Welding of Offshore Structures

By

John du Plessis, Chief Executive Officer, Spesmet

Technology

ABSTRACT

Offshore structures are complex structural systems. The fabrication,

maintenance and repair of these structures make use of conventional and
advanced welding technology. This paper reviews the material used to fabricate
offshore structures, welding consumables used and current acceptable
fabrication practice.

The challenges faced by welding and joining in the future as well as the particular
challenges for Africa are discussed.
 Welding of Offshore Structures

1. Introduction

Offshore structures are used for particular operational purpose such as

exploration, drilling, handling and storage of oil and gas. The environment in
which these structures operate varies from shallow to deep water with
temperatures ranging from very cold, to mild, to tropical. Furthermore, these
structures are subjected to corrosion, operational stresses and the forces of
nature that includes but are not limited too wave action, wind, tides, storms and
seismic events.

Offshore structures are generally large and complex structural systems,

fabricated using steel tubular members, plates, pipes and profiles interconnected
through welded joints. These structures include jacket platforms, jack-up rigs,
semi-submersible rigs, and floating production, storage and offloading facilities
(FPSO) [1]. See Figure 1.

Figure 1. A few examples of offshore rigs, drilling and production platforms.

Left to right: onshore platform; fixed platform; jack up rig; semi-submersible;
drill ship; tension leg platform.
The search for new energy supplies has resulted in exploration and drilling in
remote and more challenging environments. The water depth in which drilling
and exploration takes place is moving to ever increasing depths.

In the offshore industry welding is being pushed by ever increasing demands to

meet both material design criteria and increased production. Maintaining the
structures is a challenge as they have to be repaired and protected after
sustaining damage by accidents, corrosion, fatigue and acts of nature.

The correct choice of grade of material, the welding process and welding
consumables becomes more critical during fabrication and subsequent repair to
ensure efficient, safe and fit for purpose structures.

2. Offshore Structures

Today’s multiple options for producing oil and gas from deepwater reserves is
still anchored by the welded tubular steel platform jacket, deck, and surface
modules. Typical offshore structures [2] (See Figure 2) today would include:

• Fixed platforms: Fixed platforms are the offshore production mainstay

with economic water-depth limits of about 610 m.
• Compliant towers: Floating platforms permanently anchored to the
bottom. May be considered for water depths of about 305 to 610 m.
• Tension-leg platforms: These structures are attached to the ocean
bottom with tendons held in tension. They are used in 305 to 1524 m
water depths.
• Spars: Buoyant structures shaped like a spar (a single, large-diameter
cylinder), with a functional deck mounted on top.
• Semi -submersible production units: They can permanently be moored
in a field usually producing from subsea facilities.
• Floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) systems: Ship-
shaped vessels with storage and some treatment facilities. Serves both
floating and subset production arrays. May be used in water depths
ranging up to and beyond 3048 m.
• Pipeline systems: Steel pipelines transporting oil and gas in various
diameters and operating in various water depths.

A typical structure consists of various modules including a deck, a substructure,

foundation piles, piping etc. The substructure in most cases, is a prefabricated
tubular space frame, which in shallow to intermediate water depths extends from
the sea floor to just above the sea surface, and is usually fabricated in one piece
onshore, transported by barge, launched at sea, and upended on site by partial
flooding.
Tubular pilings are driven through the main legs to fix the structure to the sea
bottom, provide support for the deck, and resist the lateral loads due to wind,
waves and currents. Various other structural designs exist to cater for deeper
water.

Figure 2. Typical Offshore Structures [3]

The design lives of these structures are typically 20 – 30 years. A large number
of these structures have reached, are close to, or have passed their original
design lives and continue to operate. Currently, world wide we are faced with
aging offshore infrastructure that has to be maintained. The approximate size of
the problem is:

• 6000 fixed platforms

• 184 floating production platforms
• 650 offshore drilling rigs
• 175000km of subsea pipelines
• 2900 operating subsea wells

It remains a less costly option to repair, maintain, retrofit and upgrade existing
structures compared to fabricating completely new structures.

The next generation offshore structures would be more complex in design, will
use more sophisticated materials of construction, will feature increased
fabrication complexity, and be expected to have increased production
capabilities.

3. Materials used for offshore structures

The materials used to fabricate offshore structures include low to medium carbon
manganese steels, high strength low alloy steels, standard and super austenitic
stainless steels, duplex and super duplex stainless steels as well as nickel base,
copper base, and titanium alloys [6]. These materials are welded to each other
to form similar and dissimilar weld joints.

It is expected that steel will be the dominant material into the future. The
advantages of structural steels are :

• Excellent availability in different product forms (plate, pipe and profile)

• Long available service history
• Can readily and economically be joined by arc welding
• Strength to cost ratio is favourable.
• Effective corrosion protection technology is available
• Well established design rules for the offshore industry

Fixed offshore structures are conventionally constructed from structural steel with
yield strengths in the range of 300 to 350 MPa. The early platforms were
fabricated from low carbon steels like ASTM A-7 or equivalent. In 1960 the A-7
grade was replaced with ASTM A-36 or equivalent. In the mid 1990’s the
dominant steel grades were ASTM A-36 and API 2H grade 50 and their
equivalents

For the more critical, higher strength applications steel grades like API 2-Y or
equivalent was used. As the size of the offshore structures increase, the size of
the members also increases. This drives the demand for higher strength steels
with improved fracture toughness and weldability.

The carbon manganese steel grades used for offshore structures depend on the
type of structure and the expected service conditions. Jacket tubular products are
made from carbon manganese steel with yield strength varying from 350 to 550
MPa. These jacket tubular thicknesses can range from 40 up to 100 mm.

The principal application of very high strength steels offshore has been in the
fabrication of jack-ups. Steels with nominal yield strengths in the range 500 to
800 MPa are normally used in fabrication of legs, rack and pinions and spud
cans. Thickness ranges from 40 up to 130 mm.
In general, the strength of steel is controlled by its microstructure which varies
according to its chemical composition, its thermal history and the deformation
processes it undergoes during its production schedule. [ 5 ]

Today the low to medium strength steels are produced by the normalised or
thermo-mechanically processed routes (TMCP). For the higher strength levels
there are processing thickness restrictions to TMCP steels and normalising
cannot produce the strength levels required in the necessary section
thicknesses. Quenching and tempering is therefore the standard production route
for very high strength structural steel. The typical steel strength grades used in
offshore structures today are given in Table 1. [5]

Strength Grade (MPa) Process route Area of application

350 (X52) Normalized Structures
TMCP Structures and Pipelines
450 (X65) Quenched & Tempered Structures
TMCP Pipelines
550 (X80) Quenched & Tempered Structures & Moorings
TMCP Pipelines
650 Quenched & Tempered Jack-ups & Moorings
750 Quenched & Tempered Jack-ups & Moorings
850 Quenched & Tempered Jack-ups & Moorings

Table 1. Steel strength grade, process route and area of application in offshore
structures.

There are a number of critical factors that need to be considered when dealing
with the higher strength steels during the fabrication and repair processes:

• Each steel grade has a range of yield strength, which is not always fully
recognized in the design. The yield ratio of the higher strength steels is
greater than the current design limits in some codes and specifications.
Many engineers and designers do not appreciate that the mechanical
properties of a particular steel can vary significantly within a specified steel
grade (i.e. steel with a specified minimum yield strength).

• The stress strain behaviour of high strength steels differs somewhat from
that of lower strength steels in that they generally show reduced capacity
for strain hardening after yielding and reduced elongation.

• The high strength steels have adequate toughness in both the HAZ and
the parent material. However we find that with the very high strength
weldmetal there is inconsistency in the toughness properties and
consequently some concerns regarding brittle fracture.
 • Fatigue strength of the welded high strength steel joints does not increase
with the increase in yield strength.

• There is limited information of the long term use of high strength steels in
a marine environment.

• Most codes and standards relate to the low and medium strength steels.
In most cases the use of the design formulae is limited to steels with yield
strengths less than 500 MPa. This is a disadvantage for the use of the
higher strength steels.

Additional benefits of using the higher strength steels are that there significant
time and cost savings due to the use of thinner sections, reduced weld volumes
and the possibility of reducing or avoiding post weld heat treatment in some
instances.

The stainless steel and nickel based alloys are mainly used in processing, piping
and storage applications where the strength and corrosive characteristics of
these alloys are essential.

In the late 1950s almost 100 aluminium jackets were installed in Venezuela. The
corrosive conditions due to dissolved oxygen and salt content precluded the use
of steel. These platforms required the development of new technology
incorporating design, fabrication and installation. The platforms performed
satisfactorily until they were removed when the oil reserves where depleted.

The trend towards the usage of higher strength and tougher materials in the
construction of offshore structures will continue as new material and suitable
welding consumables are developed. The use of these materials result in
significant cost and weight savings as it allows the use of thinner sections and
results in shorter construction times. However these materials require more
stringent control during fabrication in terms of welding, cutting, heat treatment
and forming to avoid defects.

4. Fabrication and repair of offshore structures

The operational environment as well as financial aspects requires that a large

degree of prefabrication must be performed onshore. The amount of offshore
work has to be kept to a minimum, mainly through effective design.

All structural welding is normally carried out in accordance with international

codes and standards such as API RP 2A, 'Recommended Practice for Planning,
Designing and Construction of Fixed Offshore Platforms', ISO 19902 ‘Fixed steel
offshore structures’, and the ANSI/AWS and ASME BPV IX codes, latest
revision.
4.1 Welding Technology

Welding is a fundamental technology in the fabrication and repair of structures in

the offshore industry. These structures can be above or below sea level, or
onshore. Welding is the enabling technology without which the offshore industry
cannot operate at its present level of sophistication. Yet welding technology is
often taken for granted as a mature and established technology and mostly
remains in the background, almost forgotten. Welding has like most technologies
developed steadily over time, allowing new benefits in terms of what can be
achieved, and in terms of process economics.

Welding technologies already reach across 140 different processes and process
variants. Whilst no fundamentally new arc welding techniques have emerged in
recent years, there have been significant developments focused on improving
process efficiency and productivity together with the facilitation of increased
welding automation. Welding in the offshore industry is dominated by the
conventional arc welding processes.

Typical welding processes used in the offshore industry are :

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) – mostly gas shielded

The different welding processes, welding consumables and process

combinations are suitable to meet the fabrication and repair requirements of the
offshore applications. The ability of some of the welding processes to operate on
site is a major advantage.

The use of higher strength steels in offshore applications is ever increasing.

These demanding applications require a wider range of welding processes,
offering flexibility and higher productivity, to be competitive and produce
acceptable quality welds. In turn there is a growing need for high strength steel
welding consumables that maintain toughness and are easy to use.

A requirement for the high strength consumables is that their weld metal
properties should be reasonably insensitive to variations in welding procedure
parameters, such as heat input and interpass temperature, especially during
manual welding. [6]

High strength steel welding consumables have typical compositions in the range
0.04-0.08 % Carbon, 1- 2 % Manganese, 0.2-0.5 % Silicon, 1-3 % Nickel along
with some additions of Cr, Mo and sometimes Cu [7]. As the alloying content and
strength increase, bainite and martensite gradually become the dominant
microstructural components rather than the softer phases associated with
strength levels less than 690 MPa. Although well-balanced mixed (martensitic /
bainitic / ferritic) microstructures can offer attractive combinations of properties,
the microstructure, and hence the mechanical properties, tend to become
sensitive to the cooling rate. Table 2 [8] gives typical mechanical properties for
commercial welding consumables.

Minimum Yield Strength (Mpa) 350 400 420 500 550 690
Minimum Tensile Strength
(Mpa) 490 520 550 610 670 770
Minimum Impact Energy (J)
@ -60°C 35 35 35 35 35 35

Table 2. Typical mechanical properties of commercially available welding

consumables.

During welding the consumable should overmatch the yield strength of the parent
material and the associated heat affected zone. If the weld under matches in
strength then any enforced deformation will be concentrated in the relative small
weld metal volume which increases the risk of failure.

Welding on offshore structures is regulated by international codes and standards,

ship class rules, engineering specifications and client specifications depending
on the service environment. These standards can place additional strength,
cracking resistance and toughness requirements on the weldmetal.

Welding procedures used during the fabrication and repair of offshore structures
must take into account the factors related to the properties of the steel grade
used. This includes strength, microstructure, impact properties, hardness of the
heat affected zone and numerous others.

Most of such repair procedures include welding which is quite different from
joining during fabrication regarding the parameters, the weld sequences as well
as the metallurgical conditions and the design features. This means that ideal
welding conditions cannot always be achieved during repair welding. Additionally,
poor material conditions of the component segments to be repaired might result
from previous service operation.

The factors contributing to failures of welds are well known. They include residual
stresses, defects or microstuctural imperfections, loss of optimal bases metal
microstructures during the weld thermal cycle, toughness changes, dissimilar
material properties and the stress raising effects of geometrical discontinuities at
the joint. Add to this the welding process variables, joint configurations and the
variations in base material and welding consumable composition and we
experience an extremely complex environment.
Research is ongoing in using friction stir welding, laser welding and other welding
processes in the fabrication and repair of offshore structures. The main aims are
to provide increased efficiency and increased quality of welding during fabrication
and repair. In the near future we will see these welding processes used.

4.2 Jacket Fabrication

The jacket legs are normally fabricated from tubular sections, which are welded.
The fabricators normally use plate to roll and fabricate their own structural steel
pipe. The welds are full penetration welds in order to withstand the design and
operating stresses.

Figure 3. Typical offshore jacket structure

The large diameter thick section pipes are typically manufactured as follows [9] :
• Steel Plate (355 – 550 MPa yield strength, 40 – 100 mm thick) is cold
formed.
• Tacking on the external side by SMAW.
• The main longitudinal seam is welded using SAW.
• Non destructive examination using ultrasonic test on the longitudinal weld
is carried out.
• Girth welding of rotatable pipes using SAW or gas shielded FCAW.

The length and throat thickness of the tack weld must be sufficient to prevent
cracking during the SAW welding and must maintain the pipe dimensions.
The welding efficiency on the longitudinal seam is maintained by using multi-wire
submerged arc technology. For girth welding mostly single wire SAW is used.

Pipes with inner diameter of 750 mm or less, fixed or rotated, are normally
welded from one side only. The root pass is deposited using either SMAW or
GTAW. GMAW or FCAW are commonly used for the fill and capping passes.

4.3 Complex Node joints

A typical complex node structure is given in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A typical node structure

To weld the structural pipe to pipe connections successfully, care must be taken
to ensure that the fit up is correct. The root gap must be constant and must be
maintained. From figure 5 it is clear that the weld geometry, position and access
for the welding vary around the circumference.

The important aspects to consider when welding the node joint are :
• The joint changes groove angles along the joint.
• Groove size must be accurate especially for one sided welding
• Weld surfaces must be smooth to improve fatigue strength and fatigue life
• Confined spaces around the joint eliminates the use of automatic welding
The root pass of the node joint is usually welded by GTAW or SMAW from one
side only. The subsequent filling and capping passes are welded either by
SMAW or FCAW.

Figure 5. Typical pipe to pipe connection – access from one side only.

In an attempt to ensure that the welded node connections contain minimal levels
of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress relieving or post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT) of the heavier more restrained welds may be prescribed.

4.4 Jack up rig – Rack to rack and rack to chord

The high strength steel grades of particular importance for jack up rig
construction today are A514 grade Q, ALDUR 700QL1, A517 grade F.

A typical jack up rig can be seen in Figure 6. The jack up rig leg has heavy
sections reaching thickness up to 180 mm for the racks. The material used is
normally high tensile strength steels with yield strength ranging from 550 to 780
MPa.

Typically rack to rack and chord to chord joints are butt welded either using
GMAW or SMAW. The rack to chord joints are butt welded using FCAW and
SAW (See figure 6). The root and first hot pass are welded using FCAW. The
subsequent fill and capping passes are welded with SAW.

Column-to-brace and brace-to brace joints are welded by FCAW and SMAW.
The node joints of braces require strict welding procedure control to prevent
lamellar tearing and provide smooth bead appearance for better fatigue strength.
Figure 6. Jack up offshore rig.

780 MPa high tensile strength steel is the main material for the legs of jack-up
rigs. These structures require stringent welding procedure control to prevent cold
cracking of the welds because of the heavy thickness of the components. These
are normally welded either using SMAW, GMAW, FCAW or SAW or using a
combination of these welding processes.
Figure 6. Rack to chord joint.

4.5 Topside and other construction

The steel grades of particular importance for topside construction are DIN StE
355 (St E 36), T St E 420 (TT St E 43) and EN S (P) 235-S (P) 500. ABS mild
steel Gr.A, B, D, E. ABS HT Gr.AH36, DH36, EH36 EN 10225: S460 G2+Q. The
yield strength varies from approximately 350 MPa to 460 MPa.

Blow Out Preventers and Well Head Constructions are typically fabricated from
AISI 4130, or similar low alloy steel, and matching strength properties are
specified.

4.6 Piping Systems

Pipe lines, process piping and process vessels are constructed from carbon
steel, stainless steels, nickel base alloys and duplex stainless. The grade of
material used is dependant on the operating environment.

A summary of pipeline applications and welding processes used in the 1980’s,

the predicted technologies for 2000 and the current reality in 2007 is given in
Table 3 [10].

Application Past 1980's Prediction 2007 Reality

SMA
Short Pipelines W SMAW SMAW SMAW, Semi-GMAW
SMA SMAW, FCAW, Semi-
Tie Ins W SMAW SMAW GMAW
Long Pipelines SMAW, SMAW,
(Small SMA SAW Flash, SMAW,GMAW,FCAW,Mech
diameter) W (Pre- MIAB, -GMAW,SAW(Pre-Fab)
 Fab) Mechanica
l Joining
SMAW,
SAW Mech-
(Pre- GMAW,
Long Pipelines Fab), Hot wire
(Large SMA Mech GTAW, SMAW,GMAW,FCAW,Mech
diameter) W GMAW Flash -GMAW,SAW(Pre-Fab)

Table 3. Summary of welding technology for piping systems

4.7 Underwater repair welding

Underwater welding can be divided into three main types [11 ]:

• Wet underwater welding : SMAW is the most common process. FCAW

has been widely used in the former Soviet Union. Friction welding, which
has the advantage of being relatively insensitive to depth, and which lends
itself to robotic operation, has the potential for use in deep water repair.
• Coffer dam welding: A rigid steel structure to house the welders is sealed
against the side of the structure to be welded, and is open to the
atmosphere resulting in dry welding.
• Hyperbaric welding, in which a chamber is sealed around the structure to
be welded, and is filled with a gas (commonly helium containing 0.5 bar of
oxygen) at the prevailing pressure.

Wet welding is preferred over dry (hyperbaric) welding, simply because it can be
mobilized quickly and be easily completed in areas where construction of a
physical habitat is impossible. Thus wet welding is significantly cheaper than
hyperbaric welding[12 ].

Welders can be used too depths up to 250 m but for depths beyond that remote
pipeline repair systems are used for repair welding. Gas metal arc welding in a
hyperbaric environment has been qualified in applications such as fillet welded
sleeve repair and remote hot tapping. The process can weld to depths of 1000m
[13 ].

Research continuous to improve the weld quality and to extend the welding to
ever increasing water depths.

5. Future challenges

Covering both upstream and downstream requirements, the technologies of

future importance related to welding and joining are [14 ]:
 • Structural integrity of joints in deep water pipelines and risers
• Structural integrity of floating production systems
• Risk based inspection of pipelines, tanks, etc
• Use of 13% Cr steels
• Wider use of welded Ti alloys
• Long range inspection techniques
• Integrity of duplex steels with cathodic protection
• Lower cost manufacture and pipe laying e.g. by the use of hybrid welding
processes
• High strength line pipes, e.g. X 100 types

Weld designs should pay greater attention to the importance of complete joint
penetration groove welds, and the elimination of "notch effects" at the root
especially where the high tensile strength materials are used. Emphasis should
be placed on weld joint design to ensure welding from both sides. Welding from
both sides makes it easier to achieve high quality welds.

The importance of underwater repair welding techniques increases with the ever
increasing exploration and operational depths. Automation and robotic welding
will feature as the main research thrusts.

For the oil and gas industry in Africa the main challenge would be to develop the
technical and operational capacity to costs effectively fabricate and repair almost
all the structures locally to international standards.

References

[1] Minerals Management Service, USA; ‘Offshore structures’ –

www.gomr.mms.gov.

[2] ’Fixed platforms remain important production facilities after more than 60
years’; Offshore, September, 2008, volume 67, issue 9.
[3] Minerals Management Service, USA; ‘Deepwater Development Systems
in the Gulf of Mexico’ - www.gomr.mms.gov.

[4] ‘Opportunities for Danish offshore companies within the Nigerian oil and
gas sector’. Offshore centre for Denmark, 2008

[5] Bilingham, J; Sharp, J.V.; Spurrier, J;Kilgallon, P.J ‘Review of the

performance of high strength steels used offshore’

[6] Ramirez, J.E;’Charaterization and the mechanical properties of High

strength steel weld metals Proceedings of the sixteenth (2007)
international offshore and polar conference, July 1-6 2007, Lisbon
Portugal

[7] Karlsson, L; Keehan,E;Andren,H.-O;Bhadeshia,H.K.D.H ‘Development of

high strength steel weld metals’; Eurojoin 5, Vienna, May 2004

[8] Welding of offshore structures Part 1’; Kobelco Welding Today, Jan 2003,
Volume 6 (No1)

[9] Welding of offshore structures Part 2’; Kobelco Welding Today, April 2003,
Volume 6 (No2)

[10] Ames N., EWI, Private discussion March 2007

[11] Underwater welding – TWI Knowledge Summary; 2006

[12] Woodward,N; ‘Developments in Diverless Subsea welding’. Welding

Journal, Volume 85, Number 10, pp35-39,October 2006

[13] ’Unmanned deepwater arc welding target of research’, Offshore, May 01,
1996, Vol56 issue 5

[14] Moan, T;‘Marine structures of the future’; Inaugural Keppel Lecture,

National University of Singapore, July 2003