760 Chinese in the Philippines

Chinese in the Philippines

Teresita Ang See

ALTERNATIVE NAMES peoples who traveled down from northem to southem

China and then to Vietnam and Formosa before reaching
The early Chinese immigrants who came to the Philippines the Philippines (Beyer, 1979; Go, 2003).
during Spanish times were first called Sangleyes (which Archaeological findings (like the Novaliches Com-
meant "businessmen" or "frequent visitors"). They were plex unearthed by anthropologist Wilhelm G. Solheim II)
later called Intsik (from the Malay word encik, meaning showed that as early as the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E to
"venerable uncle"). Though the etymology of the term C.E. 220), the Philippines was on intimate relations with
itself has no pejorative connotation, its later usage did add Annam and Tonkin (in Vietnam), the greatest ports of the
a "racial" slur, Intsik beho tulo laway ("old Chinaman Chinese people sailing for the South Seas (Solheim, 1964).
with drooling saliva"), which is not acceptable to the Major places in the Philippines appeared in several ancient
older Chinese, who recall that the term implies humilia- Chinese dynastic annals and maps. The commercial inter-
tion, subjugation, and oppression. In 1992, a new term, course and mutual knowledge between China and the
Tsinoy, was coined, which has gained popularity and Philippines increased in the Sung Dynasty (960 to 1277),
common usage. The term "Tsinoy" is colloquial for especially in the eleventh to twelth centuries. Chao Ju Kua,
Tsinong Pinoy, or Chinese Filipino. customs collector in China then, was the first to give a
detailed description of places in the Philippines in the vast
volume of accounts of travelers collected in Zhu Fan Zhi
(Report on the Southseas Barbarians), published in 1255
LOCATION (Wang, 1964).
By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Chinese
The Philippines is situated on the eastern edge of Asia, trade with the Philippines flourished. Islands in the
bounded to the west by the South China Sea and to Philippines, like Mindoro, Palawan, Laguna, Manila,
the east by the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of 7,107 Eastern Visayas, Sulu, and others, were mentioned in the
islands, with a land area of almost 300,000 km 2 (116,000 sources from the Yuan Dynasty (1277 to 1368). In 1349,
square miles) and a long coastline, totaling 36,289 km Wang Ta Yuan completed his work, Tao-I Chih Lio
(21,773 miles). The Philippines is a tropical country, with (A Short Account of the Barbarian Isles). The account
just two seasonsmthe wet season and the dry seasonm is generally believed to be the most complete record
determined by the southwest monsoon (June to October), relating to the Philippines in pre-Hispanic times.
which brings the wet season, and the northeast monsoon The coastal provinces, Fujian and Guangdong, where
(November to May), which is the onset of the dry season. the majority of the Chinese in the Philippines hailed from,
were but a few days sailing distance from Manila and
could easily be reached by Chinese junks. This proximity
HISTORY was the main reason behind the choice of destination.
The different waves of outmigration from China to
As early as 5000 B.C., inhabitants from Southern China other parts of Southeast Asia, including the Philippines,
started migrating. Similarities in stone tool traditions, lin- coincided with periods of turmoil, unrest, drought,
guistic origins, customs, traditions, myths and beliefs, and famine, and poverty, which bred a general state of insta-
flora and fauna fossils are evidence of the cultural affinity bility. Feudal China, especially the peasants, who had to
between the early inhabitants of the Philippines and the support the profligate lives of the imperial court through
History 761

