Survey Adjustment

Least Square Adjustment
True value of measurement

is unknown,
Every observation contains
error
NOOR FAIZAH BINTI ZOHARDIN

1
©ePembelajaran Politeknik Merlimau
Writer
Noor Faizah Binti Zohardin
Published in 2021
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
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Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Noor Faizah Zohardin

SURVEY ADJUSTMENT / NOOR FAIZAH BINTI ZOHARDIN
Mode of access: Internet
eISBN 978-967-2241-83-6
1.Surveying
2.Goverment publications—Malaysia.
3. Electronic book.
I. Title.
526.9
Published by:
Politeknik Merlimau, Melaka
KB1031 Pej Pos Merlimau,
77300 Merlimau Melaka
PREFACE
SURVEY ADJUSTMENT provides the students with knowledge on adjustment.

The book emphasizes the calculation of adjustment using the least square
adjustment method through observation and condition equations in
solving surveyed data. Besides, it is also provides students with knowledge
and practical skills to calculate and adjust surveyed data.
This book is written specifically to satisfy the syllabus requirements for subject
DCG 50192 Survey Adjustment. This book contains all required topics for
Diploma Geomatic.
This book contains 5 chapter that have been planned and arranged
carefully base on the syllabus of Polytechnic Malaysia. All concepts for
each topic are accompanied by detail explanations, followed by example
and complete solutions.
NOOR FAIZAH BINTI ZOHARDIN

Pensyarah Kanan (DH 48)
Pegawai Pendidikan Pengajian Tinggi
Jabatan Kejurutan Awam
Politeknik Merlimau Melaka
Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY ADJUSTMENT
This topic describes the purposes of survey adjustment distinguish the
mathematical and functional models from the statistical model
Chapter 2 : STATISTICAL SAMPLE

This topic explains the measurement of central tendency and
measurement of dispersion and how the matrix variance covariance is
derived,
Chapter 3 : VARIANCE- COVARIANCE PROPAGATION

This topic focuses on the calculation of variance-covariance propagation,
derivative formula variance-covariance propagation for linear functions,
non -linear functions. Solve the partial differential calculation. Application
of the variance covariance propagation calculation linear case and
nonlinear cases.
Chapter 4 : WEIGHT OF OBSERVATION

This topic focuses on the calculation of weight of observation, the concept
of weight in survey observation.
Chapter 5 : LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT APPLICATIONS

This topic demonstrates the steps in solving the Least Square, method of
equation, the concept of Least Square Adjustment, how the Normal
Equation is derived, the principles of Least Square and how the variance-
covariance matrix for the parameter X is calculated.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Survey Adjustment 1-6
Chapter 2:
Statistical Sample and Analysis 7-26
Chapter 3:
Matrices and Variance-Covariance 27-38
Propagation
Chapter 4:
Weight of observation 39-52
Chapter 5:
Least Square Adjustment 53-86
Reference 87
Good measurement required a combination of human

skill and mechanical equipment
Chapter 1 : Introduction to Survey Adjustment
Chapter 1: Introduction to Survey

Adjustment
ADJUSTMENT
• Adjustment is a process of making measured values of a quantity

more accurate before they are used in the computations for the
determination of points position that are associated with the
measurements
• The method of estimating and distributing random errors in the

observed values in order to make it conform to certain geometrical
conditions, hence the resulted/adjusted values are known as the
most probable values for the quantity involves.
PURPOSE OF SURVEY ADJUSTMENT
• To make sure final survey value accurate and close to the truth as
possible
• To evaluate and measure the confidence in result
• To determine how accurate each value is
• To estimating and distributing random errors in the observed values
• To reduce error size when making measurement
• To analyst the error and adjust the data
• To analysing and adjusting survey data
• To identify the Accuracy standard for survey obtained from least

square adjustment
NFZ-JKA PMM 1
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Table 1.1 : Mathematical Model

FUNCTIONAL MODEL STOCHASTIC MODEL
Adjustment computations is an The determination of variances, and

equation or set of subsequently the weights of the
equations/functions that represents observations
or defines an adjustment condition
To describe a system or physical To describe probability variable like

condition observation
Equations used in modeling Describes random/stochastic

observations [observation & property of observations in the form
condition equations]; express of weight [standard deviation] of
geometrical relationship between observation, controls weights of
observations (distance) & observations [control the correction
parameters (coordinates) to an observation]
NFZ-JKA PMM 2
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Table 1.2 : Different between accuracy and precision
Accuracy Precision
Degree of closeness between the Degree of closeness of observation

mean of observations and the true values. The closer the values the
values higher the precision of the
observation
How closely a measurement or Degree of refinement/consistency
Observation comes to measuring a Of a group of observations, and is
true value. evaluated on
Basic of discrepancy size
The absolute nearness of the The nearness of the measured
measured quantity quantity to its average/mean
To its true value [smaller difference
means high accuracy]
Includes both random & systematic Includes only random effects
Effects
Figure 1.1: Comparison between accuracy and precise
NFZ-JKA PMM 3
ERROR IN SURVEY MEASUREMENT
Figure 1.2 : Source of error in Survey Observation
TYPES OF ERROR
Gross error
• The result of blunders or mistakes that are due to carelessness of the

observer.
• They are not classified as errors and must be removed from any set
of observations.
Systematic error
• These errors follow some physical law and thus these errors can be
predicted.
• Some systematic errors are removed by following correct
measurement
Random error
• These are the errors that remain after all mistakes and systematic
errors have been removed from the measured value.
• the result of human and instrument imperfections.
NFZ-JKA PMM 4
Table 1.3 : Types of error
Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error
caused by confusion or • Biases Remain in measurement

by an observer’s • Factor more to after gross and systematic
carelessness. measuring system errors have been
eliminated.
They are not classified as If condition change, -normal distribution table

errors and must be magnitude of -near to 0 in positive or
removed from any set of systematic errors also negative value
observations change.
• Solution: must be Solution: calibration, Solution: LSA
detected & eliminated model the error
NFZ-JKA PMM 5
TUTORIAL
1. Determine purpose of survey adjustment
2. Justify advantages of Survey adjustment
3. Describe the term of accuracy and precision in land survey.
4. Explain the types of error in measurement

i. Gross error
ii. Systematic error
iii. Random error
5. Sketch a suitable diagram and state the meaning of accuracy and

precision
6. Explain the source of error in measurement

i. Instrument error
ii. Natural error
iii. Personal error
7. Explain two types of Mathematic Model

i. Functional Model
ii. Stochastic Model
NFZ-JKA PMM 6
Chapter 2 : Statistic & Analysis
Chapter 2: Statistic & Analysis
Numerical Statistical Sample
Mean
Mean is the average of the observation.
σ𝒙
ഥ=
𝒙
𝒏
𝑥ҧ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
෍ 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mode
most commonly observed value in a set of data
Median
• The midpoint of sample data set when arranged in ascending or

descending order.
• If number of sample data is even, the average of the two
observations at middle data set is used to reprehend as median
NFZ-JKA PMM 7
Range
Range is the different between the highest and lowest value. It provides
an indication of the precision of the data
range = max value of observation – min value of observation
Middle range
The middle range or middle extreme is a measure of central tendency of a
sample data defined as the arithmetic mean of the maximum and
minimum values of the data set.
𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝒊𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 =
𝟐
NFZ-JKA PMM 8
Example 1
An EDM instrument and reflector are set at the ends of a baseline. Its
length is measured 9 times with the following results. Calculate mean,
median, mode, range.
60.214 60.217 60.214
60.215 60.211 60.219
60.214 60.213 60.212
Answer
Table 2.1 : rearrange data in ascending odder
Observation Height
1 60.211
2 60.212
3 60.213
4 60.214
5 60.214 Middle
Point
6 60.214
7 60.215
8 60.217
9 60.219
TOTAL 541.929
σ𝑥 481.718
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 60.214
𝑛 9
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 60.214
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 60.214
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 60.211 − 60.219 = 0.008
NFZ-JKA PMM 9
Example 2
Base on table 2.1, calculate mean, median, mode, range & middle range
Table 2.2 : Observation data
Observation Height
1 35.421
2 35.432
3 35.425
4 35.423
5 35.425
6 35.421
7 35.425
8 35.430
9 35.420
10 35.419
Answer
345.241
Mean = = 34.424
10
Range = 35.432 – 35.419 = 0.013
35.432+35.419
Middle range = = 35.4255
2
35.432+35.425
Median= = 35.424
2
NFZ-JKA PMM 10
rearrange data
set in
ascending
Figure 2.1 : Step to get median and mode
Table 2.3 : Answer for this question

ITEM value
mean 35.424
mode 35.425
median 35.424
range 0.013
middle range 35.4255
NFZ-JKA PMM 11
Population
Population consists of all possible measurement that can be made on a

particular item or procedure. Often, a population has an infinite number
of data element.
Sample
Sample is a subset of data selected from the population.
True value
A quantity’s theoretically correct or exact value
The true value is simply the population’s arithmetic mean if all repeated
observations have equal precision.
1. No measurement is exact
2. Every measurement contains errors
3. The true value of measurement is never known
4. The exact size of the error present is always unknown
Error Propagation
Error Propagation is the distribution of error
Most probable value
The most probable value is that value for a measured quantity which based
on the observation, has the highest probability of occurrence.
NFZ-JKA PMM 12
Error
• The difference between a measured value for any quantity and its
true value.
• Error exists in all observation
𝜺=𝒚−𝝁
𝜀 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝜇 = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Residual
• A residual is the difference between any individual measured

quantity and the most probable value for that quantity.
• Residuals are the values that are used in adjustment computations
since most probable values can be determined.
• The term error is frequently used when residual is meant, and
although they are very similar and behave in the same manner, there
is this theoretical distinction.
• Residual = computed value [or mean] - observed value
ഥ−𝒙
𝒗=𝒙
𝑣 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥ҧ = 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
NFZ-JKA PMM 13
Degree of freedom or redundancies
• The degrees of freedom are the number of observations that are in

excess of the number necessary to solve for the unknowns.
• The number of degrees of freedom equals the number of redundant
observations
Variance
• This is a value by which the precision is given for a set of data.

• The mean of the square of the errors
𝟐
ഥ)𝟐
σ(𝒙 − 𝒙
𝑺 =
𝒏−𝟏
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
𝑥ҧ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡
Standard error
The square root of the population variance
Standard variation
• The square root of the sample variance
• Small std. dev = good data/good observation
Small std. dev = small changing/ a bit movement of structure/land
slide
𝒔 = √𝒔 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
NFZ-JKA PMM 14
Standard variance of mean

The mean is computed from the sample standard deviation
Covariance
• Covariance is Correlation between the two unknow variable.

• If the covariance value decreases, the Correlation of the variable
also decreases.
• Correlation coefficient and Covariance give an indication of the
relationship between variables.
σ(𝒙 − 𝒙
ഥ)(𝒚 − 𝒚
ഥ)
𝜎𝑥𝑦 =
𝒏−𝟏
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑥ҧ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑦̅ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑥
NFZ-JKA PMM 15
Correlation coefficient
Figure 2.2 : Correlation coefficient must between 1 to -1 only
• A correlation coefficient of 1 means that amount for variable A

increase in (almost) perfect correlation with variable B
• A correlation coefficient of -1 means that the amount of variable A
decrease in (almost) perfect correlation with variable B
• Zero means that no correlation between two variables.
σ(𝒙−𝒙
ഥ)(𝒚−𝒚
ഥ) 𝝈𝒙𝒚
𝝆𝒙𝒚 = ; 𝝆𝒙𝒚 =
ഥ)𝟐 .σ(𝒚−𝒚
√σ(𝒙−𝒙 ഥ)𝟐 𝝈𝒙 ∙𝝈𝒚
𝝆𝒙𝒚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑥ҧ & 𝑦̅ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
NFZ-JKA PMM 16
Table 2.4: Correlation coefficient data analysis
Correlation value Result
0 Completely uncorrelated
1 Completely positively correlated

-1 Completely negative correlated
𝟎 < 𝝆𝒙𝒚 < 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 Weak correlation
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 < 𝝆𝒙𝒚 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 Significant correlation
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 < 𝝆𝒙𝒚 < 𝟏 Strong correlation
𝑆 2 =variance for sample x= data 𝑥ҧ =mean
𝜎 2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Figure 2.3: statistic formula
NFZ-JKA PMM 17
Example 3
Find variance,𝑠 2 and standard deviations for height observation. Find

correlation coefficient, 𝜌𝑥𝑦 between height and volume covariance.
Table 2.5 : Observation for height and volume
Observation Height, x Volume, y
1 35.421 5313
2 32.552 4883
3 33.210 4982
4 33.213 4982
5 30.441 4566
6 29.554 4433
7 35.487 5323
8 36.481 5472
9 35.420 5313
10 36.221 5433
NOTE :
For this question, create table like table 2.4
Follow the formula to solve this question
NFZ-JKA PMM 18
STEP 1 : Create table
Table 2.6 : Answer sheet
Obs Height, x Volume, y ഥ)

(𝒙 − 𝒙 ഥ)
(𝒚 − 𝒚 ഥ) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙 ഥ )𝟐
(𝒚 − 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
ഥ). (𝒚 − 𝒚
ഥ)
1 35.421 5313 1.621 243 2.628 59049 393.9
2 32.552 4883 -1.248 -187 1.558 34969 233.38
3 33.210 4982 -0.59 -88 0.348 7744 51.92
4 33.213 4982 -0.587 -88 0.345 7744 51.656
5 30.441 4566 -3.359 -504 11.283 254016 1692.9
6 29.554 4433 -4.246 -637 18.029 405769 2704.7
7 35.487 5323 1.687 253 2.846 64009 426.81
8 36.481 5472 2.681 402 7.188 161604 1077.8
9 35.420 5313 1.62 243 2.624 59049 393.66
10 36.221 5433 2.421 363 5.861 131769 878.82
TOTAL 338.000 50700.000 52.709 1185722 7905.549
NFZ-JKA PMMNFZ-JKA PMM 19

Step 3 : Calculate mean for sample, 𝒙

ഥ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚
ഥ
σ𝑥
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
338
=
10
= 33.8
σ𝑦
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑦̅ =
𝑛
50700
=
10
= 5070
Step 3 : Calculate variance for sample, 𝒔𝟐
σ(𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ )2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥, 𝑆 2 =
𝑛−1
52.709
=
9
= 5.856509
2
σ(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦, 𝑆 =
𝑛−1
1185722
= 9
= 131746.889
NFZ-JKA PMMNFZ-JKA PMM 20

Step 4 : Calculate standard deviation for sample, s
𝒔𝒕𝒅. 𝒅𝒆𝒗 𝒙, 𝒔 = ±√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 2
= √5.856509
= 2.420023
𝒔𝒕𝒅. 𝒅𝒆𝒗 𝒚, 𝒔 = ±√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 2
= √131746. 889
= 362.970
Step 5 : Calculate covariance for sample, 𝝈𝒙𝒚
σ(𝒙 − 𝒙
ഥ)(𝒚 − 𝒚
ഥ)
𝑪𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝜎𝑥𝑦 =
𝒏−𝟏
7905.549
=
9
= 878.394
Step 6 : Calculate correlation coefficient, 𝝆𝒙𝒚
σ(𝒙 − 𝒙
ഥ)(𝒚 − 𝒚
ഥ)
𝝆𝒙𝒚 =
ഥ)𝟐 . σ(𝒚 − 𝒚
√σ(𝒙 − 𝒙 ഥ )𝟐
7905.549
=
√(52.709)*(1185722)
= 0.99
NFZ-JKA PMM 21
Example 4
Table 2.7 show the data obtained from distance measurement work.
Calculate mean, mean error, variance and standard deviation.
Table 2.7 : Observation table
Observation Distance, x
1 35.421
2 32.552
3 33.210
4 33.213
5 30.441
6 29.554
Answer
STEP 1 : Create table
Table 2.8 : Answer sheet
Mean error
Observation Distance, x ഥ) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙
ഥ)
(𝒙 − 𝒙
1 40.209 -0.003 0.000009
2 40.207 -0.005 0.000025
3 40.211 -0.001 0.000001
4 40.219 0.007 0.000049
5 40.206 -0.006 0.000036
6 40.218 0.006 0.000036
TOTAL 241.270 0.000156
NFZ-JKA PMM 22
Step 2 : Calculate mean for sample, 𝒙

ഥ
σ𝑥
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
241.270
=
6
= 33.8
Step 3 : Calculate variance for sample, 𝒔𝟐
σ(𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ )2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥, 𝑆 2 =
𝑛−1
0.000156
= 6
= 2.6 × 10−5
Step 4 : Calculate standard deviation for sample, s
𝒔𝒕𝒅. 𝒅𝒆𝒗 𝒙, 𝒔 = ±√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 2
= √2.6 × 10−5
= 0.005
NFZ-JKA PMM 23
Example 5
The given data are: -Calculate standard deviation and covariance
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜎𝑥2 = 0.3035 𝑐𝑚2

𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜎𝑦2 = 0. .5421 𝑐𝑚2
Correlation coefficient, 𝜌𝑥𝑦 = 0.892
Standard deviation x. 𝜎𝑥 = √𝜎𝑥2
= √ 0.3035
= 0.5509
Standard deviation y. 𝜎𝑦 = √𝜎𝑦2
= √ 0.5421
= 0.7362744 Note :
𝜎𝑥𝑦
𝜌𝑥𝑦 =
Covariance, 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝜌𝑥𝑦 × 𝜎𝑥 . 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 . 𝜎𝑦
= 0.892 × 0.635216 × 0.7362744

= 0.4171824051
NFZ-JKA PMM 24
Tutorial
1. Describe the term of

i. Mean
ii. Median
iii. Mode
iv. Range
v. Middle range
2. Describe the term of

i. Variance
ii. Standard deviation
3. Explain different between error and residual
4. Table 2.8 shows the data obtained from angle measurement work.
Calculate mean, mean error, variance and standard deviation.
Table 2.8: Observation data
Observation Angle
1 60° 20′ 15"
2 60° 20′ 20"
3 60° 19′ 55"
4 60° 20′ 25"
5 60° 20′ 30"
6 60° 19′ 50"
NFZ-JKA PMM 25
5. From the numerical data set, calculate mean, mode, and variance
50.412 50.400 50.421
50.412 50.420 50.419
50.415 50.417 50.412
6. Table 2.9 shows the data obtained from angle measurement work.
Calculate variance, standard deviation, covariance and correlation
coefficient.
Table 2.9: Observation data
Obs. Distance (X) meter Distance (Y) meter
1 39.110 48.550
2 39.020 48.700
3 39.680 48.900
4 39.450 48.880
5 39.770 48.654
NFZ-JKA PMM 26
Chapter 3 : Variance-Covariance Propagation
Chapter 3: Variance-Covariance
Propagation
Variance
• This is a value by which the precision is given for a set of data.

• The mean of the square of the errors.
Covariance
• Covariance is coloration between the two unknow variable.

• If the covariance value decreases, the coloration of the variable also
decreases
Properties of variance-covariance matrix
1. Symmetric matrix
2. Determinant of covariance matrix should not equal to zero
3. All diagonal element in covariance matrix must positive
variance
covariance 𝜎𝑥21 𝜎𝑥1𝑥2
[ ]
𝜎𝑥2𝑥1 𝜎𝑥22
Example 1
𝟕𝟎 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒
𝜎𝑦2 = [ ]
𝟐𝟑. 𝟒 𝟑𝟔. 𝟓
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜎 = 𝑦1 = 70 ; 𝑦2 = 36.5
𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 23.4
NFZ-JKA PMM 27
Table 3.1: Properties of variance-covariance matrix
Diagonal element
Symmetric matrix
positive
𝟒 𝟐 4 2
𝑨= [ ] 𝐴=[ ]
𝟐 𝟏 2 1
matrix A= matrix 𝑨𝑻 All diagonal element

+ve
𝟒 𝟐 −𝟒 𝟐
𝑨=[ ] 𝑨= [ ]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
Not symmetric One of diagonal

element negative
LOPOV – Law of Propagation of Variance (Error)
𝑦 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑐1
𝑦 ± 𝜎𝑦 = (𝑥1 ± 𝜎𝑥1 ) + (𝑥1 ± 𝜎𝑥1 )
Variance- covariance
𝜎𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝜎𝑥2 𝐴𝑇
NFZ-JKA PMM 28
In matric form, if the n unknow are indepandance, so covariance element in

matrix is zero.
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜎𝑥21 𝜎𝑥1𝑥2 𝜕𝑥1
𝜎𝑦2 = [𝜕
𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 ] . [𝜎 𝜎𝑥22
].[𝜕 ]
𝑦
𝑥2𝑥1
𝜕𝑥1
For nonlinear problem
2 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜎𝑦2 = ( . 𝜎𝑥1 ) + ( . 𝜎𝑥2 )
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
STEP BY STEP FOR NONLINEAR PROBLEMS
1. Identify the suitable formula

2. Differentiation each element from formula
3. Substitute into nonlinear equation
4. Find estimated Standard deviation /estimated error
NFZ-JKA PMM 29
Differentiation notes
Equation 1st derivative
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 𝝏𝒚
=𝒂
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏. 𝒂. 𝒙𝒏−𝟏
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒏 + 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒏. 𝒂. 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒃
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝝏𝒙
Example 2: Differentiation notes
1. Find first derivative for y respect to b
𝑦 = 2𝑏 3 + 𝐶𝑏
𝑑𝑦
= 3 × 2𝑏 3−1 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑏
= 6𝑏 2 + 𝐶
2. Find first derivative for D respect to 𝛽
𝐷 = 23.10 cos 𝛽
𝑑𝐷
= 23.10 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)
𝑑𝛽
= −23.10 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
NFZ-JKA PMM 30
Example 3 : Matric form
Bering observation data for 𝐴𝐵 = 15° ± 2"; 𝐴𝐶 =

75° ± 4" ; 𝐴𝐷 = 150° ± 7".
Calculate value for angle BAC and CAD,

standard deviation and Correlation.
Step 1 : Model the equation observation
BAC = CA – BA
CAD = DA - CA
Step 2 : Apply LOPOV
𝜎𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝜎𝑥2 𝐴𝑇
22 0 0 −1 0
−1 1 0
= [ ] .[ 0 42 0 ] . [ 1 −1]
0 −1 1 2
0 0 7 0 1
−1 0
−4 16 0 20 −16
= [ ] . [ 1 −1] = [ ]
0 −16 49 −16 65
0 1
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝐵𝐴𝐶 = √20 ; 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝐶𝐴𝐷 = √65 .
−16
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
√20 × 65
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 60° ± 4.47"
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 75° ± 8.06"
NFZ-JKA PMM 31
Example 4 : Nonlinear problem
The dimensions of a rectangular tank are measured. Calculate the tank’s volume
and its estimated standard deviation using the measurements above.
Dimension, meter Std. dev, meter
H = 7.500 ± 0.010
W = 3.000 ± 0.007
L = 4.200 ± 0.004
Step 1 : Identify the suitable formula
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝐿𝑊𝐻
𝑉 = 7.5 × 3.0𝑥 × 4.2
𝑉 = 94.500 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3
Step 2 : Differentiation each element from formula
𝑉 = 𝐿𝑊𝐻
Note:
Derivative of V with respect to L
Find 1st derivative of V with
𝜕𝑉 respect to L, W and H
= 𝑊𝐻 = 3.0 × 7.5 = 22.5 𝑚
𝜕𝐿
Derivative of V with respect to W
𝜕𝑉
= 𝐿𝐻 = 4.2 × 7.5 = 31.5 𝑚
𝜕𝑊
Derivative of V with respect to H
𝜕𝑉
= 𝐿𝑊 = 4.2 × 3.0 = 12.6 𝑚
𝜕𝐻
NFZ-JKA PMM 32
Step 3 : Substitute into nonlinear equation
𝜕𝑉 2 𝜕𝑉 2 𝜕𝑉 2
𝑆𝑣 = √(𝜕𝐿 ∙ 𝑆𝐿 ) + (𝜕𝑊 ∙ 𝑆𝑊 ) + (𝜕𝐻 ∙ 𝑆𝐻 )
= √(22.5 × 0.004)2 + (31.5 × 0.007)2 + (12.6 × 0.010)2
= √0.092 + 0.22052 + 0.1262
=0.269 m
Step 4 : Standard deviation for volume
𝑉 = 94.500 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 ± 0.269
NFZ-JKA PMM 33
Example 6:
A slope distance is observed as 120.221 ± 0.008 𝑚 . the vertical angle is

observed as 88˚ 40′ 10 ± 8.8". what are the horizontal distance and its estimated
error.
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝐻𝐷 = 𝑆𝐷 sin 𝜃
𝐻𝐷 = 120.221 sin 88° 40′ 10"
𝐻𝐷 = 120.189 𝑚
𝐻𝐷 = 𝑆𝐷 sin 𝜃
Note:
Derivative of 𝐻𝐷 with respect to 𝑆𝐷
Find 1st derivative of 𝐻𝐷 with
𝜕𝐻𝐷
= sin 𝜃 respect to 𝑆𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃
𝜕𝑆𝐷
= sin 88° 40′ 10" = 0.99973
Derivative of 𝐻𝐷 with respect to 𝜃
𝜕𝐻𝐷
= 𝑆 (cos 𝜃)
𝜕𝜃
= 120.221 cos 88° 40′ 10"
= 2.7916
NFZ-JKA PMM 34
2 2
𝜕𝐻𝐷 𝜕𝐻𝐷
𝑆𝐻𝐷 √
= ( ∙𝑆 ) +( ∙ 𝑆𝜃 )
𝜕𝑆𝐷 𝑠𝑑 𝜕𝜃
2
𝜋
= √(0.99973 ∙ 0.008)2 + (2.7916 ∙ (8.8" × 180))
Change
= 0.008 m degree to
radians
Step 4 : Standard deviation for horizontal distance
𝐻𝐷 = 120.189 𝑚 ± 0.008
NFZ-JKA PMM 35
Example 7:
The radius of a given tank is 13.00m ± 0.003m. Its height is 26.00m ± 0.006m. The
mathematical model for the tank volume is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟²ℎ. Calculate
i. Volume of Standard tank

ii. Std. deviation of the volume
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
= 𝜋(13)2 26
= 13804.158 𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Note:
Derivative of V with respect to r
Find 1st derivative of V with
𝑑𝑣 respect to r and h
= 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋 (13)(26) = 2123.717
𝑑𝑟
Derivative of V with respect to h
𝑑𝑣
= 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(13)2 = 530.929
𝑑ℎ
2 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑆𝑉 = √( . 𝑠 ) + ( . 𝑠ℎ )
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑ℎ
𝑆𝑉 = √(2123.717 × 0.013)2 + (530.929 × 0.026)2
= 30.867

𝑉 = 13804.158 𝑚3 ± 30.867
NFZ-JKA PMM 36
Example 8
The measured height of the cone is 2.500 ± 0.020 m. The measured radius is
1.500 ± 0.002 m. Calculate the variance covariance propagation of the
volume.
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
1
= 𝜋(1.5)2 2.5
3
= 5.890 𝑚3
1 2
𝑉= 𝜋𝑟 ℎ Note:
3
Derivative of V with respect to r Find 1st derivative of V with

respect to r and h
𝑑𝑉 2 2
= 𝜋𝑟ℎ = 𝜋(1.5)(2.5) = 7.854 𝑚
𝑑𝑟 3 3
Derivative of V with respect to h
𝑑𝑉 1 2 1
= 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋(1.5)2 = 2.356 𝑚
𝑑ℎ 3 3
2 2
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝜎𝑉 = √( . 𝜎 ) + ( . 𝜎ℎ )
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑ℎ
= √(7.854 × 0.002)2 + (2.356 × 0.020)2
= 0.050

𝑉 = 5.890 𝑚3 ± 0.05
NFZ-JKA PMM 37
TUTORIAL
1. A slope distance is observed as 60.752 ± 0.008 𝑚. The vertical angle is

observed as 87° 23′ 10 ±6.5" . What are the horizontal distance and its
estimated error.
2. A horizontal distance is observed as 30.455 ± 0.008 𝑚 from the

building A. The vertical angle is observed as 71° 14′ 20 ± 8.8" . What are
the height of building of and its estimated error.
3. A storage tank in the shape of cylinder has a measured height of

12.2 ± 0.023 𝑚 and a radius of 2.3 ± 0.005 𝑚 . What are the tank’s
volume and estimated error in this volume.
4. A rectangular container has dimensions of 5.5 ± 0.004 𝑚 by 7.45 ±

0.005 𝑚. What is the area of the parcel and the estimated area in this
area.
“You can’t claim you tried everything if

you never got up in the last third of the
night to ask Allah for it”
NFZ-JKA PMM 38
Chapter 4 : Weight of Observation
Chapter 4: Weight of Observation
Weight Of Observation
• A measure of an observation’s worth compared to other observations.

• Weight is a positive number assigned to an observation that indicates
the relative accuracy to other observations
• Weight ae used to control the sizes of corrections applied to
observation in an adjustment.
• The more precise an observation, the higher its weight
• The smaller the variance, the higher the weight.
• With uncorrelated observations, weights of the observations are
inversely proportional to their variances.
1
𝑤=
𝜎2
𝑤 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜎 2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
For levelling
1
𝑤=
𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
NFZ-JKA PMM 39
Weighted Mean
A mean value computed from weighted observations. Weighted mean is the
most probable value for a set of weighted observation.
σ 𝑥(𝑤)
𝑧ҧ =
σ𝑤
𝑧ҧ = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
Standard deviation of weighted mean
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑆𝑧ҧ = √
(σ 𝑤)(𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑧ҧ = 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
Std. dev of weighted for observation
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑆𝑛 = √
𝑤𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑧ҧ − 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥)
NFZ-JKA PMM 40
Std. dev of weighted unit
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑆𝑤 = √
(𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑤 = 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
NFZ-JKA PMM 41
Example 1
Data for distance is observed using three different types of instrument.
Calculate:-
i.Weight mean
ii.Std. dev of weighted mean
iii.Std. dev of weighted observation
iv.Std. dev of weighted unit
Instrument Distance AB Weight
EDM 15.231 3
Disto meter 15.235 2
Tape 15.220 1
Step 1: Calculate Weight mean

σ 𝑥(𝑤)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑧ҧ =
σ𝑤
15.231(3) + 15.235(2) + 15.220(1)

𝑧ҧ = = 15.2305
3+2+1
NFZ-JKA PMM 42
Step 2: Create table
Instrument Distance AB, 𝒙 Weight 𝒗 = 𝒛̅ − 𝒙 𝒘. 𝒗𝟐
EDM 15.231 m 3 0.0005 7.5 x10-7
Disto
15.235 m 2 0.0045 4.05 x10-5
meter
Tape 15.220 m 1 0.0105 1.1x10-4
Total 6 0.00015
Step 3: Calculate std. dev of weighted mean
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑆𝑧ҧ = √
(σ 𝑤)(𝑛 − 1)
0.00015
𝑆𝑧ҧ = √ = 0.0035 𝑚
(6)(2)
Step 3: Calculate std. dev of weighted observation
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑛 = √
𝑤𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
Weight for each

observation
Std deviation of weighted observation distance using EDM
0.00015
𝑆𝐸𝐷𝑀 = √ = 0.005 𝑚
3(2)
NFZ-JKA PMM 43
Std deviation of weighted observation for distance using disto meter
0.00015
𝑆𝐷𝑀 = √ = 0.006 𝑚
2(2)
Std deviation of weighted observation for distance using tape
0.00015
𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝐸 = √ = 0.009 𝑚
1(2)
Step 4: Calculate std. dev of weight unit
σ 𝑤𝑣2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑆𝑤 = √
(𝑛 − 1)
0.00015
𝑆𝑤 = √ = 0.009𝑚
2
NFZ-JKA PMM 44
Example 2
An angle is observed on three different days with the following results,

calculate: -
i.Weight mean
ii.Std. dev of weighted mean
iii.Std. dev of weighted observation
iv.Std. dev of weighted unit
Day Observation Weight
1 30° 10′20" 1
2 30° 10′ 30" 3
3 30° 10′ 50" 2
4 30° 10′ 45" 3
5 30° 10′ 50" 4
Step 1 : Calculate weighted mean
σ 𝑥(𝑤)
σ𝑤
392° 19′05"
𝑧ҧ = = 30° 10′ 41.92"
13
NFZ-JKA PMM 45
Step 2 : create table
day Observation, x Weight, w 𝒙 ×𝒘 𝒗 = 𝒛̅ − 𝒙 𝒘. 𝒗𝟐

1 30° 10′20" 1 30° 10′20" 21.92" 0.13"
2 30° 10′ 30" 3 90° 31′ 30" 11.92" 0.12"
3 30° 10′ 50" 2 60° 21′ 40" − 8.08" 0.04"
4 30° 10′ 45" 3 90° 32′ 15" −3.08" 0.01"
5 30° 10′ 50" 4 120° 43′ 20" −8.08" 0.07"
total 13 392° 19′ 05" 0.37"
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑆𝑧ҧ = √
(σ 𝑤)(𝑛 − 1)
0.37"
𝑆𝑧ҧ = √ = 5.06"
(13)(4)
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝑆𝑛 = √
𝑤𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 1st day
0.37"
𝑆1 = √ = 18.25"
1(4)
NFZ-JKA PMM 46
Std deviation of weighted observation for 2nd day
0.37"
𝑆2 = √ = 10.54"
3(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 3rd day
0.37"
𝑆3 = √ = 12.9"
2(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 4th day
0.37"
𝑆4 = √ = 10.54"
3(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 5th day
0.37"
𝑆5 = √ = 9.12"
4(4)
σ 𝑤𝑣2
(𝑛 − 1)
0.37"
𝑆𝑤 = √ = 18.25"
4
NFZ-JKA PMM 47
Example 3
Based on data below, calculate: -
1. Calculate weight mean

2. Std. dev of weighted mean
3. Std. dev of weighted observation
4. Std. dev of weighted unit
BIL Distance, 𝒙𝒊 𝑺𝒕𝒅. 𝒅𝒆𝒗, 𝝈𝒙
1 30.467 ±0.020
2 30.453 ±0.014
3 30.448 ±0.020
4 30.457 ±0.010
5 30.462 ±0.010
Step 1 : Calculate weight for each observation
1
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑤 =
𝜎2
1
𝑤1 = = 2500
0.0004
1
𝑤2 = = 5000
0.0002
1
𝑤3 = = 2500
0.0004
1
𝑤4 = = 10000
0.0001
1
𝑤5 = = 10000
0.0001
NFZ-JKA PMM 48
Step 2: Calculate weight mean
σ 𝑥(𝑤)
σ𝑤
913742.5
𝑧ҧ = = 30.45808
30000
Step 3 : create table
Distance,
BIL 𝑺𝒕𝒅. 𝒅𝒆𝒗 𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝟐 𝑾 𝒘. 𝒙 𝒗 𝒗𝟐 . 𝑾
𝒙𝒊
1 30.467 m ±0.020 0.0004 2500 76167.5 -0.0089 0.19802
30.453 m ±0.014 0.0002 5000 152265 0.0051 0.13005

2
3 30.448 m ±0.020 0.0004 2500 76120 0.0101 0.25503
4 30.457 m ±0.010 0.0001 10000 304570 0.0011 0.0121
5 30.462 m ±0.010 0.0001 10000 304620 -0.0039 0.1521
TOTAL 30000 913742.5 0.0035 0.7473
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑆𝑧ҧ = √
(σ 𝑤)(𝑛 − 1)
913742.5
𝑆𝑧ҧ = √ = 2.759 𝑚
(30000)(4)
NFZ-JKA PMM 49
σ 𝑤𝑣 2
𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑆𝑛 = √
𝑤𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 1st data
0.7473
𝑆1 = √ = 0.009 𝑚
2500(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 2nd data
0.7473
𝑆2 = √ = 0.006 𝑚
5000(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 3rd data
0.7473
𝑆3 = √ = 0.009 𝑚
2500(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 4th data
0.7473
𝑆4 = √ = 0.004 𝑚
10000(4)
Std deviation of weighted observation for 5th data
0.7473
𝑆5 = √ = 0.004 𝑚
10000(4)
NFZ-JKA PMM 50
σ 𝑤𝑣2
(𝑛 − 1)
0.7473
𝑆𝑤 = √ = 0.432 𝑚
4
NFZ-JKA PMM 51
Tutorial
Question 1
An angle was measured at four different times with the following results. What is the
most probable value for the angle and the standard deviation in the mean.
day Observation, x Std. dev
1 120° 30′20" ± 6.2"
2 120° 30′ 30" ± 9.8"
3 120° 30′ 50" ± 5.2"
4 120° 30′ 45" ± 4.7"
Question 2
The distance of the routes and the observed differences in elevations are
show below, calculate: -
1. Calculate weight mean
2. Std. dev of weighted mean
3. Std. dev of weighted observation
4. Std. dev of weighted unit
Different
route distance
elevation
1 15.321 120 m
2 15.350 98 m
3 15.334 100 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 52
Chapter 5 : Least Square Adjustment
Chapter 5: Least Square Adjustment
LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT APPLICATIONS
▪ A least square adjustment (LSA) is method to estimate or adjust the

observations to obtain the most accurate value on these observations
using statistical analysis.
▪ LSE is a systematic & simple method to compute estimated value of
variables for unknown quantities from redundant measurements when
then number of measurements more than number of variables
▪ Least-squares adjustment minimizes the sum of the squares of the
residuals or weighted residuals.
▪ Condition of least squares adjustment: number of observations must
equal or more than number of variables.
▪ LSE is not required if no redundant measurements
Step by step to solve LSA problem
1. Model the observation equation

2. Create matrix A, X and L
3. Find matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
4. Find Determinant for 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
5. Find minor matrix for 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
6. Adjoint matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
7. Inverse matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
8. Find 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
−1
9. Solve 𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
NFZ-JKA PMM 53
EXAMPLE 1 : Distance
A baseline consists of four stations on a straight-line A, B, C and D are measured

using Electronic Distance Measurement device. In order to determine the
distance between the stations,
• Determine the number of observation (n) and variables (u).
• By using the matrix method, calculate the adjusted variables for the
distance of AB, BC and CD.
Table 4.1: Observation data for baseline
Observation Distance, m
AB 25.051
BC 25.047
CD 25.110 Note :
AC 50.091
1. Identify all the
BD 50.150 data given
2. Change the
AD 75.200
data into simple
figure
Convert
1st variables 2nd variables 3rd variables
Figure 4.1 : Convert data into simple figure
Number of observation, n = 6
Variables, U = 3 AB , BC & CD
NFZ-JKA PMM 54
STEP 1 : Model the observation equation
NOTE : Set matrix A base on variables value

AB = 25.051 + V1 for each equation
BC = 25.047 + V2 AB BC CD
CD = 25.110 + V3 MATRIX 1 0 0
0 1 0
AB + BC = 50.091 + V4
A=0 0 1
BC + CD = 50.150 + V5 1 1 0
0 1 1
AB + BC + CD = 75.200 + V6 [1 1 1]
STEP 2 : Create matrix A, X and L AB + BC + CD = 75.200 + V6
1 0 0 25.051
0 1 0 25.047
𝐴𝐵
A=0 0 1 ; X =[𝐵𝐶 ] ; L = 25.110
1 1 0 50.091
𝐶𝐷
0 1 1 50.150
[1 1 1] [ 75.200]
NOTE : Matrix AT
STEP 3 : Find matrix (𝐀𝐓 𝐀)
Change Row to column
1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 A=0 0 1 𝐴𝑇 = [0 1 0 1 1 1]
1 1 0
1] . 0
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 [1
1 1 1 1]
[1 1 1]
1+0+0+1+0+1 0+0+0+1+0+1 0+0+0+0+0+1

𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 0+1+0+1+1+1 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 1]
0+0+0+0+0+1 0+0+0+0+1+1 0+0+1+0+1+1
3 2 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [ 2 4 2]
1 2 3
NFZ-JKA PMM 55
STEP 4: Find Determinant for matrix ( 𝐀𝐓 𝐀 )
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
NOTE: Follow this
DET (𝑨𝑻 𝑨) = [2 4 2] [2 4 2] [2 4 2]
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 rule
+ − +
[ − + −]
+ − +
4 2 2 2 2 4
= 3[ ] −2[ ] + 1[ ]
2 3 1 3 1 2
= 3(12 − 4) − 2(6 − 2) + 1(4 − 4)

= 3(8) − 2(4) + 1(0)
= 24 − 8 + 0
= 16
STEP 5: Find minor matrix 𝑨𝑻 𝑨
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
[2 4 2] [2 4 2] [2 4 2]
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 ( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
[2 4 2] [2 4 2] [2 4 2]
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
[2 4 2] [2 4 2] [2 4 2]
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
4 2 2 2 2 4
[ ][ ] [ ]
2 3 1 3 1 2
2 1 3 1 3 2
[ ][ ][ ]
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = 2 3 1 3 1 2
2 1 3 1 3 2
[ ][ ][ ]
4 2 2 2 2 4
12 − 4 6 − 2 4 − 4 8 4 0
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [ 6 − 2 9 − 1 6 − 2 ] = [4 8 4]
4 − 4 6 − 2 12 − 4 0 4 8
NFZ-JKA PMM 56
STEP 6 : Find Adjoint matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑨) Note :
Adjoint matrix
𝐴𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = (𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)𝑇 𝑎𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = (𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)𝑇
So, for symmetric matrix

+ − + 𝑎𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟(𝐴𝑇 𝐴) [− + −]
+ − +
𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 8 −4 0 8 −4 0
[−4 8 −4] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [−4 8 −4]
0 −4 8 0 −4 8
STEP 7: Matrix inverse ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑨)
1
( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)−1 = × 𝑎𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
det( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
1 +8 −4 +0
= × [−4 +8 −4]
16
+0 −4 +8
+8 −4 0
16 16 16
−4 8 −4
=
16 16 16
0 −4 +8
[ 16 16 16 ]
0.5 −0.25 0
= [−0.25 0.5 −0.25]
0 −0.25 0.5
NFZ-JKA PMM 57
STEP 8: Find 𝑨𝑻 𝑳
25.051
25.047
1 0 0 1 0 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐿= [0 1 0 1 1 1] × 25.110
50.091
0 0 1 0 1 1
50.150
[75.200]
1(25.051) + 0 + 0 + 1(50.091) + 0 + 1(75.200)

𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 = [0 + 1(25.047) + 0 + 1(50.091) + 1(50.150) + 1(75.200)]
0 + 0 + 1(25.110) + 0 + 1(50.150) + 1(75.200)
150.342
𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 = [200.488]
150.460
−𝟏
STEP 9: Solve 𝒙 = (𝑨𝑻 𝑨 ) . 𝑨𝑻 𝑳
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
𝐴𝐵 0.5 −0.25 0 150.342

[𝐵𝐶 ] = [−0.25 0.5 −0.25] × [200.488]
𝐶𝐷 0 −0.25 0.5 150.460
𝐴𝐵 (0.5)(150.342) + (−0.25)(200.488) + (0)(150.460) 25.049

[𝐵𝐶 ] = [(−0.25)(150.342) + (0.5)(200.488) + (−0.25)(150.460)] = [25.0435 ]
𝐶𝐷 (0)(150.342) + (−0.25)(200.488) + (0.5)(150.460) 25.108
AB = 25.049 m
BC = 25.0435 m
CD = 25.108 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 58
Example 2
Between four points A, B, C and D situated on a straight line in pairs distances AB, BC,
CD, AC, AD and BD were measured. The six measurements show in table. Calculate
the distances of AB, BC and CD by means of linear least squares adjustment.
line Distance, m
AB 30.17
BC 10.12
CD 20.25
AC 40.31
AD 60.51
BD 30.36
A B C D
30.17 10.12 20.25
40.31
60.51
30.36
Step 1: Model the observation equation
𝐴𝐵 = 30.17 + 𝑉1
𝐵𝐶 = 10.12 + 𝑉2
𝐶𝐷 = 20.25 + 𝑉3
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 40.31 + 𝑉4
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 60.51 + 𝑉5
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 30.36 + 𝑉6
NFZ-JKA PMM 59
STEP 2: Create matrix A, X and L
1 0 0 30.17
0 1 0 10.12
𝐴𝐵
A= 0 0 1 ; X =[ ] ; L = 20.25
1 1 0 𝐵𝐶
40.31
1 1 1 𝐶𝐷
60.51
[0 1 1] [30.36]
STEP 3: Find metric 𝑨𝑻 𝑨
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 1 0 1 1 1] . 0
1
0
1
1 = [2
0 4 2]
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3
[0 1 1]
3 2 1
4 2 2 2 2 4
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [2 4 2] = 3 [ ]−2 [ ] + 1[ ] = 16
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
STEP 5: Minor matrix for (𝑨𝑻 𝑨)
4 2 2 2 2 4
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 3 1 3 1 2 8 4 0
2 1 3 1 3 2
Minor 𝐴 𝐴 = [
𝑇
] [ ] [ ] = [4 8 4]
2 3 1 3 1 2
2 1 3 1 3 2 0 4 8
[[4 2
] [
2 2
] [
2 4
]]
STEP 6: Adjoint matrix 𝑨𝑻 𝑨
𝐴𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = (𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑇 𝐴)𝑇
+ − +
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝑇
𝐴) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟(𝐴 𝐴) [− + −]
+ − +
NFZ-JKA PMM 60
8 −4 0 8 −4 0
𝐶𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−4 8 −4] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−4 8 −4]
0 −4 8 0 −4 8
1
(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)−1 = ( 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴))
det(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
1 8 −4 0 0.5 −0.25 0
= × [−4 8 −4] = [−0.25 0.5 −0.25]
16
0 −4 8 0 −0.25 0.5
30.17
10.12
1 0 0 1 1 0 130.99
20.25
𝐴𝑇 𝐿 = [0 1 0 1 1 1] . = [141.30]
40.31
0 0 1 0 1 1 111.12
60.51
[30.36]
−𝟏
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
𝐴𝐵 0.5 −0.25 0 130.99 30.17

[𝐵𝐶 ] = [−0.25 0.5 −0.25] × [141.30] = [10.1225]
𝐶𝐷 0 −0.25 0.5 111.12 20.235
AB = 30.170 m
BC = 10.1225 m
CD = 20.235 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 61
Example 3
EDM instrument is placed at point A and reflector is placed successively at
point B, C and D. The observed value AB, AC, AD, BC, CD are show in table.
Calculate the unknown value AB, BC and CD
line Distance, m
AB 10.231
AC 30.452
AD 52.223
BC 20.225
BD 41.995
A B C D
10.231 m
30.452 m
52.223 m
20.225 m
41.995 m
𝐴𝐵 = 10.231 + 𝑉1
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 30.452 + 𝑉2
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 52.223 + 𝑉3
𝐵𝐶 = 20.225 + 𝑉4
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 41.995 + 𝑉5
NFZ-JKA PMM 62
1 0 0 10.231
1 1 0 𝐴𝐵 30.452
A= 1 1 1 ; X =[ 𝐵𝐶 ] ; L = 52.223
0 1 0 𝐶𝐷 20.225
[0 1 1] [41.995]

1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 2 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 1 1 1 1] . 1 1 1 = [ 2 4 2]
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 2
[0 1 1]
3 2 1
4 2 2 2 2 4
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [2 4 2] = 3 [ ]−2 [ ] + 1[ ]=8
2 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 2
4 2 2 2 2 4
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 2 1 2 1 2 4 2 0
2 1 3 1 3 2
Minor 𝐴 𝐴 = [
𝑇
] [ ] [ ] = [2 5 4]
2 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 3 1 3 2 0 4 8
[[4 2
] [
2 2
] [
2 4
]]
+ − +
+ − +
4 −2 0 4 −2 0
𝑐𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−2 5 −4] 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−2 5 −4]
0 −4 8 0 −4 8
NFZ-JKA PMM 63
STEP 7: Inverse matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑨)
1
(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)−1 = det(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
( 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴))
1 4 −2 0 0.5 −0.25 0
= × [−2 5 −4] = [−0.25 0.625 −0.5]
8
0 −4 8 0 −0.5 1
STEP 8: Find matrix (𝑨𝑻 𝑳)
10.231
1 1 1 0 0 30.452 92.906
𝐴𝑇 𝐿 = [0 1 1 1 1] . 52.223 = [144.895]
0 0 1 0 1 20.225 94.218
[41.995]
−𝟏
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
𝐴𝐵 0.5 −0.25 0 92.906 10.2293

[𝐵𝐶 ] = [−0.25 0.625 −0.5] × [144.895] = [20.2239]
𝐶𝐷 0 −0.5 1 94.218 21.7705
AB = 10.2293 m
BC = 20.2239 m
CD = 21.7705 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 64
Example 4 : levelling
Given the height of point TBM 1 is 100.500m. Calculate the adjusted height
variable for points B, C and D using Least Square Adjustment observation
equation method.
FROM TO DIFFERENT HEIGHT

TBM 1 B
TBM 1 B 0.046
B D 0.265
TBM 1 D 0.312
TBM 1 C -0.024
C B 0.070
C D
C D 0.336 V
𝐵 – 𝐴 = 0.046 + 𝑉1
𝐷 – 𝐵 = 0.265 + 𝑉2
𝐷 − 𝐴 = 0.312 + 𝑉3
𝐶 − 𝐴 = −0.024 + 𝑉4
𝐵 − 𝐶 = 0.070 + 𝑉5
𝐷 − 𝐶 = 0.336 + 𝑉6
Insert known value New equation
𝐵 – 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟓 = 0.046 + 𝑉1 B = 100.546 + V1

𝐷 – 𝐵 = 0.265 + 𝑉2 𝐷 – 𝐵 = 0.265 + 𝑉2
𝐷 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟓 = 0.312 + 𝑉3 D = 100.812 + V3
𝐶 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟓 = −0.024 + 𝑉4 C = 100.476+ V4
𝐵 − 𝐶 = 0.070 + 𝑉5 𝐵 − 𝐶 = 0.070 + 𝑉5
𝐷 − 𝐶 = 0.336 + 𝑉6 𝐷 − 𝐶 = 0.336 + 𝑉6
NFZ-JKA PMM 65
1 0 0 100.546
−1 0 1 0.265
𝐵
A= 0 0 1 ; X =[ 𝐶 ] ; L = 100.812
0 1 0 100.467
𝐷
1 −1 0 0.070
[0 −1 1] [ 0.336 ]
1 0 0
1 −1 0 0 1 0 −1 0 1 3 −1 −1
𝐴 𝐴 = [0 0 0 1 −1 −1] . 0 0
𝑇 1 =[
−1 3 −1]
0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 −1 0 −1 −1 3
[0 −1 1]
3 −1 −1
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [−1 3 −1]= 3 [ ] − (−1) [ ] + (−1) [ ] = 16
−1 3 −1 3 −1 −1
−1 −1 3
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−1 3 −1 3 −1 −1 8 −4 4
−1 −1 3 −1 3 −1
Minor 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [ ] [ ] [ ] = [−4 8 −4]
−1 3 −1 3 −1 −1
−1 −1 3 −1 3 −1 4 −4 8
[[ 3 −1
] [
−1 −1
] [
−1 3
]]
+ − +
𝐴) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟(𝐴 𝐴) [− + −]
+ − +
NFZ-JKA PMM 66
8 4 4 8 4 4
𝐶𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [4 8 4] 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [4 8 4]
4 4 8 4 4 8
1
(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)−1 = ( 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴))
det(𝐴𝑇 𝐴)
1 8 4 4 0.5 0.25 0.25

= × [4 8 4] = [0.25 0.5 0.25]
16
4 4 8 0.25 0.25 0.5
100.546
0.265
1 −1 0 0 1 0 100.351
100.812
𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 = [0 0 0 1 −1 −1] . = [100.061]
100.467
0 1 1 0 0 1 101.413
0.070
[ 0.336 ]
−𝟏
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
𝐵 0.5 0.25 0.25 100.351 100.544

[ 𝐶 ] = [0.25 0.5 0.25] × [100.061] = [100.4715]
𝐷 0.25 0.25 0.5 101.413 100.8095
B = 100.544 m
C = 100.472 m
D = 100.810 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 67
EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the variables for the elevations of A, B and C. Use the least square
adjustment method. Given the elevation of BM 1 is 12.142m and BM2=10.523m
FROM TO DIFFERENT HEIGHT

A BM1 -4.425
BM 1 C 2.210
C B -2.455
C BM2 -3.827
BM2 B 1.375
BM2 A 6.040
B A 4.664
𝐵𝑀1 − 𝐴 = −4.425 + 𝑉1
𝐶 − 𝐵𝑀1 = 2.210 + 𝑉2
NOTE :
𝐵 − 𝐶 = −2.455 + 𝑉3
▪ Different height = fore sight - back sight
𝐵𝑀2 − 𝐶 = −3.827 + 𝑉4 ▪ Insert know value into the equation
𝐵 − 𝐵𝑀2 = 1.375 + 𝑉5
𝐴 − 𝐵𝑀2 = 6.040 + 𝑉6
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 4.664 + 𝑉7
New equation after insert know value
𝟏𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟐 − 𝐴 = −4.425 + 𝑉1 𝐴 = 16.567 + 𝑉1
𝐶 − 𝟏𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟐 = 2.210 + 𝑉2 𝐶 = 14.352 + 𝑉2
𝐵 − 𝐶 = −2.455 + 𝑉3 𝐵 − 𝐶 = −2.455 + 𝑉3
𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟑 − 𝐶 = −3.827 + 𝑉4 𝐶 = 14.350 + 𝑉4
𝐵 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟑 = 1.375 + 𝑉5 𝐵 = 11.898 + 𝑉5
𝐴 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟑 = 6.040 + 𝑉6 𝐴 = 16.563 + 𝑉6

𝐴 − 𝐵 = 4.664 + 𝑉7 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 4.664 + 𝑉7
NFZ-JKA PMM 68
1 0 0 16.576
0 0 1 14.352
0 1 −1 𝐴 −2.455
A = 0 0 1 X =[𝐵] ; L = 14.350
0 1 0 𝐶 11.898
1 0 0 16.563
[1 −1 0] [ 4.664 ]
1 0 0
0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 −1 3 −1 0
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 0 1 0 1 0 −1] . 0 0 1 = [−1 3 −1]
0 1 −1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 3
1 0 0
[1 −1 0]
3 −1 0
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [−1 3 −1] = 3 [ ] − (−1) [ ]+ 0[ ] = 21
−1 3 0 3 0 −1
0 −1 3
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−1 3 0 3 0 −1 8 −3 1
−1 0 3 0 3 −1
Minor 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [ ] [ ] [ ] = [−3 9 −3]
−1 3 0 3 0 −1
−1 0 3 0 3 −1 1 −3 8
[[ 3 −1
] [
−1 −1
] [
−1 3
]]
+ − +
+ − +
NFZ-JKA PMM 69
8 3 1 8 3 1
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [3 9 3] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [3 9 3]
1 3 8 1 3 8
1
( 𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴))
8 3 1
21 21 21
1 8 3 1 3 9 3
= × [3 9 3] =
21 21 21 21
1 3 8
1 3 8
[21 21 21]
STEP 8: Find matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑳)
16.576
14.352
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 −2.455 37.803
𝐴𝑇 𝐿 = [0 0 1 0 1 0 −1] . 14.350 = [ 4.779 ]
0 1 −1 1 0 0 0 11.898 31.157
16.563
[ 4.664 ]
−𝟏
8 3 1
𝐴 21 21 21 37.803 16.568
3 9 3
[𝐵 ] = 21 21 21
× [ 4.779 ] = [11.900]
𝐶 1 3 8 31.157 14.352
[21 21 21]
A = 16.568 m
B = 11.900 m
C = 14.352 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 70
Example 6:
Calculate angle BAC, CAD and DAE using Least Square Adjustment
observation equation method.
Position Angle
BAC 30° 38′ 56"
CAD 54° 25′ 20"
DAE 25° 18′ 40"
BAD 85° 04′ 24"
CAE 79° 43′ 55"
BAE 110° 22′ 50"
′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 30° 38 56" + 𝑉1
′
𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 54° 25 20" + 𝑉2
′
𝐷𝐴𝐸 = 25° 18 40" + 𝑉3
′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 + CAD = 85° 04 24" + 𝑉4
′
𝐶𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐴𝐸 = 79° 43 55" + 𝑉5
′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 + CAD + DAE = 110° 22 50" + 𝑉6
1 0 0
30° 38′ 56"
0 1 0 54° 25′ 20"
𝐵𝐴𝐶
A= 0 0 1 ; X =[𝐶𝐴𝐷 ] ; L = 25° 18′ 40"
1 1 0 85° 04′ 24"
0 1 1 𝐷𝐴𝐸
[1 1 1] 79° 43′ 55"
[110° 22′ 50"]
NFZ-JKA PMM 71
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [0 1 0 1 1 1] . 0 0 1 = [2 4 2]
1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 3
[1 1 1]
3 2 1
4 2 2 2 2 4
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [2 4 2] = 3 [ ]−2 [ ] + 1[ ] = 16
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
4 2 2 2 2 4
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 3 1 3 1 2 8 4 0
2 1 3 1 3 2
𝐴 𝐴= [
𝑇
] [ ] [ ] = [4 8 4]
2 3 1 3 1 2
2 1 3 1 3 2 0 4 8
[[4 2
] [
2 2
] [
2 4
]]
+ − +
+ − +
8 −4 0 8 −4 0
𝐶𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−4 8 −4] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [−4 8 −4]
0 −4 8 0 −4 8
NFZ-JKA PMM 72
1
1 8 −4 0 0.5 −0.25 0
= × [−4 8 −4] = [−0.25 0.5 −0.25]
16
0 −4 8 0 −0.25 0.5
30° 38′ 56"

54° 25′ 20"
1 0 0 1 0 1 ′ 226° 06′ 10"
𝑇
𝐴 𝐿 = [ 0 1 0 1 1 1] . 25° 18 40" = [329° 36′ 29"]
′
0 0 1 0 1 1 85° 04 24"
′ 215° 25′ 25"
79° 43 55"
[110° 22′ 50"]
−𝟏
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
𝐵𝐴𝐶 0.5 −0.25 0 226° 06′ 10" 30° 38′ 57.75"

[𝐶𝐴𝐷 ] = [−0.25 0.5 −0.25] × [329° 36′ 29"] = [54° 25′ 20.75"]
𝐷𝐴𝐸 0 −0.25 0.5 215° 25′ 25" 25° 18′ 35.25"
BAC = 30° 38′ 57.75"
CAD = 54° 25′ 20.75"
DAE = 25° 18′ 35.25"
NFZ-JKA PMM 73
Example7: Condition adjustment
The three observations are related to their adjusted values and their residuals.
Calculate adjusted angle for A and B using Least Square Adjustment observation
equation method.
Point Angle
A 150° 20′ 30"
B 80°17′ 35"
C 129° 21′ 30"
′
𝐴 = 150° 20 30" + 𝑉1
𝐵 = 80°17′ 35" + 𝑉2
′
𝐶 = 129° 21 30" + 𝑉3
Condition equation
′
𝐴 + B + C = 360° 00 00"
′
C = 360° 00 00" − 𝐴 − 𝐵
Substitute to 1st equation NEW EQUATION
𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟎𝟎′ 𝟎𝟎" − 𝑨 − 𝑩 = 129° 21′ 30" + 𝑉3 ′

′
𝐴 = 150° 20 30" + 𝑉1
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 360° − 129° 21 30" + 𝑉3
𝐵 = 80°17′ 35" + 𝑉2
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 230° 38′ 30" + 𝑉3 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 230° 38′ 30" + 𝑉3
NFZ-JKA PMM 74
′
1 0 150° 20 30"
𝐴
A =[0 1] ; X =[ ] ; L = [ 80°17′ 35" ]
𝐵
1 1 230° 38′ 30"
1 0
1 0 1 2 1
𝑇
𝐴 𝐴=[ ] . [ 0 1] = [ ]
0 1 1 1 2
1 1
2 1 (2
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [ ]= × 2) − (1 × 1) = 3
1 2
STEP 5: Minor matrix r for (𝑨𝑻 𝑨)
2 1
Cof 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2
+ − +
𝐴) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟(𝐴 𝐴) [− + −]
+ − +
2 −1 2 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [ ] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝐴) = [ ]
−1 2 −1 2
NFZ-JKA PMM 75
1
2 −1
1 2 −1
= ×[ ]= [ 3 3]
3 −1 2 −1 2
3 3
150° 20′ 30" ′

1 0 1
𝑇
𝐴 𝐿=[ ] . [ 80°17′ 35" ]= [380° 59′ 00"]
0 1 1 310° 56 05"
′
230° 38 30"
−𝟏
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝐿
2 −1
′ ′
𝐴 3
[ ] = [−1 3
2] × [380° 59′ 00"] = [150° 20′ 38.33"]
𝐵 310° 56 05" 80° 17 43.33"
3 3
A = 150° 20′ 38.33"
B = 80° 17′ 43.33"
C = 360° − ( 150° 20′ 38.33" + 80° 17′ 43.33" )

= 129° 21′ 38.34"
NFZ-JKA PMM 76
SOLVE LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT WITH WEIGHTS
Step by step to solve LSA problem with weights
10. Model the observation equation

11. Create matrix A, X, W and L
12. Find matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴
13. Find Determinant for 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴
14. Find minor matrix for 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴
15. Adjoint matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴
16. Inverse matrix 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴
17. Find 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐿
−1
18. Solve 𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐿
Example 1
Calculate the variables for the elevations of A, B and C. Use the least square
adjustment method. Given the elevation of BM 1 is 15.384m and BM2=16.245m
From To Different Height weight

A BM1 -5.663 2
BM 1 C -2.929 2
C B 5.174 2
C BM2 3.790 4
BM2 B 1.378 1
BM2 A 4.802 2
B A 3.420 4
NFZ-JKA PMM 77
𝐵𝑀1 − 𝐴 = −5.663 + 𝑉1
𝐶 − 𝐵𝑀1 = −2.929 + 𝑉2
NOTE :
𝐵 − 𝐶 = 5.174 + 𝑉3
▪ Different height = fore sight - back sight
𝐵𝑀2 − 𝐶 = 3.790 + 𝑉4 ▪ Insert know value into the equation
𝐵 − 𝐵𝑀2 = 1.378 + 𝑉5
𝐴 − 𝐵𝑀2 = 4.802 + 𝑉6
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3.420 + 𝑉7
New equation after insert know value
𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟒 − 𝐴 = −5.663 + 𝑉1 𝐴 = 21.047 + 𝑉1
𝐶 − 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟒 = −2.929 + 𝑉2 𝐶 = 12.455 + 𝑉2
𝐵 − 𝐶 = 5.174 + 𝑉3 𝐵 − 𝐶 = 5.174 + 𝑉3
𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟓 − 𝐶 = 3.790 + 𝑉4 𝐶 = 12.455 + 𝑉4
𝐵 − 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟓 = 1.378 + 𝑉5 𝐵 = 17.623 + 𝑉5
𝐴 − 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟓 = 4.802 + 𝑉6 𝐴 = 21.047 + 𝑉6

𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3.420 + 𝑉7 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3.420 + 𝑉7
STEP 2: Create matrix A, X, W and L
1 0 0 21.047 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 12.455 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 −1 𝐴 5.174 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
A= 0 0 1 X =[𝐵] L = 12.455 𝑊= 0 0 0 4 0 0 0
0 1 0 𝐶 17.623 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 21.047 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
[1 −1 0] [ 3.420 ] [0 0 0 0 0 0 4]
Base on weighted data
NFZ-JKA PMM 78
STEP 3: Find metric 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1
𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [0 0 1 0 1 0 −1] × 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 × 0 0 1
0 1 −1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0
[ [0 0 0 0 0 0 4] ] [1 −1 0]
1 0 0
0 0 1
2 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 1 −1 8 −4 0
𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [0 0 2 0 1 0 −4] × 0 0 1 = [−4 7 −2]
0 2 −2 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −2 8
1 0 0
[1 −1 0]
STEP 4: Find Determinant for matrix ( 𝐀𝐓 𝐖 𝐀 )
8 −4 0
7 −2 −4 −2 −4 7
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [−4 7 −2] = 8 [ ] − (−4) [ ]+ 0[ ] = 288
−2 8 0 8 0 −2
0 −2 8
STEP 5: Minor matrix for (𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨)
7 −2 −4 −2 −4 7
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 8 0 8 0 −2 52 −32 8
−4 0 8 0 8 −4
Minor 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [ ] [ ] [ ] = [−32 64 −16]
−2 8 0 8 0 −2
−4 0 8 0 8 −4 8 −16 40
[[ 7 −2
] [
−4 −2
] [
−4 7
]]
STEP 6: Adjoint matrix 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨
52 32 8 52 32 8
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = [32 64 16] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = [32 64 16]
8 16 40 8 16 40
NFZ-JKA PMM 79
STEP 7: Inverse matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨)
1
(𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴)−1 = det(𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴)
( 𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴))
13 1 1
72 9 36
1 52 32 8 1 2 1
= × [32 64 16] =
288 9 9 18
8 16 40
1 1 5
[36 18 36]
STEP 8: Find matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑳)
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 21.047
0 2 0 0 0 0 0 12.455
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 5.174
𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐿 = [0 0 1 0 1 0 −1] × 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 × 12.455
0 1 −1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 17.623
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 21.047
[0 0 0 0 0 0 4] [ 3.420 ]
21.047
12.455
2 0 0 0 0 2 4 5.174 97.868
𝑇
𝐴 𝑊𝐴 = [0 0 2 0 1 0 −4] × 12.455 = [14.291]
0 2 −2 4 0 0 0 17.623 64.382
21.047
[ 3.420 ]
−𝟏
STEP 9: Solve 𝒙 = (𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨 ) . 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑳
13 1 1
𝐴 72 9 36 97.868 21.103
1 2 1
[𝐵 ] = 9 9 18
× [14.291] = [17.641]
𝐶 1 1 5 64.382 12.490
[36 18 36]
A = 21.103 m
B = 17.641 m
C = 12.490 m
NFZ-JKA PMM 80
Example 2:
Calculate angle BAC, CAD and DAF using Least Square Adjustment observation
equation method.
Position Angle Std. dev

BAC 45° 38′ 56" 5”
CAD 48° 25′ 20" 2”
DAF 85° 55′ 45" 2”
BAD 94° 04′ 20" 5”
CAF 134° 21′ 05" 10”
′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 45° 38 56" + 𝑉1
′
𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 48° 25 20" + 𝑉2
′
𝐷𝐴𝐹 = 85° 55 45" + 𝑉3
′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 94° 04 20" + 𝑉4
′
CAD + DAF = 134° 21 05" + 𝑉5
Condition equation
BAC + CAD + DAF = 180°

DAF = 180° − (BAC + CAD)
Substitute into observation equation

New Equation
′ ′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 45° 38 56" + 𝑉1 𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 45° 38 56" + 𝑉1
′ ′
𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 48° 25 20" + 𝑉2 𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 48° 25 20" + 𝑉2
′ ′
𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝐁𝐀𝐂 − 𝐂𝐀𝐃 = 85° 55 45" + 𝑉3 𝐁𝐀𝐂 + 𝐂𝐀𝐃 = 94° 04 15" + 𝑉3
′ ′
𝐵𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 94° 04 20" + 𝑉4 𝐵𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴𝐷 = 94° 04 20" + 𝑉4
′ ′
CAD + (𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝐁𝐀𝐂 − 𝐂𝐀𝐃) = 134° 21 05" + 𝑉5 𝐁𝐀𝐂 = 45° 38 55" + 𝑉5
NFZ-JKA PMM 81
STEP 2: Create matrix A, X ,W and L
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 45° 38′ 56" 52 1
0 1 48° 25′ 20" 0 0 0
𝐵𝐴𝐶 0 22 1
A= 1 1 ; X =[ ] ; L = 94° 04′ 15" W= 0 0 0
𝐶𝐴𝐷 0 22 1
1 1 94° 04′ 20" 0
0 0 0 52 1
[1 0] [45° 38′ 55" ] [0 0 0 0 102 ]
STEP 3: Find metric 𝑨𝑻 𝐖 𝑨
1
0 0 0 0 1 0
52 1 0
0 0
0 22 1 0 1
10111 0
𝑇
𝐴 𝑊𝐴 = [ ]× 0 0 2 0 × 1 1
01110 2 1 0
0 0 0 52 1
1 1
[0 0 0 0 2] [1 0]
10
1 0
0 1
0.04 0 0.25 0.04 0.01 0.34 0.29
𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [ ]× 1 1 = [ ]
0 0.25 0.25 0.04 0 0.29 0.54
1 1
[1 0]
STEP 4: Find Determinant for matrix ( 𝐀𝐓 𝐖 𝐀 )
0.34 0.29
Det 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [ ]= 0.0995
0.29 0.54
STEP 5: Minor matrix r for (𝑨𝑻 𝐖𝑨)
0.54 0.29
minor 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 = [ ]
0.29 0.34
NFZ-JKA PMM 82
STEP 6: Adjoint matrix 𝑨𝑻 𝐖𝑨
𝐴𝑑𝑗( 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = (𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴)𝑇
+ − +
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟(𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) [− + −]
+ − +
0.54 0.29 0.54 −0.29

𝑐𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = [ ] 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴) = [ ]
0.29 0.34 −0.29 0.34
STEP 7: Inverse matrix ( 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨)
1
(𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴)−1 = ( 𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴))
det(𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴)
1080 −580
1 0.54 −0.29
= ×[ ] = [ 199 199 ]
0.0995 −0.29 0.34 −580 680
199 199
STEP 8: Find matrix (𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑳)

1 0 0 0 0 45° 38′ 56"
1 0 0 0
52 48° 25′ 20"
1 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 0
𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐿 = [ ]. 0 2 ∙ 94° 04′ 15"
01110 0 0 22 1 0
0 0 0 52 1 94° 04′ 20"
′
[0 0 0 0 102 ] [45° 38 55" ]
45° 38′ 56"

48° 25′ 20"
0.04 0 0.25 0.04 0.01 29°33′ 47"
=[ ] ∙ 94° 04′ 15" = [ ]
0 0.25 0.25 0.04 0 39°23′10"
′
94° 04 20"
[45° 38′ 55" ]
NFZ-JKA PMM 83
−𝟏
STEP 9: Solve 𝒙 = (𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑨 ) . 𝑨𝑻 𝑾𝑳
−1
𝑥 = (𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐴 ) . 𝐴𝑇 𝑊𝐿
1080 −580
′ ′
[
𝐵𝐴𝐶] = [ 199 199
× [29°33 47"] = [45° 38 58.48" ]
𝐶𝐴𝐷 −580 680 ]
199 199
39°23′10" 48° 25′ 19.3"
BAC = 45° 38′ 58.48"
CAD = 48° 25′ 19.3"
DAF = 180° − ( 45° 38′ 58.48" + 48° 25′ 19.3" )

= 85° 55′ 42.22"
“You don’t have to be great to start,

but you have to start to be great”
-Zig Ziglar-
NFZ-JKA PMM 84
Tutorial
Question 1
Calculate the adjustment length AD and its estimated error given Figure 3 and the
observation data below
line Distance, m
AB 3.17
BC 1.12
CD 2.25
AC 4.31
AD 6.51
BD 3.36
Question 2
The use of least square adjustment principle is to solve the redundant

equations. From the equations below:
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 21 + 𝑉1
24𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 11 + 𝑉2
4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 20 + 𝑉3
i. State the number of variables and observation

ii. Calculate the variable by using the principles of least square
adjustment.
NFZ-JKA PMM 85
Question 3
Using the conditional equation method, what are the most probable values
for the three interior angles of a triangle that were measured as.
station angle Std. dev
A 58° 14′ 56" 5.2”
B 65° 03′ 34" 5.2”
C 56° 40′ 20" 5.2”
Question 4
Calculate the variables for the elevations of B, C and D. Use the least square
adjustment method. Given the elevation of BM 1 is 40.213m
From To elevation Std. dev
A B 10.509 0.006
B C 5.360 0.004
C D -8.523 0.005
D A -7.348 0.003
B D -3.167 0.004
A C 15.881 0.012
NFZ-JKA PMM 86
Reference
Abdul Wahid Idris dan Halim Setan. (2001). Pelarasan Ukur. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan
Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
Azman Mohd Suldi dan Kamaluddin Hj Talib. (1994). Monograf: Penghitungan

penyelarasan. Shah Alam: UiTM.
D.Ghilani, c. (2010). Adjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis fifth Edition. New
Jersy: John Wiley & Sons, INC.
Khalid, H. F. (2003). