dϕ
dρ

r =ρ eˆ ρ

ρ d ρ dϕ eˆz

ρ Is a constant
φ Is variable
y is a constant
x is a variable
φ Is a constant
ρ Is variable
X is a constant
Y is a variable
z
ρ y
φ
x
z
Area Vector
  
P   
  
ρ y
φ
dz ρ dφ
x
  
) ρ d ρ dφ dz
V
z êr
r êθ
(r,θ,φ) θ
rcosθ
r 0≤r≤ ∞ y
φ 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°
r sinθ sinφ
x
z z
⇒θ =tan −1
r 2 = ρ 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 z
y
φ = tan −1
x
z
x
θ
θ eρ

eˆφ = eˆφ

eˆφ =

= = = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr
∂θ
∂eˆφ
=0
∂θ
∂eˆr
= sin θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆθ
= cos θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆφ
∂φ

∂θ ∂φ






 dv  
=  2 2 2
dt
φ
u3
x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 )
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u1 = c1
∂r

∂r
 u3 = c3
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1
∂u1 ∂u1 u2
  u1
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ2 h2 eˆ2
∂u2 ∂u2
∂r ∂r
∂u3 ∂u3
z=z
   
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1

 
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

Area elements


 
êz
êz
ê y
êx r1
S
r2
êy
  
s = r2 − r1 êx
Velocity
Acceleration

   
R (u + ∆u ) ∆R = R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
  
∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= 
∆u ∆u O R (u )
   
dR ∆R R (u + ∆u ) − R (u )
= lim = lim
du ∆u →0 ∆u ∆u →0 ∆u
2

du 2
Y

=
P(ρ,φ)
x ρ=
x X
y
ρ =+
x y and ϕ =
2
tan2 −1
x ρ ⇒0≤ ρ <∞
and
ϕ ⇒ 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
ρ is defined as distance from the origin (radial co-ordinate) and φ is
Y êy êρ
êφ
φ êx
X
O
êϕ ê y êρ
φ
ρ
êx
P
eˆφ =
φ
êx

eˆϕ = = = 0
dρ dρ
deˆρ
dϕ
ê y
dϕ
eˆρ (ϕ )


ρ dϕ
dρ

r =ρ eˆ ρ

ρ d ρ dϕ eˆz
Velocity and Acceleration in Plane Polar Coordinate

d r =d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ dϕ eˆ ϕ
If this infinitesimal displacement is in infinitesimal time dt then


dr d ρ dϕ
= eˆ ρ + ρ eˆ ϕ
dt dt dt

⇒ v =ρ eˆ ρ + ρϕ eˆ ϕ Instantaneous velocity
The acceleration:

 dv deˆ ρ deˆ ϕ
a= =ρ eˆ ρ + ρ + ρϕ
  eˆ φ + ρϕ eˆ φ + ρϕ
dt dt dt

⇒ a =(ρ − ρϕ ) eˆ ρ + (2 ρϕ
  2
  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ

a =(ρ − ρϕ ) eˆ ρ + (2 ρϕ
2
  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ
ρ ê ρ Linear acceleration in radial direction due

to change in radial speed
Linear acceleration in tangential direction
ρϕêϕ direction due to change in magnitude of
angular velocity
− ρϕ ê ρ
2 Centripetal (Center Seeking) acceleration
in negative radial direction
 
2 ρϕ
  eˆ ϕ Coriolis acceleration, also given as 2vrot . × ω
Uniform Circular Motion
Radius b and constant speed bω
ê y
 
r = beˆρ r = b= ρ êϕ ê ρ
ϕ = ωt
=ρ 0=ρ 0
=ϕ ω=ϕ 0 ê x

⇒ v =bω eˆ ϕ

⇒ a = − bω eˆ ρ
2
Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinate
(ρ,φ,z)

Position vector is r =ρ eˆ ρ + zeˆ z

d r =d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ dϕ eˆ ϕ + dzeˆ z

v =ρ eˆ ρ + ρϕ eˆ ϕ + zeˆ z

⇒ a =(ρ − ρϕ 2 ) eˆ ρ + (2 ρϕ
  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ + 
zeˆ z
z
Cylindrical Coordinate system
ρ, φ, z
What can be the

Limits of these coordinates?
ρ y
φ
Most useful for problems having cylindrical symmetry

Volume is given by
cylindrical polar coordinates   
) ρ d ρ dϕ dz
dV= drz .(drρ × drϕ=
Z ρdρdφêz
dz
ρ
ρdφdzêρ
r

dρdzêϕ z   
 
dAϕ = drz × drρ = dzd ρ eˆϕ dAρ = drϕ × drz = ρ dϕ dzeˆρ
φ
Y
dφ ρdφ

X  
dρ dAz = drρ × drϕ = ρ d ρ dϕ eˆz
z
Area Vector
  
P   
  
ρ y
φ
dz ρ dφ
x
  
) ρ d ρ dφ dz
V

ρ Is a constant
φ Is variable
y is a constant
x is a variable
φ Is a constant
ρ Is variable
X is a constant
Y is a variable
z êr
r êθ
(r,θ,φ) θ
rcosθ
r 0≤r≤ ∞ y
φ 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°
r sinθ sinφ
x
z z
⇒θ =tan −1
r 2 = ρ 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 z
y
φ = tan −1
x
z
x
θ
θ eρ

eˆφ = eˆφ

eˆφ =

= = = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr
∂θ
∂eˆφ
=0
∂θ
∂eˆr
= sin θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆθ
= cos θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆφ
∂φ

∂θ ∂φ






 dv  
=  2 2 2
dt
φ
êz ∆r = r(u+ ∆u) – r(u)
Space Curve

  
∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u )
∆u ∆u
   
d r ∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u ) 
= lim = lim = T
du ∆u → 0 ∆u ∆u → 0 ∆u
Then,

dr
 
dr dt v
ds ds v
  
Tˆ (r )
 d ˆT   ˆ 
∆Tˆ T (r + ∆s ) − T (r )
ˆ  
Tˆ (r + δ s )
=
N = lim = lim
ds ∆s →0 ∆s ∆s →0 ∆s
êy
êx
 dTˆ
dS
orthogonal to Tˆ
dTˆ
dS
dT
dS
1 dTˆ dTˆ
=Nˆ = ρ
κ dS dS
Tˆ such
N̂ that
Bˆ= Tˆ × Nˆ
moving trihedral
B̂
ˆ 
T (r )
N̂
 
 dr dr ds ˆ ds
v= = × =T (1)
dt ds dt dt
Differentiating (1)
 ˆ ds 
 d T 
2
=
a = = 2
T+
dt dt dt dt dt
2
 ˆ
= T+  = T + κ N 
dt 2
dt  dt 
2
 ds  ˆ
2
d s ˆ
= T +κ   N
 dt 
2
dt

=
a aT Tˆ + aN Nˆ
2
d s dv  ds 
2
aT = 2 = =aN κ=
  κ v
2
dt dt  dt 

aN
a
aT

u3
x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 )
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u1 = c1
∂r

∂r
 u3 = c3
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1
∂u1 ∂u1 u2
  u1
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ2 h2 eˆ2
∂u2 ∂u2
∂r ∂r
∂u3 ∂u3
z=z
   
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1

 
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

Area elements


Fictitious (Apparent) ẑ = ωˆ
Forces
Uniform rotation along a axis wˆ × rˆ

 dr r sin θ dϕ rdϕ   θ
v == ϕˆ =
wˆ × rˆ =
w× r r
dt dt dt
A observer rotating with frame will observe velocity as zero
 
     dr   dr   
vin = vrot + w × r ⇒ =    + w× r
 dt in  dt rot
Since this has been derived purely using geometric property of
vector r, therefore the above relation will be true for any vector A
   
 dA   dA     dvin   dvin   
⇒ =    + w× A ⇒  =    + w × vin
 dt in  dt rot  dt in  dt rot
(For velocity vector)
 
 dvin   dvin     d        
=
 dt   dt  + w × vin ⇒= ain  ( vrot + w × r )  + w × ( vrot + w ×r)
 in  rot  dt rot

    dr     
⇒ ain = arot + w ×   + w × (vrot + w × r )
 dt rot
      
⇒ ain = arot + 2 w × vrot + w × ( w × r )............(1)

Compare this with a =(ρ − ρϕ 2 ) eˆ ρ + (2 ρϕ
  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ
Multiply the equation 1 with mass ẑ = ωˆ
      
Frot = Fin − 2mw × vrot − mw × ( w × r )
Coriolis Centrifugal wˆ × ( wˆ × rˆ ) wˆ × rˆ
Force Force
θ r
Fictitious forces are so called as they are non-physical in
nature and arises in non-inertial (accelerating) frames
and are real for observer in non-inertial frames
Examples:
Observer in a elevator observe free falling object as
accelerating with acceleration g, (1) gravitation field
downwards and observer is at rest (2) No gravitational field
but the elevator is moving upwards with acceleration g
Inertial frame: In reality there is no inertial frames. A frame may
be considered inertial based on events it observe
Motion of car can be well described by a observer stationary
on earth surface (neglecting the earth rotation) but the same
can’t be done for satellite launching motion and atmospheric
air motion, further for space mission the motion w.r.t. sun also
need to be considered.
Coriolis Force
Low pressure area at P
 
2vrot × w
 From
 north pole
vθ × wz = − aϕ
This sets counter
From west clockwise cyclone in
   northern hemisphere
vϕ × wz =
aρ P  From east 
−vϕ × wz = − aρ
The phenomenon in the southern
From equator
   hemisphere is mirror image of northern
−vθ × wz = aϕ hemisphere, therefore clockwise
cyclone
Is the whirling motion of draining kitchen sink or toilet pot is due to earth
spinning??
Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinate
(ρ,φ,z)

Position vector is r =ρ eˆ ρ + zeˆ z

d r =d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ dϕ eˆ ϕ + dzeˆ z

v =ρ eˆ ρ + ρϕ eˆ ϕ + zeˆ z

⇒ a =(ρ − ρϕ 2 ) eˆ ρ + (2 ρϕ
  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ + 
zeˆ z
z
Cylindrical Coordinate system
ρ, φ, z
What can be the

Limits of these coordinates?
ρ y
φ
Most useful for problems having cylindrical symmetry

Volume is given by
cylindrical polar coordinates   
) ρ d ρ dϕ dz
dV= drz .(drρ × drϕ=
Z ρdρdφêz
dz
ρ
ρdφdzêρ
r

dρdzêϕ z   
 
dAϕ = drz × drρ = dzd ρ eˆϕ dAρ = drϕ × drz = ρ dϕ dzeˆρ
φ
Y
dφ ρdφ

X  
dρ dAz = drρ × drϕ = ρ d ρ dϕ eˆz
z
Area Vector
  
P   
  
ρ y
φ
dz ρ dφ
x
  
) ρ d ρ dφ dz
V

ρ Is a constant
φ Is variable
y is a constant
x is a variable
φ Is a constant
ρ Is variable
X is a constant
Y is a variable
z êr
r êθ
(r,θ,φ) θ
rcosθ
r 0≤r≤ ∞ y
φ 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°
r sinθ sinφ
x
ρ= r sinθ; z=r cosθ ρ x2 + y 2
x= r sinθ cosφ; y = r sinθ sinφ ; z = r cosθ tan θ= =
z z
⇒θ =tan −1
r 2 = ρ 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 z
y
φ = tan −1
x
z
x
Rotation about y-axis by θ angle θ
Rotation about z-axis by φ angle θ eρ

eˆφ = eˆφ

eˆφ =

= = = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr
∂θ
∂eˆφ
=0
∂θ
∂eˆr
= sin θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆθ
= cos θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆφ
∂φ
Infinitesimal Displacement / Area / Volume

∂θ ∂φ






 dv  
=  2 2 2
dt
φ
êz ∆r = r(u+ ∆u) – r(u)
Space Curve

  
∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u )
∆u ∆u
   
d r ∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u ) 
= lim = lim = T
du ∆u → 0 ∆u ∆u → 0 ∆u
Then,

dr
 
dr dt v
ds ds v
  
Tˆ (r )
 d ˆT   ˆ 
∆Tˆ T (r + ∆s ) − T (r )
ˆ  
Tˆ (r + δ s )
=
N = lim = lim
ds ∆s →0 ∆s ∆s →0 ∆s
êy
êx
 dTˆ
dS
orthogonal to Tˆ
dTˆ
dS
dT
dS
1 dTˆ dTˆ
=Nˆ = ρ
κ dS dS
Tˆ such
N̂ that
Bˆ= Tˆ × Nˆ
moving trihedral
B̂
ˆ 
T (r )
N̂
 
 dr dr ds ˆ ds
v= = × =T (1)
dt ds dt dt
Differentiating (1)
 ˆ ds 
 d T 
2
=
a = = 2
T+
dt dt dt dt dt
2
 ˆ
= T+  = T + κ N 
dt 2
dt  dt 
2
 ds  ˆ
2
d s ˆ
= T +κ   N
 dt 
2
dt

=
a aT Tˆ + aN Nˆ
2
d s dv  ds 
2
aT = 2 = =aN κ=
  κ v
2
dt dt  dt 

aN
a
aT

x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u3
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 )
and vice versa. U1 = C1 etc..are surfaces.
Each pair of these surfaces intersect in
u1 = c1
curves called coordinate curves.
If the surfaces intersect at right angle-
u2 = c2 P
Then, orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

u3 = c3
 
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1 u2
∂u1 ∂u1 u1
 
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ2 h2 eˆ2 r is position vector r(u1,u2,u3)
∂u2 ∂u2
∂r ∂r
∂u3 ∂u3
z=z
   
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1

 
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

Area elements


Fictitious (Apparent) ẑ = ωˆ
Forces
Uniform rotation along an axis wˆ × rˆ

 dr r sin θ dϕ rdϕ   θ
v == ϕˆ =
wˆ × rˆ =
w× r r
dt dt dt
A observer rotating with frame will observe velocity as zero
 
     dr   dr   
vin = vrot + w × r ⇒ =    + w× r
vector r, therefore the above relation will be true for any vector A
   
 dA   dA     dvin   dvin   
⇒ =    + w× A ⇒  =    + w × vin
 
 dvin   dvin     d        
=

    dr     
 dt rot
      

  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ
      
Force Force
θ r
Examples:
Observer in a elevator observe free falling object as
accelerating with acceleration g, (1) gravitation field
downwards and observer is at rest (2) No gravitational field
but the elevator is moving upwards with acceleration g
Inertial frame: In reality there is no inertial frames. A frame may
be considered inertial based on events it observe
Coriolis Force
 
2vrot × w
 From
 north pole
vθ × wz = − aϕ
This sets counter
From west clockwise cyclone in
   northern hemisphere
vϕ × wz =
aρ P  From east 
−vϕ × wz = − aρ
The phenomenon in the southern
From equator
   hemisphere is mirror image of northern
−vθ × wz = aϕ hemisphere, therefore clockwise
cyclone
spinning??
After learning about the language of the Physics, now let us go into the fields
Field concept is “ Action at a Distance”.
Now we shall learn :
concept of fields, Vector and scalar fields
Conservative vector fields and their potential functions, Gravitational and

electrostatic examples
Conservative fields, Concept of Field and potential, example from

electrostatics and gravitational fields,
Gradient operator, Gradient of scalar fields, Gradient operator on cylindrical
and spherical coordinates
27
Scalar and Vector Fields
• Scalar field: physical quantity varies from point
to point in space

φ φ=
( x, y , z ) φ ( r )
Examples: 
•Temperature T = T (r )
•Mass distribution/density=  
m m= (r ) / ρ ρ (r )
•Gravitational/electrostatic 
potentials = φ φ= ( x, y , z ) φ ( r )

•Pressure in a liquid column P = P(r )
28
 Vector field: a vector quantity varies from
point to point in space
   
=V V=( x, y , z ) V ( r )
Examples:   
•Force Field F = F (r )
  
•Velocity field v = v (r )
  
•Electric Field E = E (r )
  
•Magnetic field B = B(r )
 Tensor field: a tensor quantity varies from

Example: Elastic Stress and strain in a beam
29
φ(r,t) means φ is a function of r and t
If φ is a function of x, then
∆φ dφ
Lim =
∆x →o ∆x dx
Usually written as
∂φ dφ ∂φ
=
or
dφ = dx
∂x dx ∂x
If the scalar field is a function of x, y and z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
30
 ∂ ∂ ∂
dφ = dx + dy + dz φ
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
We define
 ∂  ∂  ∂ 
∇ = ex + e y + ez
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂   ∂   ∂ 
dφ = dxex . ex + dye y . e y + dzez . ez φ
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
[
 
= dr .∇ φ ]

∇ -- the del operator
31
Gradient of a Scalar Field
1. In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field which
points in the direction of the greatest rate of change of the scalar
field, and whose magnitude is the greatest rate of change.
Maximum Directional Derivative
2. The gradient is perpendicular to the equi-potential surface (A surface

which has same value of scalar function) or in other words this is also
direction of equi-potential surface).
3. The dot product of the gradient of scalar field with any unit vector
gives rate of change of the field in that direction.
32
Now assume that the vector b̂ lies on a equi-potential surface (a surface
on which φ is constant)

dφ ( r )
( on the equipotential surface ) = 0 = ∇φ .bˆ
ds
Therefore for a non-zero ∇φ ∇φ ⊥ b̂ Proves the 2nd point
Proof: Maximum Directional Derivative


dφ ( r )
We have = ∇φ .bˆ where ds is in the direction of bˆ
 ds
dφ ( r )
would be maximum when ∇φ is  to bˆ
ds
Therefore gradφ shows the direction and magnitude of

the greatest rate of change of scalar function 33
Example:
Picture shows the value of scalar function T where brighter shows

higher value of T
34
Equipotential surface
=
T x=
2 2
y 100
=
T x=
2 2
y 400
35
Gradient in curvilinear coordinate
 
dφ = ∇φ .dr
We define
From the chain rule
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∇φ= f1eˆ1 + f 2 eˆ2 + f3eˆ3
dφ ( r ) = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

dr =h1du1eˆ1 + h2 du2 eˆ2 + h3 du3eˆ3
Putting the value of these three parameters in the first equation
We get
1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
=f1 = ; f2 = ; f3 h1 h2 h3
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
1 ρ 1 for cylindrical
eˆ1 ∂ eˆ2 ∂ eˆ ∂
=
Therefore ∇ + + 3 1 r r sin θ for spherical
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
36
Field Lines
  1 q 
E (r ) = e − − − −(1)
4πε 0 r 2 r
Field lines falls like 1/r2
Field lines never crosses each other 37

Flux da
θ F
S S
At each elemental area evaluate F, multiply

Its component in the direction of da by the
Magnitudeof da and add all the quantities
Surface integral of F over S

  
∫ F cosθda = ∫ F .nda = ∫ F .da
s S s
= FLUX
38
Divergence of a vector

Can we get a scalar using the operator???
∇
Take the dot product with a vector field
  
[  
∇. A = ∇. Ax ex + Ay e y + Az ez ]
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Measure of how much the vector A spread out

39
Now, let us apply these Vector notation to what we already know
in Newtonian Physics:
40
Work and Energy

r ( t2 )
 
t2
  
Work done = ∫ F .dr = ∫ ( F .v )dt (  dr = vdt )
 t1
r ( t1 )
t2   
dv  dv
= ∫ (m .v )dt (Newtons II law F = m )
t1
dt dt
d  mv 2 
t2
mv 2 (t2 ) mv 2 (t1 )
=∫   dt ⇒ W= − =
T (t2 ) − T (t1 )
t1
dt  2  2 2
Work done on a particle by a force is equal to change

in kinetic energy of the particle. (Work-energy
Theorem)
41
• The relationship is valid whether or not force
field is conservative.
• Force field may beexplicitly
  time dependent,
i.e., F = F (r , t )
• In fact it need not to be force field at all and
may depend on the instantaneous velocity   of
the particle as well F = F (r , v , t )
• Since Newtons II law is used, therefore
relationship is valid only in inertial frames (the
frames in which kinetic energy is properly
defined)
42
Now for a conservative force field:
  
F (r ) = −∇Φ Why negative sign??
and the line integral can be written as
 
r(t 2 )
  r(t 2 )  
Work done W= ∫ F .dr = − ∫ ∇φ .dr
 
r(t1 ) r(t1 )

r(t 2 )
 
− ∫ dφ =
= −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )]

r(t 2 )
Inserting into work energy theorem we get
T(1)+U(1)=T(2)+U(2)=total energy is independent of
time, i.e. conserved.
examples: gravitational field, electrostatic field

43
work
Work done by a uniform force
F0 F0 F0
F0
ra − rb θ F0
rb
ra
rb rb rb
Wba = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F0 nˆ ⋅ dr = F0 nˆ ⋅ ∫ dr
ra ra ra
44
work
 xb , yb , zb xb , yb , zb xb , yb , zb

F0 nˆ ⋅  eˆx ∫ dx + eˆy ∫ dy + eˆz ∫ dz 
=
 x , y ,z 
 a a a xa , ya , za xa , ya , za 
F0 nˆ. eˆx ( xb − xa ) + eˆy ( yb − ya ) + eˆz ( zb − za ) 

 
= F0 nˆ ⋅ (rb − ra ) = F0 cosθ rb − ra
for a constant force,
work done depends only on the net displacement.
45
work
Example for path dependent force

( )
c
(0,1) (1,1)
F = A xyex + y eˆ y
ˆ 2
d2 1 b
(0,0) (1,0)
a
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr
1 a b c
dr = dxeˆx , F ⋅ dr = Fx dx = Axydx.
section a of path 1,
Since y = 0 along the line of this
integration ∫ F ⋅ dr = 0.
a
46
work
section b of path 1, x =1, y =1 A
∫b F ⋅ dr = A∫x =1, y = 0 y dy = 3
2
section c of path 1,
  =
x 0,=
0
A
A∫ xdx = −
y 1
∫ F ⋅ dr
=
c
A∫ =
xy dy
=
x 1,=
y 1
1 2
A A A
net work done for pat 1
∫1 F ⋅ dr = 3 − 2 = − 6
work done along path 2
x =0 , y =1
A
∫2F ⋅ dr = A∫x=0, y =0 y dy = 3
2
   
∫
1
F ⋅ dr ≠ ∫ F ⋅ dr
2 47
work
Work done by a central force
dr = dreˆr + rdθeˆθ
dr

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
Wba = F ⋅dr = f ( r )eˆr ⋅(dreˆr + rdφeˆφ
∫ ∫ ) a
a a
Work done is an integral over ‘r’ only and there is no dependence on φ.
Work depends only on the initial and final radial distances
and is independent of the path followed.
Hence central force field is a conservative vector field
In contrast to central forces, frictional forces are non-conservative48

A frictional force always opposes the motion and
hence acts in a direction opposite to the motion.
Hence,

rb
Wba = − ∫ fdS = − fS where S is the total path length.


ra
The work is negative because the frictional

force always retards the particle.
49
work
dr

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
∫ ∫ ) a
a a
In contrast to central forces, frictional forces are non-conservative

Hence,

rb


ra

Recap z êr
r êθ
(r,θ,φ) θ
rcosθ
r 0≤r≤ ∞ y
φ 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°
r sinθ sinφ
x
ρ= r sinθ; z=r cosθ ρ x2 + y 2
x= r sinθ cosφ; y = r sinθ sinφ ; z = r cosθ tan θ= =
z z
⇒θ =tan −1
r 2 = ρ 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 z
y
φ = tan −1
x
Recap
z
x
Rotation about y-axis by θ angle θ
Rotation about z-axis by φ angle θ eρ

eˆφ = eˆφ

eˆφ =

= = = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr
∂θ
∂eˆφ
=0
∂θ
∂eˆr
= sin θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆθ
= cos θ eˆφ
∂φ
∂eˆφ
∂φ
Recap
Infinitesimal Displacement / Area / Volume

∂θ ∂φ






 dv  
=  2 2 2
dt
φ
Recap
êz ∆r = r(u+ ∆u) – r(u)
Space Curve

  
∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u )
∆u ∆u
   
d r ∆r r (u + ∆u ) − r (u ) 
= lim = lim = T
du ∆u → 0 ∆u ∆u → 0 ∆u
Recap

Then,

dr
 
dr dt v
ds ds v
  
Tˆ (r )
 d ˆT   ˆ 
∆Tˆ T (r + ∆s ) − T (r )
ˆ  
Tˆ (r + δ s )
=
N = lim = lim
ds ∆s →0 ∆s ∆s →0 ∆s
êy
êx
 dTˆ
dS
orthogonal to Tˆ
dTˆ
dS
dT
dS
1 dTˆ dTˆ
=Nˆ = ρ
κ dS dS
Tˆ such
N̂ that
Bˆ= Tˆ × Nˆ
moving trihedral
B̂
ˆ 
T (r )
N̂
Recap

 
 dr dr ds ˆ ds
v= = × =T (1)
dt ds dt dt
Differentiating (1)
 ˆ ds 
 d T 
2
=
a = = 2
T+
dt dt dt dt dt
2
 ˆ
= T+  = T + κ N 
dt 2
dt  dt 
2
 ds  ˆ
2
d s ˆ
= T +κ   N
 dt 
2
dt

=
a aT Tˆ + aN Nˆ
2
d s dv  ds 
2
aT = 2 = =aN κ=
  κ v
2
dt dt  dt 

aN
a
aT

x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u3
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 )
u1 = c1
u2 = c2 P

u3 = c3
 
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1 u2
∂u1 ∂u1 u1
 
∂r ∂r
∂u2 ∂u2
∂r ∂r
∂u3 ∂u3
How to calculate scale parameter
 
∂r ∂r
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
z=z
   
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1

  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
Infinitesimal displacement dr = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3


Area elements


x x=
(u1 , u2 , u3 ); y y (u1 , u2 , u3 ) u3
z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 )
u1 = c1
u2 = c2 P

u3 = c3
 
∂r ∂r
= = eˆ1 h1eˆ1 u2
∂u1 ∂u1 u1
 
∂r ∂r
∂u2 ∂u2
∂r ∂r
∂u3 ∂u3
How to calculate scale parameter
 
∂r ∂r
. = h12
∂u1 ∂u1
z=z
   
  
∂r ∂r ∂r
= cos φ eˆx + sin φ eˆy ⋅ = cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ
= 1
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
h1 = 1, h2 = ρ and h3 = 1

  
 ∂r ∂r ∂r
Infinitesimal displacement dr = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3


Area elements


Fictitious (Apparent) Forces ẑ = ωˆ
Uniform rotation about an axis

 ωˆ × r̂
 dr r sin θ dϕ rdϕ  
v == ϕˆ = wˆ × rˆ =
w× r
dt dt dt θ r
=
since ωˆ × rˆ ωˆ = rˆ sin θ ϕˆ sin θ ϕˆ
An observer rotating with frame will observe velocity as zero
     
vin = vrot + w × r  dr   dr   
⇒ =    + w× r
The particle seen at ’rest’ in the rotating frame would have moved to a
new location as seen by an observer in the inertial frame
Time t is the same in both frames, but the time derivatives are different.
The position vectors in the two frames are always the same.
But their respective Cartesian components are different
Their velocities are different since the time derivatives are different.
 
 dr   dr   
 =    + w× r
Any vector that appears to be stationary in the rotating frame,

will appear to be revolving in the inertial frame.
vector r, therefore the above relation will be true for any vector A.
   
 dA   dA     dvin   dvin   
⇒ =    + w× A ⇒ =    + w × vin

 
 dvin   dvin     d        
=

    dr     
 dt rot
      

  + ρϕ)eˆ ϕ
      
Force Force
θ r
Examples:
Observer in an elevator observes free falling object (inside the
elevator) as accelerating with acceleration g, (1) gravitation field
downwards and observer is at rest (2) No gravitational field but the
elevator is moving upwards with acceleration g
Inertial frame: In reality there is no inertial frame. A frame may

be considered inertial, based on events it observe.
 
Coriolis Force 2vrot × w
From north pole


From west vθ × wz = − aϕ
  
vϕ × wz =
aρ
P From east
  
From equator −vϕ × wz =− aρ
   This sets counter clockwise
−vθ × wz =aϕ cyclone in northern hemisphere
The phenomenon in the southern hemisphere is mirror image of

northern hemisphere, therefore clockwise cyclone
An object in a state of free fall in the Northern hemisphere gets deflected
towards the East, in the Southers hemisphere gets deflected towards the West.
At a Latitude of 60°, an object falling through 100 m, is deflected by ~ 1 cm
spinning??
Now let us go into the fields
Field concept is “ Action at a Distance”.
Now we shall learn :
concept of fields, Vector and scalar fields
Conservative vector fields and their potential functions, Gravitational and

electrostatic examples
Conservative fields, Concept of Field and potential, example from

electrostatics and gravitational fields,
Gradient operator, Gradient of scalar fields, Gradient operator on cylindrical
and spherical coordinates
10
to point in space

φ φ=
( x, y , z ) φ ( r )
Examples: 
m m= (r ) / ρ ρ (r )

11
   
=V V=( x, y , z ) V ( r )
  
  
  

12
∆φ dφ
Lim =
∆x →o ∆x dx
Usually written as
∂φ dφ ∂φ
=
or
dφ = dx
∂x dx ∂x

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
13
 ∂ ∂ ∂
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
We define
 ∂  ∂  ∂ 
∇ = ex + e y + ez
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂   ∂   ∂ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

=  dr .∇  ϕ

14

15

dφ ( r )
ds
Therefore for a non-zero ∇φ ∇φ ⊥ bˆ ( equipot ) Proves the 2nd point


dφ ( r )
ds
(here bˆ has any arbitrary direction)

dφ ( r )
ds
Example:

higher value of T
17
=
T x=
2 2
y 100
=
T x=
2 2
y 400
18
 
dφ = ∇φ .dr
We define
From the chain rule
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∇φ= f1eˆ1 + f 2 eˆ2 + f3eˆ3
dφ ( r ) = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

We get
1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
=f1 = ; f2 = ; f3 h1 h2 h3
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
eˆ1 ∂ eˆ2 ∂ eˆ ∂
=
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
19
Field Lines
  1 q 
E (r ) = e − − − −(1)
4πε 0 r 2 r

Flux da
θ F
S S

its component in the direction of da by the
magnitude of da and add all the quantities

  
s S s
= FLUX
21

∇
  
[  
∇. A = ∇. Ax ex + Ay e y + Az ez ]
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
22
Now, let us apply these Vector notation to what we already know
in Newtonian Physics:
23
Work and Energy

r ( t2 )
 
t2
  
 t1
r ( t1 )
t2   
dv  dv
t1
dt dt
d  mv 2 
t2
mv 2 (t2 ) mv 2 (t1 )
=∫   dt ⇒ W= − =
T (t2 ) − T (t1 )
t1
dt  2  2 2

Theorem)
24
• Force field may beexplicitly
i.e., F = F (r , t )
• In fact it need not to be force field at all and
may depend on the instantaneous velocity   of
• Since Newtons II law is used, therefore
relationship is valid only in inertial frames (the
frames in which kinetic energy is properly
defined)
25
  
F (r ) = −∇Φ Why negative sign??
 
r(t 2 )
  r(t 2 )  
Work done W= ∫ F .dr = − ∫ ∇φ .dr
 
r(t1 ) r(t1 )

r(t 2 )
 
− ∫ dφ =
= −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )]

r(t 2 )

26
work
F0 F0 F0
F0
ra − rb θ F0
rb
ra
rb rb rb
ra ra ra
27
work

=
 x , y ,z 

 
28
work

( )
c
(0,1) (1,1)
ˆ 2
d2 1 b
(0,0) (1,0)
a
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr
1 a b c
a
29
work
∫b F ⋅ dr = A∫x =1, y = 0 y dy = 3
2
  =
x 0,=
0
A
A∫ xdx = −
y 1
∫ F ⋅ dr
=
c
A∫ =
xy dy
=
x 1,=
y 1
1 2
A A A
∫1 F ⋅ dr = 3 − 2 = − 6
x =0 , y =1
A
∫2F ⋅ dr = A∫x=0, y =0 y dy = 3
2
   
∫
1
F ⋅ dr ≠ ∫ F ⋅ dr
2 30
work
dr

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
∫ ∫ ) a
a a

Hence,

rb


ra

32
work
dr

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
∫ ∫ ) a
a a
In contrast to central forces, frictional forces are non-conservative

Hence,

rb


ra

to point in space

φ φ=
( x, y , z ) φ ( r )
Examples: 
m m= (r ) / ρ ρ (r )

1
   
=V V=( x, y , z ) V ( r )
  
  
  

2
∆φ dφ
Lim =
∆x →o ∆x dx
Usually written as
∂φ dφ ∂φ
=
or
dφ = dx
∂x dx ∂x

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
3
 ∂ ∂ ∂
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
We define
 ∂  ∂  ∂ 
∇ = ex + e y + ez
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂   ∂   ∂ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

=  dr .∇  ϕ

4

5

dφ ( r )
ds
Therefore for a non-zero ∇φ , ∇φ ⊥ b̂ (ie. equipot. surface)
Proves the 2nd point


dφ ( r )
ds
(here bˆ has any arbitrary direction)

dφ ( r )
ds
Example:

higher value of T
7
=
T x=
2 2
y 100
=
T x=
2 2
y 400
8
 
dφ = ∇φ .dr
We define
From the chain rule
 ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∇φ= f1eˆ1 + f 2 eˆ2 + f3eˆ3
dφ ( r ) = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

We get
1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
=f1 = ; f2 = ; f3 h1 h2 h3
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
eˆ1 ∂ eˆ2 ∂ eˆ ∂
=
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
9

∇
  
[  
∇. A = ∇. Ax ex + Ay e y + Az ez ]
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
10
Divergence
  ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az   

DivA =
 + + =∇. A
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Example for divergence
 
∇.A =
0
Influx balances the outflux
Solenoidal Example: magnetic field B

Field Lines of a point charge
  1 q 
E (r ) = e − − − −(1)
4πε 0 r 2 r

At any point density of the line represents the vector field
strength
Tangent on the line at a point represents direction of the field at
that point
If we take an area perpendicular to the direction of the vector
field, the no. of lines passing through that area is called the flux
of vector field
Example: Electric field line of two positive charges
Flux da
θ F
S S


  
s S s
= FLUX
14
dτ = dxdydz z
Net flux in the y-direction

∂V y
 ∂V y  Vy +
∂y
dy
V y + dy dxdz − V y dxdz Vy 1 O dz 2
y
 ∂y  dx
dy
Therefore, total outflow of
flux of vector V
x
 ∂Vx ∂V y ∂Vx 
 + + dxdydz
 ∂x ∂y ∂x 
 ∂Vx ∂V y ∂Vx   
Net flux per unit volume is  + +  = ∇.V
 ∂x ∂y ∂x 
Curl of a vector field
(A Vector Field from a Vector Field)
 eˆx eˆy eˆz 
 
    ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Circulation of vector field CurlA = ∇ × A =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 Ax Ay Az 

Mathematically, curl is given as the derivative of the net circulation of

the vector field along the circular path around the point to the area
enclosed by the path.
The magnitude of the vector represents the maximum circulation,
and the direction (given by the right-hand-rule) is normal to the
surface upon which the circulation is greatest.
The del operator has properties of Polar vector when used in Cross
product
Examples:
  
∇ × v = 2ω
  
∇ × B = µ0 J
  
v =ω×r
  iˆ ˆj kˆ
∇×v = 
∇ × ω1 ω 2 ω3
x y z

[
= ∇ × (ω 2 z − ω 3 y )iˆ + (ω 3 x − ω1 z ) ˆj + (ω1 y − ω 2 x)kˆ ]
iˆ ˆj kˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
(ω 2 z − ω3 y ) (ω3 x − ω1 z ) (ω1 y − ω 2 x)

= 2(ϖ 1 i + ω 2 j + ω 3 k ) = 2ω
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Examples:
z z
y y
 x

V = − yeˆx + xeˆ y x V = xeˆ y
   
∇ × V = 2eˆz ∇ × V = eˆz
  
=∇ × A 2eˆ z where {A=(x-y)eˆ x + ( x + y )eˆy }

In the vector field F
of a moving fluid, a paddle wheel placed at various
points of the field would tend to rotate in regions
  
where ∇ × F ≠ 0 If ∇ × F = 0
in a region then there would be no rotation and the

field F is called irrotational
Work and Energy

r ( t2 )
 
t2
  
 t1
r ( t1 )
t2   
dv  dv
t1
dt dt
d  mv 2 
t2
mv 2 (t2 ) mv 2 (t1 )
=∫   dt ⇒ W= − =
T (t2 ) − T (t1 )
t1
dt  2  2 2

Theorem)
21
• Force field may be explicitly
i.e., F = F (r , t )
• In fact it need not be a force field alone and
may depend on the instantaneous velocity   of
• Since Newton’s II law is used, the relationship
is valid only in inertial frames (the frames in
which kinetic energy is properly defined)
22
   where φ is the scalar potential
F (r ) = −∇Φ
 
r(t 2 )
   
r(t 2 )
Work done W=

∫
r(t1 )
− ∫ ∇φ .dr
F .dr =

r(t1 )

r(t 2 )
 
− ∫ dφ =
= −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )]

r(t 2 )


23
work
F0 F0 F0
F0
ra − rb θ F0
rb
ra
rb rb rb
ra ra ra
24
work

=
 x , y ,z 

 
25
work

( )
c
(0,1) (1,1)
ˆ 2
d2 1 b
(0,0) (1,0)
a
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr
1 a b c
a
26
work
∫b F ⋅ dr = A∫x =1, y = 0 y dy = 3
2
  =
x 0,=
0
A
A∫ xdx = −
y 1
∫ F ⋅ dr
=
c
A∫ =
xy dx
=
x 1,=
y 1
1 2
A A A
∫1 F ⋅ dr = 3 − 2 = − 6
x =0 , y =1
A
∫2F ⋅ dr = A∫x=0, y =0 y dy = 3
2
   
∫
1
F ⋅ dr ≠ ∫ F ⋅ dr
2 27
work

dr
dr dreˆr + rdφ eˆφ
=

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
∫ ∫ ) a
a a

Hence,

rb


ra

29
Recap of Flux da
θ F
S S


  
s S s
= FLUX
30
Divergence (Gauss) Theorem
If a volume V is bounded by a surface S, then, for a vector A,
Vol Int div a = surf. Int a.ds
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector A
taken over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the
divergence of A taken over the volume enclosed by the
surface
 
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ nˆds
V S
     
∫ ∇ ⋅ A(r )dτ = ∫ A(r ) ⋅ dS
V S
With Gauss Divergence theorem, one can write surface integral of a
vector field over a closed surface in terms of volume integral of the
divergence of the vector field over the volume of space enclosed by
the closed surface.
In other word, it states that integration of the faucets (source of

vector field) over a volume is equal to the flux flowing out through
the surface enclosing the volume
Example I: Electrostatic field
For a point charge of q at origin the electrostatic field is given by
  q
E (r ) = eˆr
4πε 0 r 2
Then the flux through a spherical surface is given as
π 2π
    q  2
2 r (
∫ E (r ).dS = ∫θ φ∫  eˆ . r sin θ dθ dφ eˆr )
= 0= 0  4πε 0 r 
Solving the integral we get
   q
∫ E (r ).dS =ε0
Flux Independent of radius r, in fact it is also independent of
the shape of the surface chosen.
Now instead of a point charge we have charge distribution then
   1
∫ E (r ).dS = ε0 V∫ ρ dV
(from the principal of superposition)
Now if we apply the divergence theorem, we get

   1
∫ ∇.E (r )dV = ∫ ρ dV
ε0 V
Since this is true for any volume V
Gauss Law, true for even when charge
   ρ
∇.E (r ) = Density is function of space and time
ε0 First Maxwell Equation
Coulomb Law with superposition
Example I: Equation of Continuity
Conservation of mass or charge


ρ (r , t ) represents mass/charge density
 
J (r , t ) represents mass/charge current density
For an arbitrary region of volume V covered by surface area S,

The flux of current density over the surface S is equal to the
rate at which mass/charge leaves the volume V, therefore,
   d
∫S J (r ).dS = − dt V∫ ρ dV
   d
∫V ∇.J (r )dV = − ∫ ρ dV
dt V
    ∂ρ 
⇒ ∫  ∇.J (r ) + dV =0
V
∂t 
Since this is true for any volume V, therefore,
   ∂ρ
∇.J (r ) + =
0 Equation of Continuity
∂t
  
Flux = ∫ A( r ) ⋅ dS
S   
 ∫S A ( r ) ⋅ d S
 
DivA = Lim = ∇⋅ A
δV →0 δV
Mathematically, divergence is given as the derivative
of the net flux of the vector field across the surface
of a small sphere relative to the volume of the
sphere.
In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is

the extent to which the vector field flux behaves
like a source or a sink at a given point.
Volume bounded by two surfaces
 A
n

 n2
n1
B
/ S1
n
V2 C
V1
S2 D
       
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A.da + ∫ A.da + ∫
V1 +V2 S1 S2 ABCD
A.nˆ 2 da + ∫
ABCD
A.nˆ1 da
nˆ 2 = −nˆ1
   
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A .da
V1 +V2 S1 + S 2
n̂
Solid Angle dS
θ Is the angle between n and r

 r
ˆn.r dS ''
dΩ = 2
cos θ = r
r dS’

ˆ
n .r
± dS cos θ =
dS ' = ± dS 1
r O

nˆ.r
d Ω = ± 3 dS
r
± Chosen according to the value of θ

Curl of a vector field C
(A Vector Field from a Vector Field)
CA
Circulation of vector field CC CB
      C1 C2
A(r ).dl ∫ A(r ).dl
C
Additive Property of Circulation
        
∫=
C
A(r ).dl ∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
 C1 C2
           
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl +

CA CC
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
CC CB
Circulation is a scalar quantity, but not a scalar field
As Circulation is additive, there must be something like flux density

  
∫ A(r ).dl
Circulation = 
C   
 ∫ A(r ).dl  
CurlA.nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A).nˆ
δ S →0 δS
Mathematically, curl is given as the derivative of
the net circulation of the vector field along the
circular path around the point to the area
enclosed by the path. Direction ??
The curl of a vector field is the vector that represents the
net circulation of the field. The magnitude of the vector
represents the maximum circulation, and the direction
(given by the right-hand-rule) is normal to the surface
upon which the circulation is greatest.
Curl in Cartesian Co-ordinate Y 3
δx
P
Let the point be P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 4δ y δy 2
.
Circulation for the z-face is δx
1
  δy   δ y 
 A x  x0 , y0 − 2 , z0  − A x  x0 , y0 + 2 , z0   δ x + X
    
  δx   δx 
 A y  x0 + 2 , y0 , z0  − A y  x0 − 2 , y0 , z0   δ y
    
Z
   ∂Ax ∂Ay
C∫ A(r ).dl =−
∂y
δ yδ x +
∂x
δ xδ y
 ∂Ax ∂Ay 
⇒ CurlA.eˆz = − + = (CurlA) z
∂y ∂x
Similarly if we get circulation along other faces and add up
For the net circulation, we get
 ∂Vz ∂Vy   ∂Vx ∂Vz   ∂Vy ∂Vx 

= eˆx  −  + eˆ y  −  + eˆz  − 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

 
    ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 Ax Ay Az 

The del operator have properties of Polar vector when used in Cross
product
Examples:
  
∇ × v = 2ω
  
∇ × B = µ0 J
  
v =ω×r
  iˆ ˆj kˆ
∇×v = 
∇ × ω1 ω 2 ω3
x y z

[
= ∇ × (ω 2 z − ω 3 y )iˆ + (ω 3 x − ω1 z ) ˆj + (ω1 y − ω 2 x)kˆ ]
iˆ ˆj kˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
(ω 2 z − ω3 y ) (ω3 x − ω1 z ) (ω1 y − ω 2 x)

= 2(ϖ 1 i + ω 2 j + ω 3 k ) = 2ω
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Examples:
z z
y y
 x

V = − yeˆx + xeˆ y x V = xeˆ y
   
∇ × V = 2eˆz ∇ × V = eˆz
  
=∇ × A 2eˆ z {A=(x-y)eˆ x + ( x + y )eˆy }

In the vector field F
of a moving fluid, a paddle wheel placed at various
points of the field would tend to rotate in regions
  
where ∇ × F ≠ 0 If ∇ × F = 0
in a region then there would be no rotation and the

field F is called irrotational
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
∇ × (∇φ ) =  eˆx + eˆy + eˆz  ×  eˆx + eˆy + eˆz 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
  
∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0
eˆx eˆ y eˆz
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ 
= eˆx  −  − eˆ y  −  + eˆz  − 
 ∂y∂z ∂z∂y   ∂z∂x ∂x∂z   ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 

=0
( ) ( ) ( )
     
∇ ⋅ A× B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A⋅ ∇ × B
Curl in Generalized Curvilinear Co-ordinate System

 h1eˆ1 h2 eˆ2 h3eˆ3 
    
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
h1h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 
 
 h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3 
Stokes’ theorem
Consider a surface S enclosed by a curve C.
  
∫ A(r ).δ l
S
  
CurlA.nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A).nˆ C
δ S →0 δS
∫( )
    
∫ C
A.dl =
S
∇ × A .dS
Relates the line integral of a vector about a closed curve to
the surface integral of its curl over the enclosed area. S2
S1
Does not require S to have any particular shape

Ir-rotational (Conservative) Vector Field
 
For a vector field if ∇× A =0
at each and every point then the field is called ir-
rotaional (conservative) vector field.
 
Recall that we have always ∇ × (∇φ ) = 0
 

 ˆ
 ei eˆ j


eˆk  { }
∇ × (∇φ ) = ∂ j ∂ kφ − ∂ k ∂ jφ
i
   ∂
∇ × (∇φ ) = 
∂ ∂ 
 (For continuous function φ ;
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ  ∂ j ∂ k φ = ∂ k ∂ jφ )
 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Curl of a vector field – some more
Conservative (Irrotational) Vector Field

• A vector field is conservative if the curl of vector field is zero.
• Appling the stokes theorem on the curl we can say that circulation
of the vector field is zero for conservative vector along all path.
(Vice versa is not true)
    
∫ (∇ × A).dS= 0= ∫ A.dr
• Grad of a scalar field returnsS a vector field which is either
C a
constant vector field or a conservative vector field.
• For a conservative vector field A there should be a scalar field Φ
such that gradient of the scalar field Φ is equal to vector field A.
 
∇ φ = A
Scalar Φ is said to be scalar potential (or simply potential) of field
A where vector field A is a conservative vector field
Suppose Ф = Ф1 + C where C is a constant.

Then,
∇φ =∇(φ1 + C ) =∇φ1
Thus, there can be more than one scalar field from
which the same (conservative) vector field can be
derived!
This is how we have reference potential that can be

CHOSEN!!!
6th Sep. (next Monday) will be lecture class
Problem set 2, given yesterday, will be discussed on 13th Sep. (Monday)

(Tutorial 2)
20th Sep. (Monday) will be mock mid-semester exam
25th Sep. (Saturday) 10.00 to 11.30 a.m. will be mid-semester exam
End-semester exam on Nov. 25th
40 marks for mid-semester and 60 marks for End-semester
Seating Arrangements for mid-sem and end-sem exams will be

notified by the Academic section
Work and Energy

r ( t2 )
 
t2
  
 t1
r ( t1 )
t2   
dv  dv
t1
dt dt
d  mv 2 
t2
mv 2 (t2 ) mv 2 (t1 )
=∫   dt ⇒ W= − =
T (t2 ) − T (t1 )
t1
dt  2  2 2

Theorem)
2
• The relationship is valid whether or not force field is
conservative.
• Force field may be explicitly time dependent, i.e.,
  
F = F (r , t )
• In fact it need not be a force alone and may depend on the
instantaneous velocity of the particle as well
      
F = F (r , v , t ) For example (
F= q E + v × B )
• Since Newton’s II law is used, the relationship is valid only in
inertial frames (the frames in which kinetic energy is properly
defined)
3
   where φ is the scalar potential
F (r ) = −∇Φ
 
r(t 2 )
   
r(t 2 )
Work done W=

∫
r(t1 )
− ∫ ∇φ .dr
F .dr =

r(t1 )

r(t 2 )
 
− ∫ dφ =
= −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )]

r(t 2 )


4
work
F0 F0 F0
F0
ra − rb θ F0
rb
ra
rb rb rb
ra ra ra
5
work

=
 x , y ,z 

 
6
work

( )
c
(0,1) (1,1)
ˆ 2
d2 1 b
(0,0) (1,0)
a
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr + ∫ F ⋅ dr
1 a b c
a
7
work
∫b F ⋅ dr = A∫x =1, y = 0 y dy = 3
2
  =
x 0,=
0
A
A∫ xdx = −
y 1
∫ F ⋅ dr
=
c
A∫ =
xy dx
=
x 1,=
y 1
1 2
A A A
net work done for path 1
∫1 F ⋅ dr = 3 − 2 = − 6
x =0 , y =1
A
∫2F ⋅ dr = A∫x=0, y =0 y dy = 3
2
   
∫
1
F ⋅ dr ≠ ∫ F ⋅ dr
2 8
work

dr
dr dreˆr + rdφ eˆφ
=

r
F = f (r )eˆr
b
= ∫ f (r )dr
b b
∫ ∫ ) a
a a
In contrast to central forces, frictional forces are non-conservative 9

Hence,

rb


ra

10
Recap of Flux da
θ F
S S


  
s S s
= FLUX
11
Vol Int div A = surf. Int A.ds
surface
 
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ nˆds
V S
     
∫ ∇ ⋅ A(r )dτ = ∫ A(r ) ⋅ dS
V S
the closed surface.

  q
E (r ) = eˆr
4πε 0 r 2
π 2π
    q  2
∫ E (r )dS = ∫ ∫  (
eˆ  r sin θ dθ dφ eˆr
2 r  )
θ φ
= 0= 0  4πε 0 r 
   q
∫ E (r ) dS =ε0
   1
∫ E (r )dS = ε0 V ∫ ρ dV

   1
∫ ∇E (r )dV = ∫ ρ dVε0 V
   ρ
∇E (r ) = Density is function of space and time


 
J (r , t ) represents mass/charge current density

   d
   d
∫V ∇.J (r )dV = − ∫ ρ dV
dt V
    ∂ρ 
⇒ ∫  ∇.J (r ) + dV =0
V
∂t 
   ∂ρ
∇.J (r ) + =
∂t
This is conservation of charge
  
S   
 ∫S A ( r ) ⋅ d S
 
δV →0 δV
sphere.

 A
n

 n2
n1
B
/ S1
n
V2 C
V1
S2 D
       
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A.da + ∫ A.da + ∫
V1 +V2 S1 S2 ABCD
A.nˆ 2 da + ∫
ABCD
A.nˆ1 da
nˆ 2 = −nˆ1
   
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A .da
V1 +V2 S1 + S 2
n̂
Solid Angle dS
θ Is the angle between n and r

 r
ˆn.r dS ''
dΩ = 2
cos θ = r
r dS’

ˆ
n .r
± dS cos θ =
dS ' = ± dS 1
r O

nˆ.r
d Ω = ± 3 dS
r
± Chosen according to the value of θ

Stokes’ theorem
  
∫ A(r ).δ l
S
  
CurlA.nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A).nˆ C
δ S →0 δS
∫( )
    
∫ C
A.dl =
S
∇ × A .dS
S1

more on Curl of a vector field C
Circulation of vector field
   CA
∫ A(r ) dl
Circulation =  CC CB
C C1 C2

        
∫=
C
A(r ).dl ∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
 C1 C2
           
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl +

CA CC
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
CC CB
Circulation is a scalar quantity,

but not a scalar field   
 ∫ A(r ).dl  
CurlA nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A)nˆ
δ S →0 δS
Curl in Cartesian Co-ordinate Y 3
δx
Let the point be P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 4δ y δy 2

P
Circulation for the z-face is δx
1
  δy   δ y 
 A x  x0 , y0 − 2 , z0  − A x  x0 , y0 + 2 , z0   δ x + X
    
  δx   δx 
 A y  x0 + 2 , y0 , z0  − A y  x0 − 2 , y0 , z0   δ y
    
Z
   ∂Ax ∂Ay
C∫ A(r ).dl =−
∂y
δ yδ x +
∂x
δ xδ y
 ∂Ax ∂Ay 
⇒ CurlA.eˆz = − + = (CurlA) z
∂y ∂x
Similarly if we get circulation along other faces and add up
For the net circulation, we get
 ∂Vz ∂Vy   ∂Vx ∂Vz   ∂Vy ∂Vx 

= eˆx  −  + eˆ y  −  + eˆz  − 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

 
    ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 Ax Ay Az 

 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
eˆx eˆ y eˆz
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ  
= eˆx  −  − eˆ y  −  + eˆz  −  =0
 ∂y∂z ∂z∂y   ∂z∂x ∂x∂z   ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 
  
Similarly, prove ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0
( ) ( ) ( )
     
∇ ⋅ A× B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A⋅ ∇ × B
Prove this

    
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
h1h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 
 
 h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3 
Irrotational (Conservative) Vector Field
 
at each and every point then the field is called
irrotational (conservative) vector field.
 
 

 ˆ
 ei eˆ j


eˆk 
{ }
∇ × (∇φ ) = ∂ j ∂ kφ − ∂ k ∂ jφ
i
   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × (∇φ ) = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ 
  ∂ j ∂ k φ = ∂ k ∂ jφ )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
    
S
∫ (∇ × A).dS= 0= ∫ A.dr
C
• Grad of a scalar field returns a vector field which is either a
 
∇ φ = A

Then,
∇φ =∇(φ1 + C ) =∇φ1
derived!

CHOSEN!!!
Recap of Flux da
θ F
S S


  
s S s
= FLUX
1
surface
 
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ nˆds
V S
     
∫ ∇ ⋅ A(r )dτ = ∫ A(r ) ⋅ dS
V S
the closed surface.

  q
E (r ) = eˆr
4πε 0 r 2
π 2π
    q  2
∫ E (r )dS = ∫ ∫  (
eˆ  r sin θ dθ dφ eˆr
2 r  )
θ φ
= 0= 0  4πε 0 r 
   q
∫ E (r ) dS =ε0
   1
∫ E (r )dS = ε0 V ∫ ρ dV

   1
∫ ∇E (r )dV = ∫ ρ dVε0 V
   ρ
∇E (r ) = Density is function of space and time


 
J (r , t ) represents mass flow/ current density

   d
   d
∫V ∇.J (r )dV = − ∫ ρ dV
dt V
    ∂ρ 
⇒ ∫  ∇.J (r ) + dV =0
V
∂t 
   ∂ρ
∇.J (r ) + =
∂t
  
S   
 ∫S A ( r ) ⋅ d S
 
δV →0 δV
sphere.

 A
n

 n2
n1
B
/ S1
n
V2 C
V1
S2 D
       
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A.da + ∫ A.da + ∫
V1 +V2 S1 S2 ABCD
A.nˆ 2 da + ∫
ABCD
A.nˆ1 da
nˆ 2 = −nˆ1
   
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A .da
V1 +V2 S1 + S 2
Stokes’ theorem
  
∫ A(r ).δ l
S
  
CurlA.nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A).nˆ C
δ S →0 δS
∫( )
    
∫ C
A.dl =
S
∇ × A .dS
S1

   CA
∫ A(r ) dl
C C1 C2

        
∫=
C
A(r ).dl ∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
 C1 C2
           
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl +

CA CC
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
CC CB
Circulation is a scalar quantity,

but not a scalar field   
 ∫ A(r ).dl  
CurlA nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A)nˆ
δ S →0 δS
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
eˆx eˆ y eˆz
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ  
= eˆx  −  − eˆ y  −  + eˆz  −  =0
 ∂y∂z ∂z∂y   ∂z∂x ∂x∂z   ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 
  
( ) ( ) ( )
     
∇ ⋅ A× B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A⋅ ∇ × B
Prove this

    
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
h1h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 
 
 h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3 
 
 
 

 ˆ
 ei eˆ j


eˆk 
{ }
∇ × (∇φ ) = ∂ j ∂ kφ − ∂ k ∂ jφ
i
   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × (∇φ ) = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ 
  ∂ j ∂ k φ = ∂ k ∂ jφ )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
    
S
∫ (∇ × A).dS= 0= ∫ A.dr
C
 
∇ φ = A

Then,
∇φ =∇(φ1 + C ) =∇φ1
derived!

CHOSEN!!!
Motion in a central force and conservation of
angular momentum
Central forces
Central force is the force that depends ONLY on the
distance of the point at which force is of interest, from
the origin of the coordinate system
The force is written as

  
r
F (r ) = f (r )rˆ where rˆ = 
r
Examples Gravitational force

Electrostatic force
Central forces
Consider two
point masses m1 m2
  
and m2 to be r= rrˆ= r1 − r2
interacting with 
each other only r2
m1
under a force of 
r1
magnitude f(r)
    
F=
(r ) f (=
r )rˆ f ( r1 − r2 )rˆ m1 r1 = f (r )rˆ

The equations of motion of m2 r2 = − f (r )rˆ
the masses are
Central forces

The two equations of motion are coupled by r

Then, the problem becomes simpler if andr r2
 1
are replaced by r  
 m1 r1 + m2 r2
The center of mass (CM) is at R=
m1 + m2
m1 m2
If µ is the effective mass given by µ=
m1 +m2


The equation of motion of the CM is trivial, since
R=0
there is no external force.
Central forces

Equation of motion of r
The equations of motion of the masses can be
combined as
    1 1 
r1 -r2 =r=  +  f(r)rˆ
 m1 m2 
This can be
 m1 m2   
rewritten in terms
  r=µ r=f(r)rˆ
of the effective  m1 + m2 
mass as
Central forces
 
Solving for rand
1 r2
  m2    m1 
r1 =
R+ r and r2 =
R− r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Thus, a two body problem has been reduced to

one body problem
(this will not work for a three body problem)
The exact solution of the equation of motion depends on
the form of f(r). However, quite a bit of discussion on
central forces can be had without the knowledge of the
actual form of f(r).
Central forces
Angular momentum and central force
    
τ = r × F = r × (ma )
      
dL d (r × p ) d (r × mv ) dr   d (mv )
= = = × mv + r ×
dt dt dt dt dt
      
= v × mv + r × ma = r × ma =τ
   =0 
τ= r × F or L is a constant
   Therefore motion under central

L= r × p force is confined to a plane
Central forces
Acceleration in plane polar coordinates is
 
r − rϕ  eˆr + [ rϕ + 2rϕ ] eˆφ
a =r =  2
 
F = ma
ˆ
(
f (r )er = m  
r − rϕ 2

 ˆ
er + [ rϕ + 2 
rϕ ] ˆ
eφ )
r ) mr − mrϕ
f (= 2
=0 mrϕ + 2mrϕ
Central forces
d  mr ϕ 
2
= mr ϕ + 2mrrϕ
2
dt
= r (mrϕ + 2mrϕ )
=0
mr ϕ =
2
constant
This is the magnitude of angular momentum.
L = mr 2ϕ = constant
Central forces
Angular momentum is an integral of the motion for a
central force field.
=
mr f (r ) + mrϕ
 2
Effective Force,
(r ) f (r ) + mrϕ
f eff=  2
mr = f eff (r )
mrϕ
 2
- Fictitious Force – Centrifugal Force
Central forces
Effective Potential:
rs
Veff (r ) = ∫ f eff (r )dr
r
rs
∫  f (r ) + mrϕ dr
2
r
rs   L 
2

∫r
 f (r ) + mr  2 
  mr 
dr

Central forces
2
rs L rs dr
∫r
f ( r ) dr +
m ∫r r 3
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
→ Centrifugal Potential or Centrifugal barrier
2mr
A two dimensional force and acceleration

problem is reduced in the form of a one
dimensional problem.
Central forces: Recap
All central force field is conservative vector field
Angular momentum is constant of motion
• Motion is restricted to a plane passing through the origin of
the force and = L mr = 2
ϕ constant
2
L
Effective Force, f eff (r ) =mr = f (r ) + mrϕ = f (r ) + 3
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
Central forces
Equation for the Orbit:
Total Energy E is another integral of the motion
1 1
E = T + V = mr + mr ϕ + V (r )
 2 2 2
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 L 
mr + mr  2  + V (r ) = E
2 2  mr 
dr 2 L  2
r = =  E − V (r ) − 2
dt m 2mr 
dr 2 L2  2
Velocity = r= =  E − V (r ) − =
2
 E − Veff (r ) 
dt m 2mr  m
L 2 1 ⋅2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + mr
2mr 2 2
Veff
r1 r2 r3
r1 and r2 are called the apsidal distances

r dr
t=∫
2 L2 
r0
 E − V (r ) − 2
m 2mr 
 L 2 1
φ = u where r =
m u
1 du 1 du dφ 1  du
r = − 2 =− 2 = − 2φ
u dt u dφ dt u dφ
1  L 2  du L du
r = − 2  u  =−
u  m  dφ m dφ
L d du L d u dφ
2
L d u 2
r = − =− =− φ 2
m dt dφ m dφ dt
2
m dφ
2 2
L 2d u
r = − 2 u
m dφ 2

F (r ) = mr − mrφ becomes
2
1  L 2 d u
2 2
1 L 4
2
F   = m − 2 u  − m  2 u 
2 
u  m dφ  um 
1
2 2 2
L 2d u L 3
F  = − u − u
u m dφ 2
m
2
d u m 1 1
+ u =− 2 2 f  
dφ 2
L u u
Central forces
For any central force the equation of motion is
L 2
d 2u m 1 1
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + + u =− 2 2 f  
2mr 2 dϕ 2
L u u
k
Motion in inverse square law force field f (r ) = 2
r
k L2 1 k L 2
Veff = + =
E mr + +
2
r 2mr 2 2
2 r 2mr
2
k L
f eff (r=) 2 + 3 1 mk
r mr = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L
inverse square law forces
Veff
Plot of
effective potential
k L2
Veff = +
r 2mr 2
O
L2/ (2mr2)
Veff
Plot of
E1
effective potential
k L2
Veff = + 1 ⋅ 2
mr
r 2mr 2 r1/ 2 E2 = 0
r1 r
O
E3
r2 r3
E4
r4
Central forces
1 mk
= A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L
1 1+ e where ‘e’ is the

r = r0 eccentricity of the orbit
A cos ϕ − (mk / L )
2
1 + e cos ϕ
e < 1, the orbit is an ellipse
e = 0, the orbit is a circle
e = 1, the orbit is a parabola
e > 1, the orbit is a hyperbola
review
 Central force
conservative; planar orbits;
constants of motion: L , A and E
 Inverse square force

orbits : conic sections
 Orbits for different values of E

shapes determined by L and E
parameters: A, e, E, r0 , m and k
 Geometry of the conic sections

ellipse, parabola, hyperbola
inverse square law orbits
2 EL2
=
e 1+ 2
mk
Veff
E>0 special cases:
(i) E >0, e>1

hyperbola
E=0
r (ii) E=0 , e=1,
O r2 becomes infinity
E<0 parabola
r1 r2
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin
two turning points,
ellipse
(iv) E= -mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle
40
elliptical orbit
Minor axis
r2
r1
C
F1 F2
(x0, y0)
Major axis
r1 + r2 = 2a
The ellipse is the locus of those points in the plane for which
the sum of the distances from two given points (foci) is constant
41
The ellipse can also be defined as the locus of the points whose
distance from the focus is proportional (e times) to the horizontal
distance from a vertical line known as the directrix
r2
Minor axis=2b
r1
Ellipse
C
F1 F2
(0,0) (c,0)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =
1
a b
Major axis=2a
Diretrix
2
a
r1 + r2 = 2a =
K
=Major axis x=
E c 42
The ellipse can also be defined as the locus of the points whose distance
from the focus is proportional (e times) to the horizontal distance from a
vertical line known as directrix
2
b
=
e 1− 2
a =
b 2
a 2
(1 − e 2
) a 2
− b 2
= a 2 2
e = c 2
( say )
c a (1 − e ) 2
b =a −c 2 2
c =ae e = r=
a 1 + e cos ϕ
The maximum and minimum distances from the focus are called
the apoapsis and periapsis, and are given by
r+ = rapoapsis = a (1 + e)
Area = π a b
r− = rperiapsis = a (1 − e) 43
Semi Latus recturm

(2a)
Vertex Focus
(0,0) (a,0)
x=-a
parabola is the locus of those points in the plane that are
equidistant from a fixed point (the focus)
and a fixed straight line (the directrix)
44
Equation of a parabola
y = 4ax
2
If the vertex is at instead of (0, 0), the equation of the parabola is
( y − y0 ) 2 = 4a ( x − x0 ) y
If the parabola instead opens upwards,

its equation is
x = 4ay or
2
( x − x0 ) = 4a ( y − y0 )
2
x
45
Parametric equation for a parabola
x = at 2
and y = 2at
Polar equation
In polar coordinates, the equation of a parabola with
parameter aand center (0, 0) is given by
2a
r=− φ
1 + cos φ
46
The equation of a hyperbola with centre located at (x0,y0) is
( x − x0 ) 2 ( y − y0 ) 2
2
− 2
=1
a b
A hyperbola is the locus of all the points where the difference between the
distances to two fixed points (foci) is constant.
r2
r1
r2 − r1 = 2a 47
Like noncircular ellipses, hyperbolae

have two distinct foci and two
associated conic section directrices,
each directrix being perpendicular to
the line joining the two foci
In polar coordinates centered at a focus,
r = a(e 2 − 1) 1 1
or, equivalently, =[1 + e cos(ϕ ± ϕ0 )]
1 − e cos φ r r0
48
B. C 1400s --
The idea of a heliocentric solar system, with the Sun at the center is first
suggested in the Vedic literature of ancient India, which often refers to the Sun
as the "centre of spheres".
Rishi Deerghatamas, in Rg Veda 10.6.56;
“Solar attraction governs the planetary orbits” in Yajur Veda 3-6
The word “Bhoogolam” (Earth as a sphere) is used in Indian languages from the
earliest (Vedic) period onwards.
C. E. 499 –
Indian mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata, in his Aryabhatiya,
propounds a possibly heliocentric solar system where the planets follow
elliptical orbits around the Sun, under gravitation
C. E. 620s –
Indian mathematician Brahmagupta recognizes gravity as a force
of attraction, and briefly states the law of gravitation
C. E. 1150 –
Bhaskara calculates the planetary mean motion, seasons and the length of
the Earth's orbit around the Sun to 9 decimal places.
(in his book, Siddhanta Shiromani) 49
International time line of the study of solar orbits
 B.C. 350 – Aristotle argues for a spherical Earth using lunar

eclipses and other observations
 B. C. 200 – Eratosthenes uses shadows to determine that

the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km
C. E. 1536 -- Copernicus : Sun is at the center of the solar

system
 C. E. 1636 -- Galileo Galilei was imprisoned for stating that it is

the Earth, and not the Sun that actually moves.
50
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Planetary orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus
(The law of elliptical orbits)
First law follows directly from Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation
Based on detailed Astronomical data taken by Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Areas swept out by the radius vector from the sun to a planet
in equal times are equal ( The law of equal areas)
Law 3
The square of a planets period is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis
of its orbit (T2 ∝ a3)
51
Kepler’s laws
A diagram showing the elliptical orbits of the inner, terrestrial planets, 52

Icarus (an asteroid), and Halley's comet.
Kepler’s laws
Plot of a3 versus T2
Actual experimental data
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/uts/kepler2.html
53
Kepler’s laws
Direct consequence of the angular momentum being a constant
Second law
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
For a small change in angle dθ, the area swept out as a body moves from
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
dA = rdh dh = rdθ dA = r (rdθ ) = r dθ
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
dt 2 dt 2 mr 2 mr θ = L
2
L
= = a constant Kepler’s second law
2m
54
Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s third law is a consequence of the inverse square law

of gravitational force
LT 2mA
A= or T= A is the area of the orbit and
2m L T is the period
Area of an ellipse is
A = πa 2
1− e 2
A is the semimajor axis; half the maximum diameter
1 L2 1 2mA 2mπ
=a ( r1 + r2 ) =− T= = a3/ 2
2 mK 1 − e 2 L m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
=  = constant
Kepler’s third law
 m(− K ) 
3
a
55
Conditions for stable circular orbits (Bertrand’s theorem)
Closed Orbits Orbits in which the particle eventually retraces

its own path
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
Effective or equivalent potential
2mr
For an extremum at r = r0
f eff (r0 ) = 0
2
L
f (r0 ) = − Force must be attractive for a circular orbit
mr03
2
L
=E V (r0 ) +
2mr0 2 56
The character of circular orbit depends on whether the
extremum of V/ or Veff is a minimum or a maximum
Stability can be found from the second derivative test
Stable if second derivative positive (concave up)

Unstable if second derivative negative (concave down)
For a stable orbit
∂V 2
′ ∂f 3L2
=
− + >0
∂r r = r
2
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
0
L 2
∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3
∂r r = r0 r0 57
∂f 3 f (r0 )
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0
If the force behaves like a power law of r in the vicinity of circular

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
−nkr0 < Condition for stability of orbits
r0
58
Closed Orbits
Perturbation of the orbit oscillation about r = r0
Small magnitude oscillations looks like simple harmonic oscillations with

a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
3 f (r0 )
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
r0
1 
Ψ = Tr  ϕ
the apsidal angle ψ can be given from 2  59
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )
for closed orbits, mΨ =π where m is an integer
⇒ 3+ n =m (an integer) 60
n > −3 3+ n =m (an integer)
for stability for closure
For m = 1 n = −2 Inverse square law force
For m = 2 n=1 `Spring force’- simple harmonic oscillator
The ONLY two forces that can result in closed orbits

for all bound particles are the inverse law force
and the Hooke’s law force. -- Bertrand’s theorem
For a more `complete’ proof and details, refer to the book

‘Classical Mechanics’ by Goldstein
61
surface
 
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ nˆds
V S


 
J (r , t ) represents mass flow/ current density

the flux of current density over the surface S is equal to the
rate at which charge leaves the volume V, therefore,
   d
   d
∫V ∇.J (r )dV = − ∫ ρ dV
dt V
    ∂ρ 
⇒ ∫  ∇.J (r ) + dV =0
V
∂t 
   ∂ρ
∇.J (r ) + =
∂t
  
S   
 ∫S A ( r ) ⋅ d S
 
δV →0 δV
sphere.

 A
n

 n2
n1
B
/ S1
n
V2 C
V1
S2 D
       
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A.da + ∫ A.da + ∫
V1 +V2 S1 S2 ABCD
A.nˆ 2 da + ∫
ABCD
A.nˆ1 da
nˆ 2 = −nˆ1
   
∫ ∇. Adτ = ∫ A .da
V1 +V2 S1 + S 2
Stokes’ theorem

  
 ∫ A(r ).δ l   S
CurlA.nˆ = lim C
= (∇ × A).nˆ C
δ S →0 δS
Stoke’s theorem states
∫( )
    
∫ C
A.dl =
S
∇ × A .dS
S1
   CA
∫ A(r ) dl
C C1 C2

        
∫=
C
A(r ).dl ∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
C1 C2
           
∫ A(r ).dl +
CA
∫ A(r ).dl +
CC
∫ A(r ).dl + ∫ A(r ).dl
CC CB
Circulation is a scalar quantity,   

but not a scalar field  C∫ A(r ).dl  
nˆ = lim
CurlA  = (∇ × A) nˆ
δ S →0 δS
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
eˆx eˆ y eˆz
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ   ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ  
= eˆx  −  − eˆ y  −  + eˆz  −  =0
 ∂y∂z ∂z∂y   ∂z∂x ∂x∂z   ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 
  
( ) ( ) ( )
     
∇ ⋅ A× B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A⋅ ∇ × B
Prove this … as homework

    
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
CurlA = ∇ × A =
h1h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 
 
 h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3 
 
 
 

 ˆ
 ei eˆ j


eˆk 
{ }
∇ × (∇φ ) = ∂ j ∂ kφ − ∂ k ∂ jφ
i
   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × (∇φ ) = 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ 
  ∂ j ∂ k φ = ∂ k ∂ jφ )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
    
S
∫ (∇ × A).dS= 0= ∫ A.dr
C
 
= ∇φbe scalar
Scalar Φ is said to A= (sin ce curl(orgrad
potential φ potential)
simply 0) of field

Then,
∇φ =∇(φ1 + C ) =∇φ1
derived!

CHOSEN!!!
angular momentum
Central forces

  
r
r

Electrostatic force
Central forces
Consider two
point masses m1 m2
  
each other only r2
m1
r1
magnitude f(r)
    
F=
(r ) f (=
r )rˆ f ( r1 − r2 )rˆ m1 r1 = f (r )rˆ

The equations of motion of
the masses are
m2 r2 = − f (r )rˆ
Central forces


 1
 m1 r1 + m2 r2
m1 + m2
m1 m2
m1 +m2


R=0
Central forces

combined as
    1 1 
r1 -r2 =r=  +  f(r)rˆ
 m1 m2 
This can be
 m1 m2   
rewritten in terms
mass as
Central forces
 
Solving for rand
1 r2
  m2    m1 
r1 =
R+ r and r2 =
R− r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

one body problem
Central forces
Angular momentum L and central force F
       
τ = r × F = r × (ma ) L= r × p
      
dL d (r × p ) d (r × mv ) dr   d (mv )
= = = × mv + r ×
dt dt dt dt dt
      
= v × mv + r × ma = r × ma = τ
   
In a central force field τ = r × F = 0 or L is a constant
Therefore motion under central force

is confined to a plane….
We shall prove this now….
Central forces
 
r − rϕ  eˆr + [ rϕ + 2rϕ ] eˆφ
a =r =  2
 
F = ma
ˆ
(
f (r )er = m  
r − rϕ 2

 ˆ
er + [ rϕ + 2 
rϕ ] ˆ
eφ )
f (= 2
=0 mrϕ + 2mrϕ
Central forces
We know the angular momentum = =
L mr ω mr ϕ
2 2
d  mr ϕ 
 2
=
= mr 2ϕ + 2mrr
ϕ r (mrϕ + 2mrϕ )
dt
=0
=
Hence the angular momentum L =
mr ϕ
2 constant
Central forces
mr f (r ) + mrϕ
=  2
mr = f eff (r ) Effective Force
(r ) f (r ) + mrϕ 2
f eff=
mrϕ 2 - Fictitious Force – Centrifugal Force
since= =
L mr ω mr ϕ
2 2
2
L
f eff (r ) =mr = f (r ) + mrϕ = f (r ) + 3
2
mr
Central forces
rs
r
rs
∫ r
 f (r ) + mrϕ 2 dr
rs   L  
2 since
∫r  f (r ) + mr  mr 2  dr = =
L mr 2
ω mr 2ϕ
 
Central forces
2
rs L rs dr
∫r
f ( r ) dr +
m ∫r r 3
2
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) +
2mr 2
L2
2
2mr

ϕ constant
2
L
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
Central forces
1 1
E = T + V = mr + mr ϕ + V (r )
 2 2 2
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 L 
mr + mr  2  + V (r ) = E
2 2  mr 
dr 2 L  2
r = =  E − V (r ) − 2
dt m 2mr 
dr 2 L2  2
Velocity = r= =  E − V (r ) − =
2
 E − Veff (r ) 
dt m 2mr  m
L 2 1 ⋅2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + mr
2mr 2 2
Veff
r1 r2 r3

r dr
t=∫
2 L2 
r0
 E − V (r ) − 2
m 2mr 
 L 2 1
φ = u where r =
m u
r = − 2 =− 2 = − 2φ
u dt u dφ dt u dφ
1  L 2  du L du
r = − 2  u  =−
L d du L d u dφ
2
L d u 2
r = − =− =− φ 2
m dt dφ m dφ dt
2
m dφ
2 2
L 2d u
r = − 2 u
m dφ 2

2
1  L 2 d u
2 2
1 L 4
2
F   = m − 2 u  − m  2 u 
2 
u  m dφ  um 
1
2 2 2
L 2d u L 3
F  = − u − u
u m dφ 2
m
2
d u m 1 1
+ u =− 2 2 f  
dφ 2
L u u
Central forces
L 2
d 2u m 1 1
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + + u =− 2 2 f  
2mr 2 dϕ 2
L u u
k
r
k L2 1 k L 2
Veff = + =
E mr + +
2
r 2mr 2 2
2 r 2mr
2
k L
f eff (r=) 2 + 3 1 mk
r mr = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L
Veff
Plot of
effective potential
k L2
Veff = +
r 2mr 2
O
L2/ (2mr2)
Veff
Plot of
E1
effective potential
k L2
Veff = + 1 ⋅ 2
mr
r 2mr 2 r1/ 2 E2 = 0
r1 r
O
E3
r2 r3
E4
r4
Central forces
1 mk
= A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L

2
1 + e cos ϕ
review
 Central force



2 EL2
=
e 1+ 2
mk
Veff
E>0 special cases:
(i) E >0, e>1

hyperbola
E=0
r (ii) E=0 , e=1,
E<0 parabola
r1 r2
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin
two turning points,
ellipse
(iv) E= -mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle
36
elliptical orbit
Minor axis
r2
r1
C
F1 F2
(x0, y0)
Major axis
r1 + r2 = 2a
37
r2
Minor axis=2b
r1
Ellipse
C
F1 F2
(0,0) (c,0)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =
1
a b
Major axis=2a
Diretrix
2
a
r1 + r2 = 2a =
K
=Major axis x=
E c 38
2
b
=
e 1− 2
a =
b 2
a 2
(1 − e 2
) a 2
− b 2
= a 2 2
e = c 2
( say )
c a (1 − e ) 2
b =a −c 2 2
c =ae e = r=
a 1 + e cos ϕ
Area = π a b
Semi Latus recturm

(2a)
Vertex Focus
(0,0) (a,0)
x=-a
40
y = 4ax
2
( y − y0 ) 2 = 4a ( x − x0 ) y

its equation is
x = 4ay or
2
( x − x0 ) = 4a ( y − y0 )
2
x
41
x = at 2
and y = 2at
Polar equation
2a
r=− φ
1 + cos φ
42
( x − x0 ) 2 ( y − y0 ) 2
2
− 2
=1
a b
r2
r1
r2 − r1 = 2a 43

r = a(e 2 − 1) 1 1
1 − e cos φ r r0
44
B. C 1400s --
C. E. 499 –
C. E. 620s –
C. E. 1150 –



system

46
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Law 3
47
Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws
49
Kepler’s laws
Second law
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
2
L
2m
50
Kepler’s laws

LT 2mA
A = πa 2
1− e 2
1 L2 1 2mA 2mπ
=a ( r1 + r2 ) =− T= = a3/ 2
2 mK 1 − e 2 L m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
=  = constant
 m(− K ) 
3
a
51

its own path
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
f eff (r0 ) = 0
2
L
mr03
2
L
=E V (r0 ) +
2mr0 2 52

For a stable orbit
∂V 2
′ ∂f 3L2
=
− + >0
∂r r = r
2
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
0
L 2
∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3
∂r r = r0 r0 53
∂f 3 f (r0 )
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
r0
54
Closed Orbits

a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
3 f (r0 )
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
r0
1 
Ψ = Tr  ϕ
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )


57
Central forces

  
r
r

Electrostatic force
Central forces
Consider two
point masses m1 m2
  
each other only r2
m1
r1
magnitude f(r)
    
F=
(r ) f (=
r )rˆ f ( r1 − r2 )rˆ m1 r1 = f (r )rˆ

the masses are
m2 r2 = − f (r )rˆ
Central forces


 1
 m1 r1 + m2 r2
m1 + m2
m1 m2
m1 +m2


R=0
Central forces

combined as
    1 1 
r1 -r2 =r=  +  f(r)rˆ
 m1 m2 
This can be
 m1 m2   
rewritten in terms
mass as
Central forces
 
Solving for rand
1 r2
  m2    m1 
r1 =
R+ r and r2 =
R− r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

one body problem
Central forces
       
τ = r × F = r × (ma ) L= r × p
      
dL d (r × p ) d (r × mv ) dr   d (mv )
= = = × mv + r ×
dt dt dt dt dt
      
= v × mv + r × ma = r × ma = τ
   
Therefore motion under central force

is confined to a plane….
Central forces
 
r − rϕ  eˆr + [ rϕ + 2rϕ ] eˆφ
a =r =  2
 
F = ma
ˆ
(
f (r )er = m  
r − rϕ 2

 ˆ
er + [ rϕ + 2 
rϕ ] ˆ
eφ )
f (= 2
=0 mrϕ + 2mrϕ
Central forces
We know the angular momentum = =
L mr ω mr ϕ
2 2
d  mr ϕ 
 2
=
= mr 2ϕ + 2mrr
ϕ r (mrϕ + 2mrϕ )
dt
=0
=
mr ϕ
2 constant
Central forces
mr f (r ) + mrϕ
=  2
(r ) f (r ) + mrϕ 2
f eff=
since= =
L mr ω mr ϕ
2 2
2
L
f eff (r ) =mr = f (r ) + mrϕ = f (r ) + 3
2
mr
Central forces
rs
r
rs
∫ r
 f (r ) + mrϕ 2 dr
rs   L  
2 since
∫r  f (r ) + mr  mr 2  dr = =
L mr 2
ω mr 2ϕ
 
Central forces
2
rs L rs dr
∫r
f ( r ) dr +
m ∫r r 3
2
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) +
2mr 2
L2
2
2mr

ϕ constant
2
L
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
ϕ constant
2
L
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
Central forces
1 1
E = T + V = mr + mr ϕ + V (r )
 2 2 2
2 2 = =
L mr 2
ω mr 2ϕ
2
1 2 1 2 L 
mr + mr  2  + V (r ) = E
2 2  mr 
dr 2 L  2
r = =  E − V (r ) − 2
dt m 2mr 
dr 2 L2  2
Velocity = r= =  E − V (r ) − =
2
 E − Veff (r ) 
dt m 2mr  m
L 2 1 ⋅2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + mr
2mr 2 2
Veff
r1 r2 r3

r dr
t=∫
2 L2 
r0
 E − V (r ) − 2
m 2mr 
 L 2 1
φ = u where r =
m u
r = − 2 =− 2 = − 2φ
u dt u dφ dt u dφ
1  L 2  du L du
r = − 2  u  =−
L d du L d u dφ
2
L d u 2
r = − =− =− φ 2
m dt dφ m dφ dt
2
m dφ
2 2
L 2d u
r = − 2 u
m dφ 2

2
1  L 2 d u
2 2
1 L 4
2
F   = m − 2 u  − m  2 u 
2 
u  m dφ  um 
1
2 2 2
L 2d u L 3
F  = − u − u
u m dφ 2
m
2
d u m 1 1
+ u =− 2 2 f  
dφ 2
L u u
Central forces
L 2
d 2u m 1 1
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + + u =− 2 2 f  
2mr 2 dϕ 2
L u u
k
r
k L2 1 k L 2
Veff = + =
E mr + +
2
r 2mr 2 2
2 r 2mr
2
k L
f eff (r=) 2 + 3 1 mk
r mr = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L
Veff
Plot of
effective potential
k L2
Veff = +
r 2mr 2
O
L2/ (2mr2)
Veff
Plot of
E1
effective potential
k L2
Veff = + 1 ⋅ 2
mr
r 2mr 2 r1/ 2 E2 = 0
r1 r
O
E3
r2 r3
E4
r4
Central forces
1 mk
= A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L

2
1 + e cos ϕ
review
 Central force



2 EL2
=
e 1+ 2
mk
Veff
E>0 special cases:
(i) E >0, e>1

hyperbola
E=0
r (ii) E=0 , e=1,
E<0 parabola
r1 r2
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin
two turning points,
ellipse
(iv) E= -mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle
12
elliptical orbit
Minor axis
r2
r1
C
F1 F2
(x0, y0)
Major axis
r1 + r2 = 2a
13
r2
Minor axis=2b
r1
Ellipse
C
F1 F2
(0,0) (c,0)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =
1
a b
Major axis=2a
Diretrix
2
a
r1 + r2 = 2a =
K
=Major axis x=
E c 14
2
b
=
e 1− 2
a =
b 2
a 2
(1 − e 2
) a 2
− b 2
= a 2 2
e = c 2
( say )
c a (1 − e ) 2
b =a −c 2 2
c =ae e = r=
a 1 + e cos ϕ
Area = π a b
Semi Latus recturm

(2a)
Vertex Focus
(0,0) (a,0)
x=-a
16
y = 4ax
2
( y − y0 ) 2 = 4a ( x − x0 ) y

its equation is
x = 4ay or
2
( x − x0 ) = 4a ( y − y0 )
2
x
17
x = at 2
and y = 2at
Polar equation
2a
r=− φ
1 + cos φ
18
( x − x0 ) 2 ( y − y0 ) 2
2
− 2
=1
a b
r2
r1
r2 − r1 = 2a 19

r = a(e 2 − 1) 1 1
1 − e cos φ r r0
20
B. C 1400s --
C. E. 499 –
C. E. 620s –
C. E. 1150 –



system

22
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Law 3
23
Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws
25
Kepler’s laws
Second law
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
2
L
2m
26
Kepler’s laws

LT 2mA
A = πa 2
1− e 2
1 L2 1 2mA 2mπ
=a ( r1 + r2 ) =− T= = a3/ 2
2 mK 1 − e 2 L m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
=  = constant
 m(− K ) 
3
a
27

its own path
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
f eff (r0 ) = 0
2
L
mr03
2
L
=E V (r0 ) +
2mr0 2 28

For a stable orbit
∂V 2
′ ∂f 3L2
=
− + >0
∂r r = r
2
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
0
L 2
∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3
∂r r = r0 r0 29
∂f 3 f (r0 )
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
r0
30
Closed Orbits

a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
3 f (r0 )
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
r0
1 
Ψ = Tr  ϕ
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )


33
Spherical and cylindrical Polar coordinates study material
http://www.csupomona.edu/~ajm/materials/delsph.pdf
http://www.csupomona.edu/~ajm/materials/delcyl.pdf
Points of Equilibrium
• Stable Equilibrium (Restoring Force)
– Local Minimum
– Global Minimum
• Unstable Equilibrium
– Local Maximum
– Global Maximum
• Mixed
– Neutral Equilibrium
– Point of Inflection
– Saddle Point
Local vs. Absolute (Global) Extrema Absolute maximum
Local minimum
Local maximum
Absolute minimum Neutral
a c e d b
If f is a function within the domain D, then f has an absolute

maximum on D at a point c, if
f ( x ) ≤ f (c ) for all values of x in D
and an absolute minimum at c, if
f ( x ) ≥ f (c ) for all values of x in D
Absolute maximum and minimum values are called absolute extrema

Minimum and Maximum
f ( x0 ) = 0 ??
''
f ( x0 ) = 0 ??
'' Called Point of inflection where the curvature
changes sign from + to – or vice versa
Test by any one of these

Test by function
f ( x0 − δ x) < f ( x0 ) > f ( x0 + δ x) Local Maximum
f ( x0 − δ x) > f ( x0 ) < f ( x0 + δ x) Local Minimum
f ( x0 − δ x) > f ( x0 ) > f ( x0 + δ x) 
 Points of Inflection
f ( x0 − δ x) < f ( x0 ) < f ( x0 + δ x) 
Test by slope, i.e., first derivative
f ' ( x0 − δ x) < 0 > f ' ( x0 + δ x) 

f ( x0 − δ x) > 0 < f ( x0 + δ x) 
' '
f ' ( x0 − δ x) > 0 > f ' ( x0 + δ x) Local Maximum
f ' ( x0 − δ x) < 0 < f ' ( x0 + δ x) Local Minimum

Test by curvature, i.e., second derivative
f '' ( x0 − δ x) < 0 > f '' ( x0 + δ x)

Unstable
Local Maximum Equilibrium
f '' ( x0 − δ x) > 0 < f '' ( x0 + δ x) Local Minimum Stable

Equilibrium
f '' ( x0 − δ x) > 0 > f '' ( x0 + δ x) 

f ( x0 − δ x) < 0 < f ( x0 + δ x) 
'' ''
At the points of inflection,

if f ′(x) is zero, the point is a stationary point of inflection, also known as
a saddle-point
if f ′(x) is not zero, the point is a non-stationary point of inflection
Neutral Equilibrium: Example The equilibrium of a ball on a horizontal surface
f=
'( x0 ) f=
''
( x0 ) 0
Power series representation of a function
If V(x) is an arbitrary function, it can be expressed in a Taylor series
about a point “x0” as
dV 1 d 2V 1 d 3V
V ( x=) V ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ....
2 3
dx x0 2! dx 2 x0
3! dx3 x0
If “x0” is the location of the minimum of the function, then V(x0) is

a
constant, we shall call it V0. Also, at “x0” , the slope is zero.
dV
=0 Hence second term is zero at equilibrium position
dx x0
Further, if we consider points near equilibrium position, then (x-x0) will

be very small, and hence we ignore (x-x0)3 and higher power terms
dV 1 d 2V 1 d 3V
V ( x=) V ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ....
2 3
2
dx x0 2! dx x0
3! dx3 x0
Hence the above potential function at equilibrium can be written as
1 d 2V
V ( x) =
V0 + ( x − x0 )
2
2! dx 2 x0
1 d 2V
=+ k ( x − x0 ) where k =2
2
V0
2 dx x0
1
V ( x) =
V0 + V ' ( x ) wh ree V ' ( x ) = k ( x − x0 )
2
This V’(x) is the change in potential energy w.r.t. the minimum potential.
If V0 is zero, then
V ( x) = V '( x)
With change of variables, we write
1
V ' ( x=
) k X 2 where X= ( x − x0 )
2
which is the same as the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.
The constant k plays the same role as the effective spring constant.
d 2V
k= 2
dx x0
This means that, for small oscillations near equilibrium, the angular
frequency of oscillation is given by,
k 1 d 2V ω0 = 2π f 0
ω0
= =
m m dx 2 x0
Thus the period of oscillation can be found from the energy function
y′ =4 x 3 − 12 x 2 =4 x 2 ( x − 3)
=
extremum points x 0= and x 3
y′′ = 12 x 2 − 24 x = 12 x ( x − 2)
possible inflection points= x 0=,x 2
Function of 2 variables
Examples of maxima and minima in two dimensions
Plots of
Functions
Unstable Stable
f ( x, y ) =− x − y
2 2 f ( x, =
y) x +y2 2
Saddle Point - stable equilibrium (minima) in one direction and
unstable in the other direction (maxima)
f ( x, =
y) y 2 − x2
Saddle point examples: φ =−
x2 y 2 ; φ =
xy, two positive charge
angular momentum
Central forces
Central force is the force whose direction is always radial
either towards or away from a point. If we choose that
point (force centre) as the origin, the force depends ONLY
on the distance of the point at which force is of interest,
from the origin of the coordinate system.


  r
rˆ = 
F (r ) = f (r )rˆ where
r
Electrostatic force
Central forces
Consider two
point masses m1 m2
  
each other only r2
m1
r1
magnitude f(r)
   
F=
(r ) f (=
r )rˆ f ( r1 − r2 )rˆ


m1 r1 = f (r )rˆ
the masses are 

m2 r2 = − f (r )rˆ
Central forces


 1
 m1 r1 + m2 r2
m1 + m2
m1 m2
m1 +m2


R=0
Central forces

combined as
    1 1 
r1 -r2 =r=  +  f(r)rˆ
 m1 m2 
This can be
 m1 m2   
rewritten in terms
mass as
Central forces
 
Solving for rand
1 r2
  m2    m1 
r1 =
R+ r and r2 =
R− r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

one body problem
Central forces
  
L= r × p
The torque is the rate of change of angular momentum
      
dL d (r × p ) = d (r × mv ) dr   d (mv )
= = × mv + r ×
dt dt dt dt dt
      
= v × mv + r × ma = r × ma = τ
    
Thus τ = r × F = r × (ma ) ie, r and F parallel
   
Therefore motion under central force is confined to a plane….
Central forces
 
r − rϕ  eˆr + [ rϕ + 2rϕ ] eˆφ
a =r =  2
 
F = ma
So, for a central force field
(
r − rϕ  eˆr + [ rϕ + 2rϕ ] eˆφ
f (r )eˆr = m   2
)
f (= 2
=0 mrϕ + 2mrϕ
Central forces
We know the magnitude of angular momentum = =
L mr ω mr ϕ 2 2
d  mr ϕ 
 2
=
= mr 2ϕ + 2mrr
ϕ r (mrϕ + 2mrϕ )
dt
=0
=
mr ϕ2 constant
• Therefore motion under central force is confined to a plane.
• Constant angular momentum is all we need to a motion
confined to a plane.
• And we can simply use plane polar coordinates.
Central force is a conservative vector field and we can prove that

Curl F is zero.
This means it is associated with a potential energy function V(r) such
that, F(r) = - grad V(r)
Central forces
central force field (i.e. L is constant).
mr f (r ) + mrϕ
=  2
(r ) f (r ) + mrϕ 2
f eff=
since= =
L mr ω mr ϕ
2 2
2
L
f eff (r ) =mr = f (r ) + mrϕ = f (r ) + 3
2
mr
Central forces
rs
r
rs
∫ r
 f (r ) + mrϕ 2 dr
rs   L  
2 since
∫r  f (r ) + mr  mr 2  dr = =
L mr 2
ω mr 2ϕ
 
Central forces
2
rs L rs dr
∫r
f ( r ) dr +
m ∫r r 3
2
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + setting rs to infinity
2mr 2
L2
2
2mr

=
the force and L mr = 2
ϕ constant
2
L
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
Central forces
Total Energy E is another integral of the motion,
i.e. E is constant.
1 1
E = T + V = mr + mr 2ϕ 2 + V (r )
2
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 L 
mr + mr  2  + V (r ) = E
2 2  mr 
dr 2 L 
2
r = =  E − V (r ) − 2
dt m 2mr 
dr 2 L2  2
Velocity = r= =  E − V (r ) − =
2
 E − Veff (r ) 
dt m 2mr  m
where
L 2 1 ⋅2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + mr
2mr 2 2
Veff
Total energy
r1 r2 r3 r
r1 and r2 are called the apsidal distances, where E = Veff

Again, from
dr
dr 2 L2  dt =
=  E − V (r ) −  2 L2 
 E − V (r ) −
2mr 2 
dt m 2mr 2 
m
r dr
t=∫
2 L2 
r0
 E − V (r ) −
m 2mr 2 
L 2 1
From L = mr ϕ2 
φ = u where r = we do change
of variable
m u
r = − 2 =− 2 = − 2φ
u dt u dφ dt u dφ
L = mr 2ϕ
1  L 2  du L du
r = − 2  u  =− ϕ =
=
L Lu 2
u  m  dφ m dφ mr 2 m
L d du L d 2u dφ L  d 2u
r = − =− =− φ 2
m dt dφ m dφ dt
2
m dφ
L2 2 d 2u
r = − 2 u
m dφ 2

2
     4
2 2 2
1 L d u 1 L
F   = m − 2 u 2

2 
− m  u
 m2  
 
u  m d φ  u  
 
2 2 2
1 L d u L
F  = − u2 − u 3
 
u m d φ 2
m
m 1
Multiply both side by −
L2 u 2
2
d u m 1 1
+ u =− 2 2 F  
dφ 2
L u u
This is a second-order differential eqn. involving only the radial variable u
and the angular variable φ. We must, of course, know the form of F(1/u)
i.e. F(r) before we solve it.
There is one particular form of this force called inverse square force, which
is more important than all others, because this type of force helps us in our
attempts to understand the universe.
We shall discuss this inverse square force in the next section

Inverse Square law forces
k
f (r ) = 2
r
• Force between two charges
• Force binding an electron to its nucleus
• Force between two masses, such as the force binding the
moon in its orbit around the earth, the Earth around the Sun
k〈0 Attractive Force
k〉0 Repulsive Force
To find out what sort of orbit a body follows under the influence of
this inverse-square force, we use the equation
d 2u m 1 1
+ u =− 2 2 F  
dφ 2
L u u
Central forces – Inverse Square law forces
For any central force the equation of motion, in general, is
L 2
d 2u m 1 1
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + + u =− 2 2 f   (1)
2mr 2 dϕ 2
L u u
k
r
k L2
Veff = + 2
r 2mr 2 1 k L
=
E mr 2 + +
k L2 2 r 2mr 2
f eff (r=) 2 + 3
r mr
A solution to this second order 1 mk
differential eqn.(1) for = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
inverse-square force is given by r L
d 2u m 1 1
In brief……. + u =− 2 2 f   (1) is the eqn. to be solved
dϕ 2
L u u
d 2u
For the eqn. +u =0 the solution=
is u A cos (θ − θ 0 )
dϕ 2
simple harmonic oscillator with ω =1
k
In eqn. (1) put f (r ) = (inverse-square force) remember u =1/r, we get
r2
d 2u mk
+ u =− 2 (2)
dϕ 2
L
1 mk
A little thought and calculations
will show the solution to be = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
r L
Central forces
For convenience, we choose our co-ordinate axes such that Φ0 is zero. Then
1 mk
= A cos(φ ) − 2
r L

r = r0 eccentricity of the orbit.
2
1 + e cos ϕ
This is from plane
geometry of conic
e < 1, the orbit is an ellipse sections
elliptical orbit
Diretrix
The ellipse is the locus of those points in the plane for which the the sum
of the distances from two given points (foci) is constant
x2 y 2
2
+ 2 =
1
a b 23
The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by e, is the ratio of
the distance between the two foci, to the length of the major axis
i.e. e = 2f/2a = f/a.
For an ellipse the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 (0<e<1).
When the eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point
and the figure is a circle.
As the eccentricity tends toward 1, the ellipse gets a more

elongated shape.
It tends towards parabola if one focus is kept fixed as the other is allowed to
move arbitrarily far away.
The distance ae from a focal point to the centre is called the

linear eccentricity of the ellipse (f = ae).
r2
Minor axis=2b
r1
Ellipse
C
F1 F2
(0,0) (c,0)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =
1
a b
Major axis=2a
Diretrix
r1 + r2 = 2a =Major axis 25
2
b
=
e 1− 2
a =
b 2
a 2
(1 − e 2
) a 2
− b 2
= a 2 2
e = c 2
( say )
c a (1 − e ) 2
b =a −c 2 2
c =ae e = r=
a 1 + e cos ϕ
Area = π a b
Semi Latus recturm

(2a)
Vertex Focus
(0,0) (a,0)
x=-a
27
y = 4ax
2
( y − y0 ) 2 = 4a ( x − x0 ) y

its equation is
x = 4ay or
2
( x − x0 ) = 4a ( y − y0 )
2
x
28
x = at 2
and y = 2at
Polar equation
2a
r=− φ
1 + cos φ
2a is the dist. bet.

Directrix and focus 29
( x − x0 ) 2 ( y − y0 ) 2
2
− 2
=1
a b
r2
r1
r2 − r1 = 2a 30

r = a(e 2 − 1) 1 1
1 − e cos φ r r0
31
Veff
Plot of
effective potential
k L2
Veff = +
r 2mr 2
O
L2/ (2mr2)
Veff
Plot of
E1
effective potential
k L2
Veff = + 1 ⋅ 2
mr
r 2mr 2 r1/ 2 E2 = 0
r1 r
O
E3
r2 r3
E4
r4
2 EL2
=
e 1+ 2
mk
Veff
E>0 special cases:
(i) E >0, e>1

hyperbola
E=0
r (ii) E=0 , e=1,
E<0 parabola
r1 r2
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin
two turning points,
ellipse
(iv) E= -mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle
34
review
 Central force



B. C 1400s --
C. E. 499 –
C. E. 620s –
C. E. 1150 –
Bhaskara calculates the planetary mean motion, seasons and the length
of the Earth's orbit around the Sun to 9 decimal places.



system

37
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Law 3
The square of a planets period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
38
Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws
40
Kepler’s laws
Second law
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
2
L
2m
41
Kepler’s laws

LT 2mA
A = πa 2
1− e 2
1 L2 1 2mA 2mπ
=a ( r1 + r2 ) =− T= = a3/ 2
2 mK 1 − e 2 L m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
=  = constant
 m(− K ) 
3
a
42

its own path
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
f eff (r0 ) = 0
2
L
mr03
2
L
=E V (r0 ) +
2mr0 2 43

For a stable orbit
∂V 2
′ ∂f 3L2
=
− + >0
∂r r = r
2
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
0
L 2
∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3
∂r r = r0 r0 44
∂f 3 f (r0 )
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
r0
45
Closed Orbits

a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
3 f (r0 )
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
r0
1 
Ψ = Tr  ϕ
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )


48
=
the force and L mr = 2
ϕ constant
2
L
2
mr
2
Effective Potential
L
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
L2
2
2mr
Central forces
Total Energy E is another integral of the motion,
i.e. E is constant.
1 1
E = T + V = mr + mr 2ϕ 2 + V (r )
2
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 L 
mr + mr  2  + V (r ) = E
2 2  mr 
dr 2 L 
2
r = =  E − V (r ) − 2
dt m 2mr 
Central forces – Inverse Square law forces
For any central force the equation of motion, in general, is
L 2
d 2u m 1 1
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + + u =− 2 2 f   (1)
2mr 2 dϕ 2
L u u
k
r
k L2 1
r=
2
f eff (r=) 2 + 3 =
E
1 k
mr + +
 2 L
r mr 2 r 2mr 2 u
A solution to this second order 1 mk

differential eqn.(1) for = A cos(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) − 2
inverse-square force is given by r L
Central forces
For convenience, we choose our co-ordinate axes such that Φ0 is zero. Then
1 mk
= A cos(φ ) − 2
r L

2
1 + e cos ϕ

elliptical orbit
Diretrix
e = 2f/2a = f/a
The ellipse is the locus of those points in the plane for which the the sum
of the distances from two given points (foci) is constant
x2 y 2
2
+ 2 =
1
a b 5
Semi Latus recturm

(2a)
Vertex Focus
(0,0) (a,0)
x=-a
6
y = 4ax
2
( y − y0 ) 2 = 4a ( x − x0 ) y

its equation is
x = 4ay or
2
( x − x0 ) = 4a ( y − y0 )
2
x
7
x = at 2
and y = 2at
Polar equation
2a
r=− φ
1 + cos φ
8
( x − x0 ) 2 ( y − y0 ) 2
2
− 2
=1
a b
r2 − r1 = 2a Asymptotes
r2
r1
9

Eccentricity always > 1
In polar coordinates,
a (e − 1)
2
1 1
r= or, equivalently, =[1 + e cos(ϕ ± ϕ0 )]
1 − e cos ϕ r r0
10
Orbits in Central forces
1 mk
Going back to our solution for “r” a few slides before, we =
saw A cos(φ ) −
r L2
r = r0
2
1 + e cos ϕ eccentricity of the orbit
Therefore, the orbit of a body under the influence of an inverse- square force
must be a conic section, an ellipse or parabola or hyperbola
Comparing the above equation with AL2
e=
the general eqn. of last slide, we get mK
L2  1 
The min value of r, (smallest radius called perigee is) r0 = −  
mK  1 + e 
 1+ e  L2  1 
The max value of r, (largest radius called apogee is) r1 = r0  = −  
 1 − e  mK  1 − e 
L2 d 2u m 1 1
E − V (r ) − =
0 + u =− 2 2 f  
2mr 2
dϕ 2
L u u
• Vanishing of dr/dt implies turning points

• Two roots in general: rmin and rmax.
• Motion confined to an annular region between
rmin and rmax.
• Certain combinations of E and L may lead to a
single root: one then has a circular motion, and
dr/dt=0 at all times.
k k
For inverse square forces f (r ) = 2 Potential V (r ) =
r r
k L2
Veff = +
r 2mr 2
100
80 L2 1
2
= mr 2θ
2mr 2
60
40
Veff
20
0
r
-20 Veff V (∞) = 0
-40 k
−
r
-60

At the turning points, i.e.,r = r0 and r = r1, r =0
Hence Veff is equal to the total energy E
Energy
Veff
(apsidal distances)
E1
1 2
mr
2
r3 r4
r1 r2 r
E2
E3
2 EL2
=
e 1+ 2
mk
Veff
E>0 special cases:
(i) E >0, e>1

hyperbola
E=0
r (ii) E=0 , e=1,
E<0 parabola
r1 r2
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin
two turning points,
ellipse
(iv) E= -mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle
15
review
 Central force


parameters: e, E, r0 , m and k

B. C 1400s --
Rishi Deerghatamas, in Rig Veda 10.6.56;
C. E. 499 –
C. E. 620s –
C. E. 1150 –
Bhaskara calculates the planetary mean motion, seasons and the length
of the Earth's orbit around the Sun to 9 decimal places.



system

18
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Law 3
The square of a planet’s period is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit (T2 ∝ a3)
19
Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws
(T2 ∝ a3)
21
Kepler’s laws
Second law
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
2
L
2m
22
Kepler’s laws

LT 2mA
A = πa 2
1− e 2
a is the semi-major axis; half the maximum diameter
1 L2 1 2mA 2mπ
=a ( r1 + r2 ) =− T= = a3/ 2
2 mK 1 − e 2 L m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
=  = constant
 m(− K ) 
3
a
23

its own path
L2
Veff (r ) = V (r ) + 2
2mr
f eff (r0 ) = 0
2
L
mr03
2
L
=E V (r0 ) +
2mr0 2 24

For a stable orbit
∂V 2
′ ∂f 3L2
=
− + >0
∂r r = r
2
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
0
L 2
∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3
∂r r = r0 r0 25
∂f 3 f (r0 )
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
r0
26
Closed Orbits

a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
3 f (r0 )
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
r0
1 
Ψ = Tr  ϕ
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )


29
Kepler’s laws
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Kepler’s laws
Law 1
Tycho Brahe
1564 - 1601
Law 2
Law 3
The square of a planet’s period is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit (T2 ∝ a3)
1
Kepler’s laws
The first law comes directly from Newton’s

central inverse-square forces, which we have seen
so far.
The force of attraction between two bodies is inverse-

square force (GMm/r2). Hence the planet has to be
in a planar orbit, and the ellipticity is decided by the
energy of the system.
2
Second law is a Direct consequence of the angular momentum being a constant
r
dθ dh
o r + dr
r to r + dr is
1 1 2
1
2 2 2
1 2 L We know that
dA 1 2 dθ = r
= r
2
L
2m
3
of gravitational force. We have seen in the previous slide
dA L
=
dt 2m
2mA
We can integrate this equation to get A=
LT
or T=
2m L
where, A is the area of the orbit and T is the orbital period
Area of an ellipse is A = πa 2
1− e 2
1
a is the semi-major axis; half the maximum diameter =a ( r0 + r1 )
2
L2  1  L2  1 
We have seen r0 = −   and r1 = −  
mK  1 + e  mK  1 − e 
L2 1
From the above equations, we can find a= −
mK 1 − e 2
4
We have seen
2mA L2 1
T= A = πa 2
1− e 2 a= −
mK 1 − e 2
L
Putting these together, we have
2mπ
T= a 3/2
m( − K )
2
T2  2mπ 
or =  = constant
 m(− K ) 
3
a
Kepler’s second law is true because gravity is a central force.
The other two laws are the result of inverse-square nature of

gravitational force postulated by Newton.
5

its own path
L2
We have seen Veff (r ) = V (r ) +
2mr 2
For the effective potential energy (see sketch), there may be a radius r = a
that locates a minimum in Veff, and thus has a stable equilibrium.
Such an equilibrium value for radius means that a circular orbit of radius
r = a is possible, where a is constant.
The minimum of Veff is obtained by setting the first derivative to zero.
dV L2 2
( −2r −3 ) =
dVeff L
=+ − f (r ) − 3
dr dr 2m mr
L2
dVeff
f (r0 ) = −
2
L
Setting
dr
=0 f (r ) = − 3 mr03
mr 6

For a stable orbit
∂V2
′ ∂f 3L2
∂r r = r
2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
>0
0
L 2 ∂f 3 f (r0 )
f (r0 ) = − <−
mr0 3 ∂r r = r0 r0
7
∂f 3 f (r0 )
Hence
<−
∂r r = r0 r0
or
d ln f
< −3
d ln r r =r0

radius r0
f = −kr n
n −1 3kr0 n or n > −3
r0
8
Closed Orbits
When the radius is oscillating about the equilibrium at r = r0
a spring constant
∂ 2Veff
keff =
∂r 2 ψ
r = r0
∂f 3l 2
=
− +
∂r r = r0 mr0 4
Change of radius
3 f (r0 ) in an elliptical
=
− f (r0 ) −
'
orbit from a
r0 max to min.
1 
The apsidal angle ψ can be given from Ψ = Tr  ϕ Tr is Time period of
2  frequency of radius
change
Apsidal angle ψ is defined as the angle moved through, as r goes from maximum
to minimum 9
1  1 m  l
Ψ = Tr  ϕ ⇒ Ψ =  2π 
2  2  keff  mr0 2

m − f (r0 )mr03
⇒ Ψ =π
− f (r0 ) −
' 3 f (r0 ) mr0 2
r0
π π
⇒Ψ=
f '(r0 ) ⇒Ψ=
3 + r0 3+ n
f (r0 )
Hence, for closed orbits mΨ =π where m is an integer
the requirement is,
The restrictions n > −3 3+ n = m (an integer)
now are and


11
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid motion -- Hydrostatic equilibrium
Consider fluid in an infinitismal volume
element at the point P(x,y,z) inside. Let z
us calculate the force due to
surrounding liquid P
y
Let p be the pressure at the point P x
Forces on the faces perpendicular to y-axis are

 ∂p dy 
 p − dxdz along the +y direction
 ∂y 2 
 ∂p dy 
p+ dxdz
and 
along the –y direction
∂y 2 
∂p
Net force in the y direction is − eˆ y dxdydz
∂y
Applying the same concept along the other two directions
The Net force on the element of volume

= −(∇p) dxdydz
Net force per unit volume at P, due to hydrostatic

pressure = −∇p

If there is an external force, Fext , acting on unit mass
of the element at P,  
Total force on unit volume is − ∇p + ρFext
Ρ is density (mass/unit volume)
 
At hydrostatic equilibrium − ∇p + ρFext = 0

If Fext is the force of gravity on unit mass
  
∇p = ρFext Fext = − geˆ z
1 
∇p = − geˆ z p = p (z )
ρ
dp
= − ρg or
dz
at equilibrium
p = − ρgz + constant
Equation of motion
•Lagrangian Approach: Follow motion of some particle of the fluid and this
must be done for all particle of the fluid
•Eulerian Approach: Follow velocity and density of fluid at particular
point and this must be done for all points in space
Local hydrodynamic    
variable:
P(r , t ) v (r , t ) ρ (r , t )
For a fluid in motion, in a region without sources and sinks,
the equation of continuity is
∂ρ    
+∇⋅ J = 0 where J = ρv
∂t
For an incompressible homogeneous fluid, this reduces to
 
∇⋅v = 0 since ρ is const. Thus velocity field is solenoidal
This is a major difference between flow of a gas and that of a liquid

If ρ does not have an explicit time dependence, but
the fluid is inhomogeneous
     
∇ ⋅ (ρv ) = 0 = ρ∇ ⋅ v + ∇ρ ⋅ v
   
∇ρ ⋅ v = − ρ∇ ⋅ v
To write the equation of motion of an element of
fluid, using Newton’s law
 
Force on unit volume = − ∇p + ρFext
this is equal to mass x acceleration
  
dv
ρ = ρF − ∇p
dt
  
dv 1
therefore =− ∇p + Fext
dt ρ
If the external force is conservative (gravity),
We can write force as the gradient of a scalar potential
 
F = −∇Ω
In addition, a dissipative force dueto viscosity is
present whenever a fluid moves Fvisc (which is
non-conservative)
Equation of motion is thus, in the general form


dv 1   
= − ∇p − ∇Ω + Fvisc
dt ρ

Fvisc is the viscous drag per unit mass
We now neglect the force of viscosity.
The velocity depends on r and time t. Then the acceleration
is the total time derivative of the velocity.
    
dv ∂v ∂v dx ∂v dy ∂v dz
= + + +
dt dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

∂v  
= + (v ⋅ ∇ )v
∂t
The second term is called convective derivative.
The equation of motion (per unit volume) of the fluid is therefore

∂v  
+ (v ⋅ ∇ )v = − ∇p − ∇Ω
1
∂t ρ
for non-viscous fluids.
From the vector identity,
         
∇( A ⋅ B) = ( A ⋅ ∇) B + ( B ⋅ ∇) A + A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A)
  
writing A = B = v , we have
        
∇ (v ⋅ v = ) 2(v ⋅ ∇)v + 2v × (∇ × v )

∂v    1 1 2 
∴ − v × (∇ × v ) = − ∇p − ∇  v + Ω 
∂t ρ 2 
This equation is also known as Euler’s equation
 
(∇ × v ) ≡ χ → Vorticity

χ =0 → Flow is irrotational
1  
ω= χ where, ωis the local angular velocity
2 in the fluid.
Barotropic flow of an inviscid fluid

1 This term in general can not be written as gradient
∇p
ρ of a scalar field
If flow is incompressible or barotropic then it can be written as

gradient of a scalar field. dp
If ρ is only function of P (barotropic) only then, f ( P ) = ∫ ρ ( P)


And ∇f ( P  df    1   ∇ P 
=)   ∇= P   ∇P ⇒ =
∇f ( P )
 dP   ρ ( P)  ρ ( P)
For a set of equation not involving the pressure, we
take curl of the Euler’s equation
Taking curl on both sides of the equation of motion, we
get

∂v  
∇× − ∇ × (v × χ ) = 0
∂t

∂χ  
− ∇ × (v × χ ) = 0
∂t Non-Viscous flow
∂ρ 
along with + ∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0
∂t
(1) Incompressible homogenous non-viscous fluid
  
∇⋅v = 0 ∇×v = χ

∂χ  
= ∇ × (v × χ )
∂t

Together with appropriate boundary conditions these
equations completely determine
 v as a function of
r and t.
(2) For the Irrotational flow of a non viscous fluids
  
∇ × v = 0= χ If vorticity is zero at any particular
point of time then it will remain zero
forever

∂ρ   ∂v 1  1 2 
+ ∇ ⋅ ρv = 0 = − ∇p − ∇  v + Ω 
∂t ∂t ρ 2 
(3) For Steady, irrotational flow of a homogeneous, incompressible
 Non-viscous fluids  
∇⋅v = 0 ∇×v = 0

∂v p 1 2 
= −∇ + v + Ω  = 0
∂t ρ 2 
or
p 1 2
+ v + Ω = C a constant
ρ 2
(4) For steady, non-viscous flow (not necessarily irrotational)

∂v ∂ρ
=0 =0
∂t ∂t
 ∂ρ 
∇ ⋅ v ρ + = 0 ⇒ ∇ ⋅ (v ρ ) = 0 and
∂t
  1 1 2 
v × (∇ × v ) = ∇p + ∇ v + Ω 
ρ 2 
Note: Steady flow implies that none of the parameters
change explicitly with time. At a given point in space, the
quantities remain constant in time; ie) the partial derivative
with respect to time is zero.
(5) For Steady, of a homogeneous, incompressible,
Non-viscous fluids (not irrotational)
   P 1 2 
∇ ⋅ v = 0 v × (∇ × v ) = ∇  ρ + 2 v + Ω 
 
Taking the dot product with velocity on both side, and
therefore without invoking the condition of irrotational

 P 1 2   dr
v .∇  + v + Ω  = v .∇φ = 0 = .∇φ
ρ 2  dt
This is the rate of change of φ with displacement along the
direction of motion
Streamlines (similar to lines of force in electric field or
magneic field)
A curve, the tangent to the curve gives instantaneous velocity
at that point, the streamline therefore can’t intersect one
another
V(t1)
B A
N
V(t2)
L
Streamlines gives instantaneous picture of the velocities at all
that point.
A Lines of flow is the actual path traced by small element of
the moving fluid
In the stead state, every element arriving at A will have the
same subsequent path. Lines of flow and the streamlines are
identical.
In the steady state of the homogeneous, incompressible,
Non-viscous fluids

 P 1 2   dr
v .∇  + v + Ω  = v .∇φ = 0 = .∇φ
ρ 2  dt
P 1 2
+ v + Ω = Constant Along the streamline
ρ 2 or lines of flow
This is known as Bernoulli’s principle

The value of the constant may be different for different streamlines
For irrotational flow, φ is constant all over the fluid
Stream Tube
A region of the moving fluid bounded on the all sides by
streamlines is called a tube of flow or stream tube.
As streamline does not intersect each other, no fluid
enters or leaves across the sides.
V2
V1
δA2
δA1
When density do not depend explicitly on time then from

continuity equation, we have 
∇ ⋅ (v ρ ) = 0

∫
Where V is the volume of the
∇ ⋅ ( v ρ ) = 0 streamtube between faces δA1 and
V δA2
 
∫ (v ρ ).dS = 0
s
From divergence theorem
 
v ρ 1 and v ρ 2
are the mean values of ρ v over δ A1 and δ A 2
 
v ρ 1 δ A1 = v ρ 2 δ A 2
For a homogeneous, incompressible, Non-viscous fluids
 
v 1 δ A1 = v 2 δ A 2
Thus, whenever stream tube is constricted, i.e., wherever
streamlines gets crowded, the speed of flow of liquid islarger
For the entire collection of the stream tubes occupying the
whole cross section of the passage through which the fluid
∫
flows
ρ vdS is constant along the passage
A
In the case of constant density

∫ vdS is constant
A
 
or v 1 A1 = v 2 A 2
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid motion -- Hydrostatic equilibrium
Consider fluid in an infinitismal volume
element at the point P(x,y,z) inside. Let z
us calculate the force due to
surrounding liquid P
y
Let p be the pressure at the point P x
Forces on the faces perpendicular to y-axis are

 ∂p dy 
 p − dxdz along the +y direction
 ∂y 2 
 ∂p dy 
p+ dxdz
and 
along the –y direction
∂y 2 
∂p
Net force in the y direction is − eˆ y dxdydz
∂y
Applying the same concept along the other two directions
The Net force on the element of volume

= −(∇p) dxdydz
Net force per unit volume at P, due to hydrostatic

pressure = −∇p

If there is an external force, Fext , acting on unit mass
of the element at P,  
Total force on unit volume is − ∇p + ρFext
ρ is density (mass/unit volume)
 
At hydrostatic equilibrium − ∇p + ρFext = 0

If Fext is the force of gravity on unit mass
  
∇p = ρFext Fext = − geˆ z
1 
∇p = − geˆ z p = p (z )
ρ
dp
= − ρg or
dz
dp = − ρ gdz
Integrating the above eqn..
p = − ρgz + constant at equilibrium
Equation of motion
•Lagrangian Approach: Follow motion of some particle of the fluid and this
must be done for all particle of the fluid
•Eulerian Approach: Follow velocity and density of fluid at particular
point and this must be done for all points in space
Local hydrodynamic    
variables are:
P(r , t ) v (r , t ) ρ (r , t )
For a fluid in motion, in a region without sources and sinks,
the equation of continuity is
∂ρ    
J is similar to current density,
+ ∇ ⋅ J = 0 where J = ρv mass flow per unit time
∂t per unit area of cross section
For an incompressible homogeneous fluid, this reduces to

 
∇⋅v = 0 since ρ is const. Thus velocity field is solenoidal
This is a major difference between flow of a gas and that of a liquid

If ρ does not have an explicit time dependence, but the fluid is
inhomogeneous (ρ varies from point to point)
     
∇ ⋅ (ρv ) = 0 = ρ∇ ⋅ v + ∇ρ ⋅ v
   
∇ρ ⋅ v = − ρ∇ ⋅ v
To write the equation of motion of an element of
fluid, using Newton’s law
 
Force on unit volume = − ∇p + ρFext
this is equal to mass x acceleration
   here we talk about force on
dv
ρ = −∇p + ρ Fext unit volume, and
dt mass per unit volume is ρ
  
dv 1
therefore =− ∇p + Fext
dt ρ
If the external force is conservative (gravity),
We can write force as the gradient of a scalar potential
 
F = −∇Ω
In addition, a dissipative force dueto viscosity is
present whenever a fluid moves Fvisc (which is
non-conservative)
Equation of motion is thus, in the general form


dv 1   
= − ∇p − ∇Ω + Fvisc
dt ρ

Fvisc is the viscous drag per unit mass
We now neglect the force of viscosity.
The velocity depends on r and time t. Then the acceleration
is the total time derivative of the velocity v(r,t).
    
dv ∂v ∂v dx ∂v dy ∂v dz
= + + +
dt dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

∂v  
= + (v ⋅ ∇ )v
∂t
The second term is called convective derivative.
The equation of motion (per unit volume) of the fluid is therefore

∂v  
+ (v ⋅ ∇ )v = − ∇p − ∇Ω
1
∂t ρ
for non-viscous fluids.
From the vector identity,
         
∇( A ⋅ B) = ( A ⋅ ∇) B + ( B ⋅ ∇) A + A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A)
  
writing A = B = v , we have
        
∇ (v ⋅ v=) 2(v ⋅ ∇)v + 2v × (∇ × v )

∂v    1 1 2 
∴ − v × (∇ × v ) = − ∇p − ∇  v + Ω 
∂t ρ 2 
This equation is also known as Euler’s equation
 
(∇ × v ) ≡ χ is called Vorticity at a point.
This is zero if and only if the flow is irrotational
 1  is the local angular velocity
It turns out that the vector ω= χ in the fluid
2
If we wish to have a set of equation not involving the
pressure, we take curl of the Euler’s equation

∂v    1 1 
∴ − v × (∇ × v ) = − ∇p − ∇  v 2 + Ω 
∂t ρ 2 
Taking curl on both sides of the equation of motion, we

get

∂v  
∇× − ∇ × (v × χ ) = 0
∂t

∂χ  
− ∇ × (v × χ ) = 0
∂t Non-Viscous flow
∂ρ 
along with + ∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0
∂t
(1) Incompressible homogenous non-viscous fluid
  
∇⋅v = 0 ∇×v = χ since ρ is const.

∂χ  
= ∇ × (v × χ )
∂t

Together with appropriate boundary conditions these
equations completely determine
 v as a function of
r and t.
(2) For the Irrotational flow of a non viscous fluids
  
∇ × v= χ= 0 If vorticity is zero at any particular
point of time then it will remain zero
forever

∂ρ   ∂v 1  1 2 
+ ∇ ⋅ ρv = 0 = − ∇p − ∇  v + Ω 
∂t ∂t ρ 2 
(3) For Steady, irrotational flow of a homogeneous, incompressible
 Non-viscous fluids  
∇⋅v = 0 ∇×v = 0

∂v p 1 2 
= −∇ + v + Ω  = 0
∂t ρ 2 
or
p 1 2
+ v + Ω = C a constant
ρ 2
(4) For steady, non-viscous flow (not necessarily irrotational)

∂v ∂ρ
=0 =0
∂t ∂t
 ∂ρ 
∇ ⋅ v ρ + = 0 ⇒ ∇ ⋅ (v ρ ) = 0 and
∂t
  1 1 2 
v × (∇ × v ) = ∇p + ∇ v + Ω 
ρ 2 
Note: Steady flow implies that none of the parameters
change explicitly with time. At a given point in space, the
quantities remain constant in time; ie) the partial derivative
with respect to time is zero.
(5) For Steady, of a homogeneous, incompressible,
Non-viscous fluids (not irrotational)
   P 1 2 
∇ ⋅ v = 0 v × (∇ × v ) = ∇  ρ + 2 v + Ω 
 
Taking the dot product with velocity on both side, and
therefore without invoking the condition of irrotational

 P 1 2   dr
v .∇  + v + Ω  = v .∇φ = 0 = .∇φ
ρ 2  dt
This is the rate of change of φ with displacement along the
direction of motion
Streamlines (similar to lines of force in electric field or
magneic field)
A curve, the tangent to the curve gives instantaneous velocity
at that point, the streamline therefore can’t intersect one
another
V(t1)
B A
N
V(t2)
L
Streamlines gives instantaneous picture of the velocities at all
that point.
A Lines of flow is the actual path traced by small element of
the moving fluid
In the steady state, every element arriving at A will have the
same subsequent path. Lines of flow and the streamlines are
identical.
In the steady state of the homogeneous, incompressible,
Non-viscous fluids

 P 1 2   dr
v .∇  + v + Ω  = v .∇φ = 0 = .∇φ
ρ 2  dt
P 1 2
+ v + Ω = Constant Along the streamline
ρ 2 or lines of flow
This is known as Bernoulli’s principle

The value of the constant may be different for different streamlines
For irrotational flow, φ is constant all over the fluid
Stream Tube
A region of the moving fluid bounded on the all sides by
streamlines is called a tube of flow or stream tube.
As streamline does not intersect each other, no fluid
enters or leaves across the sides.
V2
V1
δA2
δA1
When density do not depend explicitly on time then from

continuity equation, we have 
∇ ⋅ (v ρ ) = 0

∫
Where V is the volume of the
∇ ⋅ ( v ρ ) dV = 0 streamtube between faces δA1 and
V δA2
 
∫ (v ρ ).dS = 0
s
From divergence theorem
 
v ρ 1 and v ρ 2
are the mean values of ρ v over δ A1 and δ A 2
 
v ρ 1 δ A1 = v ρ 2 δ A 2
For a homogeneous, incompressible, Non-viscous fluids
 
v 1 δ A1 = v 2 δ A 2
Thus, whenever stream tube is constricted, i.e., wherever
streamlines gets crowded, the speed of flow of liquid islarger
For the entire collection of the stream tubes occupying the
whole cross section of the passage through which the fluid
∫
flows
ρ vdS is constant along the passage
A
In the case of constant density

∫ vdS is constant
A
 
or v 1 A1 = v 2 A 2
Bernoulli’s Principle and Physical
Significance of different terms
In the steady flow of homogeneous, incompressible non-viscous fluid,
P 1 2
+ v + gz Constant where gravitional potential Ω=gz
ρ 2
Along a very narrow stream tube
In the case of the gases last term is negligible w.r.t. first two terms as the
Density is very low for the gases
Third term is gravitational potential energy of the unit mass

Second term is kinetic energy of the unit mass
First term also has units of energy per unit mass
What energy this term represents?

δl2
δl1
P1 P2
A1 B1 A2 B2
Consider the volume of fluid element between A1 and A2 which is

moved after some time to volume between B1 and B2
δ=
l1δ A1 δ=
l2δ A2 δ V
Work done during the motion by the pressure forces is given by
δ l1 P1δ A1 − δ l2 P2δ A2 =
( P1 − P2 )δ V
Work done during the motion by the pressure forces in moving the
volume element from A1B1 to A2B2 per unit mass is given by
( P1 − P2 )δ V P1 − P2
P2
dp
ρδ V
=
ρ
= ∫− ρ
P1
P2 0
dp dp P
∫ − ρ =−
P1
∫ ρP
=
ρ
Therefore, P/ρ term represents the work that will be done on
the unit mass of the fluid by the pressure forces, as the
element flows from a point where pressure is P to a point
where pressure is zero.
At two different point in the stream tube
P11 2 P2 1 2 P1 − P2 1 2 1 2
+ v1 + gz1 = + v2 + gz2 ⇒ + g ( z1 − z2 ) = v2 − v1
ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ 2 2
In the steady flow of an incompressible, homogeneous, non-
viscous fluid, moving from position 1 to 2, the increase in
kinetic energy per unit mass is equal to the work done on unit
mass of the fluid by pressure and gravity forces.
The three terms is therefore called as pressure energy, kinetic
energy and gravitational energy
P v2
, , z are known as pressure head, velocity head
ρ g 2g
and gravity head and each having the dimention of length
Application 1: Velocity of efflux from a reservoir
P1
Flow from a sharp
edged orifice in a tank
P2
Vena Contracta

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PH 1010 - PHYSICS I

PH-2 Batch Teacher : Dr. A.R. Ganesan

Welcome to IIT Madras and welcome to PH 1010 Course

A bit of Introduction about the Course

A few Dos and Don’ts in this Course

If you are not intelligent, you will not be here

You are here with a great ambition of learning

You are all here with a specific purpose : of getting a good

We want to see you as GOOD ENGINEERS

The foundation of Good Engineering is a good, clear basic Physics

Monday : TUTORIAL : 4th Hour : 1100 – 1150 Hrs

Tuesday : Lecture : 3rd Hour : 1000 –1050 Hrs

Wednesday : Lecture : 2nd Hour : 0900 – 0950 Hrs

We propose to conduct : MID SEMESTER exam (exact date will be announced

End Semester exam: NOVEMBER 25 (THURS DAY)

Tutorial is problem solving class

You will be given the Tutorial sheets ONE WEEK in advance

THURS DAY 3rd Hour (G1 Slot) : 100-1050 Hrs

Please Elect TWO representatives from your Batch : PH 2

to Know your problem

We are here to teach you and help you learn

Let us take the example of the Design

• Perhaps you could answer all the above….

• -- To measure the thickness of a paper

• -- To measure the thickness of a human hair

• -- To measure the sag at the centre of a road bridge across

• -- To measure the distance between the earth and the

• Voltage measurement – order of a few Volts, KV, MV, mV,

• Time measurement – order of seconds, hours, years,

• Same is the case with several measurement requirements

Acceptance, Compatibility, Safety, Noise levels, Effectiveness

Newtonian Mechanics (You know),

There are only FOUR forces in Nature :

But, we encounter forces which we do not know : Frictional force

Friction is important for motion

Friction is a NON CONSERVATIVE force.

What is a NON-CONSERVATIVE Force?

How do you define it ?

Force methods of solving problems in Physics is rather limited.

So, what is the next alternative?

How many energies are there ? Potential and Kinetic

What is conservation of energy ?

What is the relation between energy and force ?

I am applying the force, but the table is not moving at all

Tell me, how much work is done ?

When an electron is moving round the nucleus, how much work

If I move an object in any arbitrary direction and if I come to the

How are you applying the Electric field + and - ve plates

The body can move with uniform velocity or with

How do you describe the motion ?

Direction should be specified to describe the motion?

How do you express the direction?

What is an INERTIAL Frame?

What is Newtonian space ?

How many coordinates you require to specify a body?

What is a generalized coordinate ?

This is a Generalized coordinate !

Energy and matter are the same stuff:

• The discrete nature of matter is confirmed. Energy is also

• There is no evidence for an ether or any other continuous