onerous levies and taxations, suffered most from this in 1686, 1744, 1747, 1755, 1766 (in 1769, an order for
political unrest. Migration increased immensely in the expulsion was not carried out), 1775, 1789, and 1804.
Ming (1368 to 1644) and Qing Dynasties (1644 to 1911). Periods of deportation and restricted immigration
In the nineteenth century, decay of the imperial system of showed Spanish officials that the islands could not do
government, aggravated by corruption and incompetence without the Chinese, who had to be enticed back. The
of the Qing administrators, led to a failure to protect and economic dependence of the Spanish in the Philippines
safeguard the rural population. These push factors forced on the Chinese had grown so great that the colony came
the Chinese to sail across the South Seas in their sturdy to a standstill after incidents of massacre or expulsion.
junks to seek adventure, escape poverty, and find prosperity On their part, the Chinese merchants realized that their
and labor and business opportunities in the growing prosperity depended on the continuance of the Spanish
economies of colonial Philippines. regime, and the annual supply of Mexican silver through
The Philippines not only had trade but also had the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, the lifeblood of the
political relations with China before Spanish occupation. Sino-Philippine trade.
Chinese junks regularly visited the Philippines, and Though the massacres and mass expulsions in the
envoys from the Philippines went to China to pay tribute seventeenth to eighteenth centuries century were stopped,
to the Sung and Ming courts. In the Ming Annals and the anti-Chinese agitations and discrimination continued to
Tong Xi Yang Gao (Study of the Eastern and Western mark the Spanish rule in the nineteenth century in the
Oceans) (1618), there are many pages of accounts men- forms of taxes like the cedula (residence tax), the inten-
tioning islands or countries in the Philippines (Alfonso, dencia (sales taxes), the capitacion (head tax), and other
1966). Sulu in the southern Philippines got special con- onerous taxes higher than those imposed on other for-
sideration in the Ming Annals. For a brief period under eigners and much higher than those on locals. Likewise,
the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese exercised some sort of restrictive travel passes required all Chinese to get per-
suzerainty over Sulu. Volume 323 of the Ming Annals mits to travel from one place to another. Those caught
also gives an extensive account of the visit of the Sultan were conscripted into forced labor unless they paid the
of Sulu, Paduka Batara, to the Court of Emperor Yung Lo high penalty. The Chinese were also used as scapegoats--
in Beijing in 1417, a century before Ferdinand Magellan the Spaniards deliberately fanned native resentment by
found his way to the Philippines. blaming them for the economic ills caused by Spanish
In 1521, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the misgovernment and neglect.
service of Spain, came upon the islands while on an expe- At the end of the nineteenth century, Filipinos
dition to circumnavigate the globe. The islands were revolted against Spanish rule. The ethnic Chinese also
claimed for and named after King Philip of Spain. A gov- participated in this revolution, led mainly by Chinese
ernor general was appointed administrator, and for over mestizos or Filipinos of Chinese origins, who formed the
300 years, the Philippines was a colony of Spain. intellectual middle class. Distinguished among the revo-
The Spaniards, realizing the importance of Chinese lutionaries is General Jose Ignacio Pana, the only full-
labor and business, encouraged Chinese immigration. blooded Chinese in the revolution. After 333 years of
Thousands of Chinese flocked to the island, but the Spanish rule, the Filipinos declared independence on
Spanish saw in their rapid increase a formidable chal- 12 June 1898. Though the Spanish colonial government
lenge to their own dominance. They therefore adopted ended, the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United
brutal methods and persecution against the defenseless States under the Treaty of Paris on 10 December 1898.
and innocent Chinese. Bad feelings between the two peo- Just as in the Spanish regime, the Chinese also
ple intensified, and resulted in several tragic massacres. suffered from persecution and discrimination under the
Around 100,000 lives were lost in the six massacres American rule (1898 to 1946). The application of the
between 1603 and 1820 (Tan, 1988). Chinese Exclusion Act to the Philippines in 1902 was
The Chinese were subjected not only to assaults; the most onerous form of legal discrimination against
believing that the Chinese settlers were a menace to their the Chinese. The Exclusion Act banned laborers from
security, Spanish authorities carried out mass expulsions entering the colony; only teachers, students, tourists,
762 Chinese in the Philippines

