Introduction to Psychology

Gestalt psychology, founded by Max

Chapter One Wertheimer. It did not believe that
psychological events could be broken
Psychology down into smaller elements; could only be
 It is the scientific study of behavior understood as a whole, entire event; has
and mental processes. influenced the field of cognitive
 It has methods for studying psychology and a form of psychology of
phenomena. therapy, Gestalt therapy.

A relatively new science that formally Psychoanalysis, ideas put forth by

began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt - the Sigmund Freud. Stressed importance, and
Father of Psychology, established the first development through stages.
psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany. Behaviorism, associated with work of
John B. Watson, who was greatly
He studied nonphysical structure such as influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work in
thought and experiences of the human conditioning/learning. Wanted to bring
mind. Used objective introspection to focus back on scientific inquiry and
study processes that were the result of believed the only way to do so was to
physical sensations. The first attempt to focus on observable behavior and ignore
bring objectivity and measurement to “consciousness” issue; early work
psychology. First attempt to bring examined phobias.
objectivity and measurement to
psychology. The Field of Psychology Today Modern
Perspective
Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt’s No one single perspective is used to
founded the idea Structuralism. He explain all human behavior and
expanded Wundt’s original ideas; believed processes.
every experience could be broken down
into individual emotions and sensations. Psychodynamic Perspective, based on
Applied introspection method to thoughts Freud’s theory, focuses on the role of the
as well as physical sensations. unconscious mind and its influence on
conscious behavior, early childhood
William James founded Functionalism. experiences, development of sense of
He was influenced by Darwin’s ideas self, and other motivations.
about natural selection–focused on how
the mind allows people to function in the Behavioral Perspective, based on early
real world. Interested in how behavioral work of Watson and later B. F. Skinner.
traits could aid in survival. Influence Focuses on how behavioral responses are
development of evolutionary psychology. learned through classical or operant
Has elements in educational psychology conditioning.
and industrial/organizational psychology.
Humanistic Perspective, two pioneers
The history of psychology roots in several are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow,
disciplines, including philosophy, focuses on human potential, free will, and
medicine, and physiology, and has possibility of self-actualization.
developed through several perspectives.
Cognitive Perspective, has roots in
Gestalt psychology, focuses on memory, Psychiatrist
intelligence, perception, thought a. medical doctor who specializes in
processes, problem solving, language, diagnosis and treatment of
and learning. psychological disorders; can
Cognitive Neuroscience, the study prescribe medication.
of physical workings of the brain and
nervous system when engaged in Psychiatric Social Worker
memory, thinking, and other cognitive a. has training in area of social work
processes. (M.S.W.) and often has a
professional license to practice
Sociocultural Perspective, focuses on (L.C.S.W.).
the behavior of individuals as the result of
the presence (real or imagined) of other Scientific Research
individuals, as part of groups, or as part of
a larger culture. Psychology Has Four Primary Goals
a. describe
Biopsychological Perspective, focuses b. explain
on influences of hormones, brain c. predict
structures and chemicals, disease, etc.; d. control
human and animal behavior is seen as a
direct result of events in the body. The scientific approach is a way to
determine facts and control the
Evolutionary Perspective, focuses on possibilities of error and bias when
the biological bases for universal mental observing behavior. The five steps are
characteristics, such as why we lie, how perceiving the question, forming a
attractiveness influences mate selection, hypothesis, testing the hypothesis,
the universality of fear, and why we enjoy drawing conclusions, and reporting the
things like music and dance. results.

Psychological Professionals and Areas Descriptive Data Collection Methods

of Specialization
People working in the field of psychology Naturalistic observation, observe people
have a variety of training experiences and or animals in natural environment.
different focuses.
Laboratory observation, observe people
Psychologist or animals in laboratory setting.

a. has a doctorate degree (Ph.D., These two can lead formation of

Psy.D., or Ed.D.) and works with hypotheses that can later be tested.
either humans or animals in a Case studies, individual is studied in
variety of settings based on the greater detail, researchers try to learn
area of specialization everything they can about the individual.
b. must be licensed to practice
independently; typically, does not Surveys, ask questions about topic
prescribe medications but can go researchers are studying via telephone,
through specialized training to do Internet, or a questionnaire.
so in a few states
 b. Control, receives no
treatment or treatment that
Correlations, a statistical technique that should not have an effect
allows researchers to discover and predict Random assignment to conditions is
relationships between variables of the best way to assure control over
interest. extraneous variables or confounding
variables, variables that interfere with
Positive correlations exist when increases each other, and/or on the variable of
in one variable are matched by increases interest.
in the other variable, whereas negative D. Hazards
correlations exist when increases in one a. Placebo Effect, beliefs or
variable are matched by decreases in the study expectations about a
other variable. Correlations cannot be study can influence their
used to prove cause-and-effect behavior.
relationships. b. Experimenter Effect,
experiment’s biases can
The Experiment affect or influence
the only research method that will participant’s behavior.
allow researchers to determine the cause Can be controlled through single-blind
of a behavior by deliberately manipulating (participant “blind” to treatment/condition)
some variable and measuring changes in and double-blind studies where both the
the variable of interest. participants and the experimenter
measuring the dependent variable do not
A. Selection, researchers often aim know the treatment/condition associated
to identify participants through with the data.
random selection of a sample from
the population of interest. Ethics of Psychological Research
B. the process of Operationalization Psychological scientists have a primary
specifically names the steps or goal of protecting the health and welfare
procedures used to control or of their animal or human participants.
measure the variables in the
experiment. Guidelines for Research with Humans
a. independent variable is the  Rights and well-being of
variable that is participants must be weighed
manipulated, it is against the study's value to
independent of anything science
participants do  Participants must be allowed to
b. dependent variable is the make an informed decision about
measure used to evaluate participating (informed consent).
the manipulation of the  Deception must be justified
independent variable  Participants may withdraw from the
c. study at any time
C. Groups  Investigator must debrief
a. Experimental, gets the participants, telling the true nature
independent variable or of the study and expectations of
experimental manipulation. results
 participants must be protected
from risks or told explicitly of risks The brain is comprised of neurons and
data must remain confidential. glial cells.

Research with Animals Glial cells, provide physical and

Any animal research is also covered by metabolic support to neurons;
ethical considerations; primary focus is on communicate with other cells; specific
avoiding any unnecessary pain or types have stem cell-like properties; help
suffering. maintain homeostasis and serve as
partner cells to neurons.
Why use animals?  Oligodendrocytes, produce myelin
Animals in psychological research make in the central nervous system.
useful models because they are easier to  Schwann cells, produce myelin in
control than humans, they have simpler the peripheral nervous system.
behavior, and they can be used in ways Myelin insulates axons and speeds up
that are not permissible with humans. transmission of neutral message.

Critical thinking is the ability to make Neurons, specialized cells in nervous

reasoned judgments. The four basic system; send and receive messages
criteria of critical thinking are that there within that system.
are few concepts that do not need to be  Have a specialized component.
tested, evidence can vary in quality, o Dendrites
claims by experts and authorities do not o Soma
automatically make something true, and o axon
keeping an open mind is important.
 Have an electrical charge at rest—
the resting potential.
Chapter Two: The Biological
o Made possible by balance
Perspective
between ions in and
outside of the cell
o Membrane is
semipermeable; inside is
negatively charged as
compared to outside
o Charge in the electrical
charge can result in an
action potential; cell fires;
inside becomes positive
relative to outside.
 Fire in an all-or-
none fashion
Neurons and Nerves
 Cell firing is
dependent on sum
The nervous system is a network of cells
of excitatory and
that carries information to and from all
inhibitory messages
parts of the body; neuroscience is the eld
received by the cell.
of study that deals with the structure of the
brain and components of the nervous
system.
  Are affected by the
neurotransmitters; chemicals that Brain, true core of nervous system: takes
have an effect on neurons. information from senses, processes it,
 Are separated by a gap called the makes decisions, sends commands to rest
synapse; when nerve impulse of body; exhibits a great deal of
reaches axon terminals, neuroplasticity; may also change through
neurotransmitter is released into neurogenesis.
synaptic space.
o neurotransmitters (NTs) Spinal Cord, long bundle of neurons that
move across synapse and carries information to and away from the
activate ion channel brain; helps control pain response.
receptor sites on adjacent a. spinal cord reexes involve
cells; some NTs are several different neurons
agonistic/excitatory, others (sensory neurons,
are antagonistic/inhibitory. interneurons, and motor
o NT action stopped by neurons)
exiting synapse; NTs end b. spinal reexes enable fast,
back up in the releasing often lifesaving, actions
cell through reuptake or that do not require
broken down by enzymes. conscious thought.

Synaptic vesicles in the end of the axon Peripheral Nervous System

terminal release neurotransmitter Comprised of the nerves and
chemicals into the synapse, or gap, neurons not contained in the brain and
between one cell and the next. The spinal cord; allows the brain and spinal
neurotransmitter molecules fit into cord to communicate with the sensory
receptor sites on the next cell, stimulating systems and to control the muscles and
or inhibiting that cell’s firing. glands of the body; divided into somatic
Neurotransmitters may be either excitatory and autonomic nervous systems.
or inhibitory.  Somatic nervous system,
controls the voluntary muscles of
Overview of the Nervous System the body.
o Sensory pathway,
sensory neurons
carrying information
to spinal cord and/or
brain.
o motor pathway,
nerves that carry
information to
voluntary skeletal
muscles.
 Autonomic nervous system,
controls automatic functions of the
body (organs, glands, involuntary
Central Nervous System
muscles.
Comprised of the brain and spinal
cord.
 o sympathetic be by accident, injury, or in animals,
division:” flight-or- deliberate; brain areas can be studied
flight” functions— according to the location of lesions
reacts to stressful (injured or destroyed areas).
events and bodily
arousal Brain stimulation studies, brain areas
o Parasympathetic can also be studied through electrical
division: “eat-drink- stimulation (invasive or noninvasive).
and-rest” functions Mapping Function
— restores body to
normal functioning The Electroencephalogram (EEG)
after arousal and is has good temporal but relatively
responsible for day- poor spatial resolution; records the
to-day functioning of electrical activity of the brain through the
glands and organs use of scalp electrodes; both spontaneous
activity and event-related potentials (ERP)
Distant Connections: The Endocrine can be studied.
Glands activity can be classified according to
frequency and morphology; traditional
Glands, are organs in the body that bands include delta, theta, alpha, and
secrete chemicals; some affect functioning beta.
of the body but not behavior; others have
widespread influence on the body and Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
behavior. used for imaging function; involves
injection of a radioactive tracer that binds
Endocrine glands, secrete chemicals to glucose, records activity of cells that
called hormones into bloodstream; affect use radioactive glucose.
behavior and emotions by influencing the
activity of the brain and by controlling Functional MRI (fMRI)
muscles and organs such as the heart, image brain function through
pancreas, and sex organs. tracking changes in blood oxygen levels;
 pituitary gland increase in oxygen levels associated with
 pineal gland increased functioning.
 thyroid gland
Mapping Structure
 pancreas
 gonads
Computed Tomography (CT)
 adrenal glands
based on X-ray technology; good
for imaging brain structure, especially
Methods for Studying the Structures
when there is metal in the body.
and/or Activity of the Living Brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Older Methods, often relied on dissection
superior spatial resolution for
techniques after death. Unable to directly
structure.
observe function.
Structures of the Brain
Lesioning Studies, study animals or
humans with brain damage; damage may
 perception; recognition of patterns,
faces, and emotional expression)

Structures under the Cortex

Limbic System
 thalamus
 hypothalamus
 hippocampus
 amygdala

Association Areas of the Cortex

devoted to making connections
between incoming sensory information
and stored memories, images, and
knowledge; damage to right association
areas can result in spatial neglect where
person fails to recognize the left side of
the visual field.
The Hindbrain
 Broca’s Area, found it in left frontal
 medulla
lobe; devoted to speech
 pons
production; damage to this area
 reticular formation
can result in Broca’s aphasia.
 cerebellum
 Wernicke’s Area; found in the left
temporal lobe, plays a role in
Cortex, the outermost, wrinkled layer of
understanding the meaning of
the brain; comprised of left and right
words.
hemispheres, connected by corpus
callosum; each hemisphere can be further
divided into four lobes.
 frontal lobes
 temporal lobes
 parietal lobes
 occipital lobes
Cerebral Hemispheres, some brain
functions governed by one hemisphere
more than the other; differences found
due to work of various researchers (e.g.,
split-brain studies.
 Left hemisphere specializes in
tasks that involve sequence and
analysis (language, speech,
handwriting, math)
 Right hemisphere processes
information in a more global sense
(perception; visualization; spatial
 Central Nervous System or CNS, is
made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is
the portion of the nervous system that is
encased in bone. Referred to as the
central because it is the brain and spinal
cord that are responsible for processing
sensory information.

Neurons, the nerve cells that make up the

fundamental blocks of the nervous
system.

There are approximately 100 billion

neurons in the human brain and each has
many contacts with other neurons, called
synapses.

Dendrites, act as an antenna. This where

the neurons receive information when they
Chapter 3: Biological Psychology communicate with one another.

The Brain and Nervous System Soma, where the dendrites channel the
information then it builds up as an electro-
In the 1800s a German scientist by the chemical signal.
name of Ernst Weber conducted several
experiments meant to investigate how This electrical part of the signal, called an
people perceive the world via their own action potential shoots down the axon, a
bodies. long tail that leads away from the soma
and toward the next neuron.
The main difference between humans and
other animals-- in terms of brain Nerves, refers to bundles of axons that
development-- is that humans have a form long neural wires along which
much more developed frontal cortex (the electrical signals can travel.
front part of the brain associated with
planning). Cell-to-cell communication is helped by
the fact that the soma is covered by a
The Central Nervous System (CNS): myelin sheath—a layer of fatty cells that
The Neurons Inside the Brain allow the signal to travel very rapidly from
neuron to neuron.
Synaptic Gap, the space between of the heart. Coordinates actions without
neurons. the needs of conscious awareness.

Neurotransmitter, tiny packets of Limbic System, collection of highly

chemicals that are being released once specialized neutral structures that sit at
the electrical signal reaches the end of the the top of the brain stem, which are
axon. These are chemical signals that involved of our emotions (hunger, sleep-
travel from one neuron to another, wake cycle, sexual desire, fear and
enabling them to communicate with one memory). Include the amygdala, pituitary
another. gland, thalamus and hypothalamus.

Types of Neurotransmitters Cerebellum, structure at the very back of

a. Serotonin, affects sleep, hunger the brain. Principally involved with
and mood movement and posture although it is also
b. Dopamine, associated with associated with a variety of other thinking
attention, learning and pleasure. processes. Coordinates actions without
c. Histamine, regulates body the needs of conscious awareness.
functions including wakefulness,
feeding behavior and motivation. Cerebrum, (cerebral cortex), the
d. Adrenaline or Epinephrine, “newest,” most advanced portion of the
responsible for the body’s so- brain. The cerebral hemispheres (left and
called “fight or flight response” to right) are in charge of the types of
fear and stress. processes that are associated with more
awareness and voluntary control such as
speaking and planning as well as contain
our primary sensory areas (such as
seeing, hearing, feeling, and moving).

The Central Nervous System: Looking

at the Brain as a Whole

The Brain Stem, most basic structure of

the brain and is located at the top of the Corpus Callosum, a thick bundle of
spine and the bottom of the brain. neurons where the two hemispheres are
Sometimes considered as the oldest part connected.
of the brain because we can see similar
structures in other animals. In charge of a Occipital Lobe, located at the back of the
wide range of basic life support functions cerebral cortex, is the house of the visual
such as breathing, digestion and beating area of the brain.
Temporal Lobe, located on the underside
of the cerebral cortex, is where sounds How We Study the Brain
and smells are processed.
In the 1860s a surgeon named Paul Broca
Parietal lobe, at the upper back of the conducted an autopsy on a former patient
cerebral cortex, is where touch and taste who had lost his powers of speech.
are processed. Examining his patient’s brain, Broca
identified a damaged area—now called
Front lobe, located at the forward part of the “Broca’s Area”—on the left side of the
the cerebral cortex is where behavioral brain.
motor plans are processed as well as a
number of highly complicated processes The use of animals for study can yield
occur including speech and language use. important insights into human brain
function. An alternative to examining the
brains or behaviors of humans with brain
damage or surgical lesions can be found
in the instance of animals.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET),

records metabolic activity in the brain by
detecting the number of radioactive
substances, which are injected into a
person’s bloodstream, the brain is
consuming. This technique allows us to
see how much an individual uses a
particular part of the brain while at rest, or
not performing a task.
One particularly fascinating area in the
frontal lobe is called the “motor strip” or
Functional Magnetic Resonance
central sulcus. This strip running along the
Imaging (fMRI), relies on blood flow. This
side of the brain is in charge of voluntary
method measures changes in the levels of
movements like waving goodbye, wiggling
naturally occurring oxygen in the blood.
your eyebrows, and kissing.
This technique measures brain activity
based on this increase oxygen level. This
The Peripheral Nervous System
means fMRI does not require a foreign
substance to be injected into the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), it
carries the signals necessary for the body
Both PET and fMRI scans have poor
to survive.
temporal resolution, meaning that they
cannot tell us exactly when brain activity
occurred.

Electroencephalography (EEG), which

measures electrical brain activity instead
of blood flow. Electrodes are place on the
scalp of participants and they are nearly
instantaneous in picking up electrical
activity. However, EEG is known to have
poor spatial resolution, meaning that it is
not accurate with regards to specific
location.

Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI), can offer

high temporal and spatial resolution. DOI
works by shining infrared light into the
brain