merchants, and sons of merchants were allowed entry. The were singled out for massacres; the worse occurred on
Chinese organized protest movements and boycotts of February 24, in San Pablo Laguna. All male Chinese
American goods to fight against the Exclusion Act and 15 years and above were bayoneted; more than 600 died
other arbitrary restrictions. In 1921, the Chinese commu- in the massacre. Many anti-Japanese elements went under-
nity united to fight the Bookkeeping Law, (which out- ground to carry on the resistance movement. Like their
lawed the use of Chinese language in bookkeeping) all Filipino counterparts, the Chinese guerrillas conducted
the way to Washington, D.C., and won the case in the sabotage, gathered military intelligence, and helped in the
U.S. Supreme Court. escape of prisoners. Three outstanding Chinese guerrilla
Likewise, just as in the Spanish regime, the Chinese forces were the Chinese Overseas Wartime Hsiekan Militia
were made scapegoats. In 1919, they were blamed for a (COWHM), the Chinese Volunteers of the Philippines
rice shortage that occurred due to poor harvest. In 1924, (CVP), and the Wah-Chi, a leftist force which called
again due to economic ills, anti-Chinese riots occurred in itself the 48th Squadron after the famous troops in China
Manila, which spread to Cabanatuan and Nueva Ecija, (Tan, 1981).
north of Manila. The Commonwealth Government (1935 Philippine independence and the freedom from
to 1946) was marked by the restrictions in Chinese busi- colonial rule gave rise to a new form of Filipino national-
nesses like rice and corn trading and the ownership of ism during the Republican Period. Discrimination against
market stalls. the Chinese took the form of exclusion of the alien minor-
The massacres and mass expulsions carded out by ity, as in the Filipino-First Policy in the 1950s and 1960s.
the Spanish authorities and the application of the U.S. The practice of most of the professions (engineering,
Exclusion Act significantly reduced the number of ethnic medicine, nursing, accounting, architecture, chemistry,
Chinese in the Philippines. The number of Chinese in the and pharmacy) was allowed only to Filipino citizens. One
Philippines is the smallest of all overseas Chinese com- of the most traumatic legislations that had a long-term
munities in Southeast Asia, both in absolute numbers and impact on the Chinese community was the passage of
relative to the total native population. Republic Act 1180 in 1954, which nationalized retail
The Japanese occupation of the Philippines from trade, the prinicipal Chinese business at that time.
1941 to 1945 is considered the darkest hour in Philippine Vast changes happened to the Chinese-Filipino
history and even more so for the Chinese in the community in the postwar years. The Pacific War cur-
Philippines. The local Chinese resistance against the tailed immigration from China to the Philippines. The
Japanese started long before theft occupation of the coun- Communist government came to power in 1949 and
try. They supported China's war against Japanese aggres- estabfished the People's Republic of China, which ended
sion by supporting China's Air Force through the purchase immigration for at least two decades. With the dreams of
of new planes, giving relief for refugees and wounded going back home to China ended, obtaining Filipino citi-
soldiers, and boycotting Japanese goods. They also con- zenship gained urgency. The Chinese expanded their
ducted propaganda, mass meetings, and fund campaigns business from the predominantly retail trading businesses
against the Japanese, despite the warnings of Filipino to manufacturing and light industries importing and
leaders against bringing the war to the Philippines. exporting. A new generation of Tsinoys born in the
When the Japanese occupied the Philippines, they first country emerged when immigration stopped.
conducted a purge of the Chinese community and executed Before 1975, a great majority of the Chinese were
its anti-Japanese leaders. This was enacted again and again not Filipino citizens. Despite their long presence in the
throughout the country, and even Consul General country, the Philippine Constitution adopted the jus
KwangsonYoung and his staff were tortured, then executed, sanguinis principle of citizenship (citizenship by blood),
in violation of international law on diplomatic immunity. meaning that those born of Chinese parents were consid-
From 1942 to 1945, Fort Santiago in Manila was a torture ered aliens even though they were born in the Philippines
chamber for prominent Chinese and Filipino prisoners. and their parents lived in the Philippines all their lives.
Practically all major Chinese enterprises and factories In June 1975, in preparation for the establishment of
were closed down or taken over by Japanese. The Chinese diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China,
Culture and Community 763

former President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Letters of dialect of their parents, most are no longer fluent or func-
Instruction 270 to allow the local Chinese easy access tionally literate in either Hokkien or Mandarin.
to naturalization. Ninety percent of the alien Chinese
obtained Filipino citizenship at that time through a spe-
cial administrative process of naturalization and not by
judicial means, which at that time was long, tedious, and
CULTURE AND COMMUNITY
extremely expensive. Obtaining citizenship and legal
identity as Filipinos lifted the final barrier to full integra-
Economic Activities
tion and gave the Chinese a sense of belonging to the Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, Chinese merchants
country. The Chinese are increasingly recognized as one were already active in Philippine trade, but they were itiner-
of the cultural minorities in the country, which has ant merchants who brought their wares to the country in
successfully integrated into mainstream society. exchange for native goods and products. With the estab-
lishment of Spanish settlement, Chinese economic activ-
ity expanded. The native Filipinos were still engaged in
DEMOGRAPHY subsistence agricultural pursuits, and the Spaniards were
reluctant to engage in trade. Thus, the Chinese merchants
The total Philippine population was estimated at 80 mil- took full advantage of the vacuum and filled it with their
lion in 2003. There are 900,000 to one million ethnic industry and ingenuity. They became the backbone of the
Chinese in the Philippines, roughly 1.2% to 1.5% of the colonial economy--they were the carpenters, blacksmiths,
total Philippine population. Half of this number live in the masons, bakers, cooks, shoemakers, tailors, barbers, and
urban area of Metro Manila; the other half is scattered in vendors who provided everything that the Spaniards and
other major urban centers, such as Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, the colony needed for daily life. The Chinese merchants
and Bacolod. soon became the mainstay of the Manila-Acapulco trade,
Of all Southeast Asian countries, the ethnic Chinese bringing Chinese goods to the Philippines in exchange
in the Philippines are the most homogeneous: 90.6% for Mexican silver. These goods from China, brought to
derive from Fujian and 8.8% from Guangdong province. Manila, then to Mexico, Peru, and Latin America, soon
Of the slightly more than 90% from Fujian, 69% derive found their way to Europe.
from Jinjiang, 14.8% from Nan-An, 3% from Hui-an, and After the end of the monopoly of the Manila-
2% from Xiamen (Go, 1995; See, 1996). Acapulco trade in 1815, the Manila port was opened to
world trade in 1854 and the Chinese became distributors
of British and American goods all over the country. Their
LANGUAGE knowledge of the islands and the natives made them
indispensable procurers of cheap native goods and prod-
Of the general Chinese population in the Philippines, ucts, such as tobacco, sugar, copra, hemp, and other cash
98% can speak Filipino or the Tagalog-based national crops, for export to the lucrative and ready markets in
language, and 35% can speak another local Philippine Europe, America, and other parts of the world. This
major dialect (Ilocano, Pangasinan, Pampangan, brought Philippine agricultural development well beyond
Bicolano, Cebuano, Waray, and Ilongo). English is the subsistence levels and the American period was known to
other official language used in the courts and in govern- be the golden era of Chinese businesses in the Philippines
ment records. It is spoken by 90% of the local Chinese. (Wickberg, 1965; Wong, 1999).
Of the first-generation Chinese immigrants, Hokkien is the The postwar period of Philippine nationalism saw
lingua franca; even the small Cantonese minority speaks their merchant activities curtailed through nationalization
Hokkien. Now, only 10% use Chinese as their first lan- measures. The trade restrictions became a blessing in dis-
guage. Although second-generation Chinese Filipinos are guise. Chinese merchants moved from retail trading to
familiar with the official Mandarin language, which is manufacturing and exports, pushing forward Philippine
taught in schools for Chinese Filipinos, and Hokkien, the industrialization. In the late 1970s, especially after many
764 Chinese in the Philippines

of the erstwhile alien Chinese obtained Filipino citizen- American policy allowed spouses and children to migrate
ship, many started to engage in big-scale agribusinessm to the Philippines in early twentieth century, the gender
fisheries, the prawn industry, pig fanning, poultry raising, ratio started to even out. While marriage with Filipinos is
and cattle raising. not encouraged by the parents now, it is no longer as taboo
The ethnic Chinese were also successful in the as it was three decades ago when a Chinese man or woman
banking industry. The first Chinese Bank, China Bank, could get disowned. Today, the younger generation easily
was founded in 1920, Equitable Bank in 1950, and crosses "racial" barriers to become good friends, col-
Metropolitan Bank in 1962. Other Chinese-Filipino-owned leagues, and business partners of Filipinos. Intermarriage is
local banks are Philippine Bank of Communications, thus inevitable. The tradition of a purely patriarchal family
Allied Bank, United Asia Bank, Rizal Commercial Bank, that gives precedence and attention to men has also changed
Philippine National Bank, and Banco de Oro. considerably. More and more women play important roles
The integration of economic interests is inevitable in family business and in establishing their own careers.
because most of the businesses of the ethnic Chinese are
domestic businesses where profits are plowed back into the
Socialization and Education
Philippine economy. Likewise, these businesses are sub-
jected to the same local laws and policies, sustained by At the turn of the twentieth century, the increased repres-
Philippine economic growth or overwhelmed by Philippine sion and cruelty of the Spanish and of the American
adversities and calamities. In the 1997 financial crisis, the colonizers fostered a strong spirit of communalism among
ethnic Chinese business sector suffered in the same way as the local Chinese. Chinese institutions such as schools,
other sectors in the Philippine national economy. press, and other associations were set up as agencies of
communal mobilization and cultural renewal. At the same
time, the political awakening of the Chinese in China
Housing and Use of Space elicited a strong response from the local Chinese which
Before 1975, when majority of the Chinese were not yet further intensified their Chineseness. However, after the
Filipino citizens, most Tsinoys lived in rented apartments war, the standard of Chinese education slowly deterio-
because they could not own property. Many in fact rated because there were no new immigrants after China
resided above their business establishments, allowing closed its doors to the outside world in 1949. Chinese-
them to work long hours. Today, the Tsinoys live as single language education continued to deteriorate especially in
families away from their parents and many own houses in the 1970s because the Chinese are a very small part of the
plush subdivisions. Starting in 1990, however, with the Philippine population, in contrast to Malaysia and
influx of more new immigrants, multistory condomini- Singapore, where there is a much larger Chinese popula-
ums started to be built. These also billeted students from tion and greater demand for Chinese-language education.
the provinces who enroll in Metro Manila colleges. Due to the failure of the Chinese schools to
Tsinoys who live in the suburbs opted to buy units in the strengthen the Chinese identity of the young Chinese and
well-guarded condominium buildings mainly for security due to the far-reaching effects of the mass naturalization
reasons, especially at the height of kidnapping incidents. decree that gave them citizenship, the young-generation
These became rampant at the end of 1992, and up to Chinese have moved further along the continuum of
2003. Tsinoys continue to be the most vulnerable targets, reculturation. Vast changes have taken place among
forcing many traumatized families to relocate abroad. these local-born people, who make up 90% of the ethnic
Chinese population in the Philippines.

Marriage, Family, and Households

Community Organization and
During the colonial period, Chinese women were rela-
tively absent. The Chinese immigrants either had families
Structure
in China and/or had established a new "mestizo" family There are more than a 1,000 organizations in the
in the Philippines by marrying Filipinas. When the Philippines formed along the lines of Chinese ethnicity.
Culture and Community 765

They are broadly differentiated according to three orien- children. Older groups who were mostly China born and
tations: China oriented, Chinese community oriented, attended high schools and colleges in southern Fujian or
and Philippine oriented. Hongkong organized another version of alumni associa-
tions of their schoolmates from China and Hong Kong.
Chinese Community-Oriented Organizations. Cultural and sports club, religious groups, and
Chinese community-oriented organizations are the most hometown, brotherhood, alumni, and school associations
common. They are structured with big federations or provide a more intimate atmosphere that allow personal
umbrella organizations at the top, which have overlap- relationships to grow among members. They also provide
ping leadership with each other. The five big federations the cultural milieu and activities that attest to a Chinese
in the community are: identity as well as arouse ethnic pride.
• The Federation of Filipino-Chinese Chambers of Commerce
and Industry,Inc., under which are 160-memberorganizations. China-Oriented Organizations. The Filipino-
• The Grand Family Association, under which are 39 family- Chinese Amity Club was formed in 1974 to liaise the
name organizations. Chinese community with the Chinese government in
• The GeneralAssociation of Former Chinese Schools, made up preparation for the establishment of 1975 diplomatic rela-
of 127 memberschools that cater basicallyto ChineseFilipinos.
• The Sports Federation, under which are 20 sports organizations tions with the People's Republic of China. Subsequently,
like the bowling, swimming, basketball, volleyball, table ten- the Federation of Chinese Associations was formed in
nis, golf, cycling, badminton, chess, and other sports clubs. 1977. It started as an ad hoc group to organize big
• The Association of Volunteer Fire Brigades, under which are Chinese events involving the Chinese Embassy, like
100 memberorganizations nationwide. banquets for high-level visits of Chinese officials, and
The most numerous are the chambers of commerce important People's Republic of China events such as the
and trade associations, formed by mutual engagement in 1 October National Day and the anniversary of the estab-
some craft or line of business to protect economic inter- lishment of diplomatic relations between China and
ests, such as unfair competition and protectionism, to the Philippines. The ad hoc group eventually became a
minimize external threats, to enable collective bargain- formal organization with officers and secretariat to organ-
ing against anti-Chinese legislation, to settle extortionate ize important events that do not fall under any of the big
claims from unscrupulous government officials, and to federations earlier mentioned.
link Chinese businessmen into a network. Relations between the Philippines and Taiwan were
Clan associations reaffirm one's ancestral ties, line- unique in Southeast Asia. Up to 1975, the Kuomintang
age, and generational position. Indirectly related to the government played an active role in local Chinese affairs,
clan or lineage organizations are the 200 hometown or like the administration of the schools, running of the local
village associations bound by common village or home- newspapers, and the election of officers in the big federa-
town of origin from Fujian. In a predominantly Hokkien tions. The Amity Club and the Federation of Chinese
community, only the Cantonese minority needed to Associations were formed because at the time, all the big
organize a regional association. They formed the federations were largely pro-Taiwan and refused to take
Guangdong Huiguan as early as 1850 to take care of their the lead in organizing affairs favoring People's Republic
own affairs. In contrast, regional associations from of China events or government officials. Before 1975,
Jinjiang (formed in 1993) and Nanan (formed in 1990) in one of the most active umbrella organizations was the
Fujian were formed quite late because it made more sense Kuomintang Cultural and Economic Center, which led
for the Fujian people to organize according to smaller the community in celebrations of Taiwan events like that
units based on hometown or village of origin (See, 1988). of the 10 October National Day.
Related to the association of schools are the alumni
and class associations. Classmate ties are intimate, per- Philippine-Oriented Organizations. These groups
sonal relationships with quasi-kinship features in the are made up of the local-born generation, the so-called
Chinese social world. The classmates often became com- Tsinoys, articulate, college educated, socially conscious
padres (coparents) through baptism and marriage of their and responsible, loyal and committed to their country of
766 Chinese in the Philippines

birth, and comfortable in their Filipino identity. These mother still follows some Chinese rites after birth, like the
groups participate actively in political exercises and take one month of zuo ye-nei (zhuey ge-lay in Hokkien), but a
proactive stance in issues affecting mainstream society and Catholic ritual of baptism immediately follows, some-
not just the parochial concerns of the Tsinoy community. times even if the parents are not Catholics. This baptismal
The most prominent organization is the Kaisa Para Sa rite will include getting Filipino and Chinese godparents
Kaunlaran (Unity for Progress), organized in 1987 after or compadres. This compradazgo system is important for
the first EDSA People Power Revolution, which toppled the Chinese, because it gives rise to social connections
the Marcos dictatorship. Its predecessor organization, through the child's baptism.
Pagkakaisa Sa Pag-unlad, was organized in 1970 with the This blending of customs holds true for weddings
principal objective of hastening the full integration of and funeral rites, where Catholic or Christian practices
the Tsinoys into mainstream society. The Kaisa became mix with folk Chinese ones. This is seen even in business.
an effective bridge between the Tsinoy community and At the opening of a new business, Catholic rites are
mainstream society. Its research arm has published observed, where a Catholic priest blesses the premises
50 titles to date, dealing with studies about the ethnic with holy water after the lion dancers finish their act out-
Chinese in the Philippines and Southeast Asia. It pub- side the place (complete with firecrackers, which are sup-
lishes a fortnightly Chinese-Filipino digest called Tulay posed to drive away evil) and also after feng shui experts
(Bridge) and a weekly Chinese supplement called Rong have been consulted. This mixture of practices, which
He (Integration) in the Chinese-language daily, World brings together both the Filipino and the Chinese, indeed
News. Today, Kaisa runs the Kaisa Heritage Center (built at helps in promoting the integration of the Chinese and, to
a cost of US$4 million raised entirely from the Tsinoy some degree, promoting their successful assimilation into
community), which houses the Bahay Tsinoy, a museum of mainstream society (See, 1990).
the Chinese in Philippine life, and serves as the repository Even in the practice of religion, syncretism occurs.
of the historical and cultural legacy of the Tsinoys. Other Chinese Buddhist and Taoist icons displayed side by side
Tsinoys have also veered away from purely Chinese- with images of the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ are com-
Filipino community-oriented organizations and instead mon sights in many Chinese households and stores.
joined Filipino organizations like the Jaycees, Rotary One unique evidence of religious syncretism is the
Clubs, and issue-oriented nongovernment organizations. worship of one religious image as two different person-
alities, such as the worship of the Virgin of Caysasay as
the Chinese goddess Ma-tzu. The image is garbed in tradi-
Religious Beliefs and Practices tional Catholic raiment, but is placed inside a Chinese
Religion plays a central part in the daily life of both the temple at a traditional Chinese altar, with incense, divina-
Filipinos and the ethnic Chinese minority. Ninety percent tion tablets and sticks, as well as food offering. On the
of the Filipino population is Christian, 5% Muslim, and the feast day of the goddess Ma-tzu, a traditional Catholic
remainder a mixture of Buddhist, Taoist, and animist. Of procession is held after high mass officiated by a Catholic
the Christians, 92% are Roman Catholic, 8% Protestant. priest.
There are some homegrown Christian groups, notably Another equally interesting and unique evidence of
Iglesia Ni Cristo and the Philippine Independent Church or religious syncretism is the worship of a strictly Catholic
Aglipayans. Of the ethnic Chinese minority, about 87% are image, Jesus of Nazarene, in traditional Chinese manner.
Christians, and the remainder practice a mixture of An image of the black Nazarene is found in the town of
Buddhist, Taoist, and folk beliefs. Out of the 87% Capalonga in the southern province of Camarines Sur. The
Christian, close to 90% are Catholics, who also follow reli- image is even given a Chinese name, Po-Ong Sian Si (in
gious syncretism by combining Catholics and Chinese Hokkien); the four words derived from Poong, meaning
beliefs together. Lord, and Sian-Si, meaning saint. Even Filipinos worship
On the life rituals from birth to death, the ethnic this image of the black Nazarene, following the Chinese
Chinese practice a unique blend of Chinese and Filipino instead of the Catholic tradition in the hope their prayers
customs, which is predominantly influenced by Catholic will get answered faster. Both images of the Virgin of
or Christian practices. For example, an ethnic Chinese Caysasay and the Capalonga Nazarene are very popular
Relationships to Host Country, Homeland, and Other Diasporic Communities 767

among the Chinese who come from all over the country to associations, but are equally active in local Filipino civic
worship. organizations. They have always maintained a comfort-
able relationship with Filipinos.
The Metro Manila local-born Chinese are the most
Ceremonies and Holidays dynamic pillars of the community. They have little first-
hand experience of China. Their limited knowledge of
Every city, town, and village holds at least one festival
China is gained from parents and textbooks. They are more
every year, usually related to such dates as the "birthday"
articulate both in Filipino and English and are graduates
of the local patron saint or other religious icon, a harvest
from local universities. They are a deculturated Chinese
thanksgiving, a historical or mythological anniversary, or
group, Westernized in ideology and more assimilated to
a combination of all these. The Tsinoys usually partici-
Filipino culture. They feel that the Philippines is home,
pate in the local festivals in their own provinces and
where they belong. Many continue to uphold Chinese cul-
municipalities, but also celebrate their own festivals
tural values, but they do not share their parents' sentiments
peculiar to their ethnic group, and the Filipinos likewise
toward China or things Chinese. They are at ease mingling
join these festivals.
with Filipino classmates and Filipino work colleagues.
The most prominent festival is the Chinese Lunar
The provincial local born grew up in a predominantly
New Year celebration. Chinese lanterns, dragon-and-lion
Filipino environment, which makes them more Filipino
dances, fireworks, and Chinese opera mark these festivi-
than Chinese in outlook despite their Chinese blood and
ties. Tikoy (sticky rice cake, ti-ke in Hokkien) giving has
family background. Social barriers and ethnic lines are not
become a tradition. Another popular festival introduced
rigid between them and Filipinos. They are more articu-
to the Filipinos is the Moon Festival or Autumn Festival.
late in English and the local dialect than in Chinese. They
A game of chance called the mooncake game is usually
remain in contact with the Chinese community to take
played by both Chinese and Filipinos. The Qing Ming
advantage of business contacts, but they join more
(festival of the dead, which usually falls on April or May)
Filipino than Chinese organizations. More of them go into
is observed by most of the older Chinese, but the younger
local politics and become town councilors and mayors.
ones prefer to observe All Saints Day (or the Catholic
Intermarriage with Filipinos is more common in the
festival for the dead) on 1 November.
third and fourth subgroups. More of them also have pro-
fessions other than business, like journalism, education,
social work, the arts, literature, and the like. Most of them
CULTURAL VARIATION obtain college degrees and they are more apt to pursue
graduate studies than the first two subgroups.
The Chinese community in the Philippines can be divided
into four subgroups: the Metro Manila China born, the
provincial China born, the Metro Manila local born, and RELATIONSHIPSTO HOST COUNTRY,
the provincial local born (See, 1988).
The Metro Manila China-born hold leadership posi- HOMELAND, AND OTHER DIASPORIC
tions and are the economic backbone of the Tsinoy com- COMMUNITIES
munity. They are over 60 years old and most have warm
memories of their childhood in China and deep sentimen- The younger Chinese Filipinos can easily cross ethnic
tal attachment to their natal home in China. They are barriers and be intimate friends of Filipinos. In family
more articulate in Chinese and their lives more confined structures and practices, views about marriage, choice of
within the Chinese community, where they actively par- careers, and reading preferences and entertainment, it is
ticipate in Chinese organizations. the Filipino environment that exerts a bigger influence.
The provincial China-born share the same basic val- The economic interests of the ethnic Chinese cannot
ues as the Metro Manila China-born, but their provincial be separated from the Philippine domestic economy.
experience makes them feel more at ease with Filipinos. Increasingly, the Chinese-Filipino businessmen have
They run the local chambers, schools, and other Chinese been joining their Filipino counterparts in big business
768 Chinese in the Philippines

ventures. Likewise, the younger Chinese have been mov- IDENTITY

ing out of the traditional field of commerce and into the
social sciences like literature, journalism, history, and The gradual integration of the Tsinoys into mainstream
social work, a fact that has far-reaching impact in chang- Philippine society has inevitably brought about changes
ing the image of a predominantly business community. in the identification and orientation of the local Chinese.
Complete identification of the ethnic Chinese Most of the Tsinoys after the war were born and raised in
as Filipinos is a gauge of the success of political integra- the Philippines. They studied in Philippine schools, speak
tion. The awareness of political events and local issues, English and Filipino better than Chinese, have little or no
participation in national and local elections (not just as first-hand experience of China, and consider the
voters but as candidates for elective office), willingness to Philippines as their only home. The development of this
speak and stand up for their political rights, and identifi- new consciousness is a gradual process that resulted from
cation with national interests even if it comes in conflict objective and historical reality. Among these historical
with the community's interests are some indicators of this forces, of great significance are the diplomatic recogni-
success. tion of the People's Republic of China in 1975 and the
Among the changes that have happened in the mass naturalization decree promulgated by former
Tsinoy community, cultural changes are the most visible. President Marcos on the eve of this official recognition.
In lifestyle, manner of dressing, food choices, language While the Chinese community-oriented older people
proficiency, views on intermarriage, religion, and prac- still hold leadership positions in the community, their num-
tices of life rituals, it is the Western and Christian influ- ber is quite small compared with the local-born younger
ences that prevail over the traditional Chinese cultural generation that comprises the majority. They are not only
modes. This has been discussed earlier in the section on Chinese who are in the Philippines, but have become
subgroups. Filipinos of Chinese descent who are a vital part of the
Due to the long history of Chinese presence in the country, sinking their roots deeply into Filipino soil. The
Philippines, Chinese cultural influences have been inter- future is in their hands and the future direction of the
woven in the tapestry of Philippine culture through time. local Chinese community will largely depend on them
In all events that shaped the Philippines as a nation, in (See, 1997).
all aspects of Philippine life, in its culture and tradition,
language, music, and religion, the indelible imprint of
Chinese influence is well marked. In almost everything REFERENCES
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The Chinese in the Philippines, 1898-1935: A study of their Manila Press.

Chinese in the U nited States

L. Ling-chiWang

ALTERNATIVE NAMES high-tech industries, both of which were eagerly sought

after by the Chinese-American population, especially the
Chinese-Americans, American Chinese, Meiguo Huaren, post- 1965 immigrants.
Jinshanke (in the Putonghua dialect of Chinese), and
Gumsanhaak (in Cantonese).
HISTORY

LOCATION Chinese immigration can be roughly divided into three

periods: the period of free immigration, 1849 to 1882; the
The earliest migration of Chinese to the United States period of exclusion, 1882 to 1965; and the period of
was to the West Coast, particularly during the Gold Rush. diverse immigrants, since 1965.
Over time Chinese migrants moved to the eastern and
southern United States. At the beginning of the twenty-
Free Immigration" 1849 to 1882
first century, the Chinese population centered in and
around the major metropolitan areas across the United The discovery of gold in California was clearly the main
States like New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, attraction for Chinese merchants and peasants from
Honolulu, San Jose, Houston, Chicago, Boston, San Zhujiang delta (Guangdong Province), even though most
Diego, Seattle, Atlanta, and Miami. These were cities of those who came were recruited and brought over as
with prestigious institutions of higher education and contract laborers, not for the sole purposes of mining gold,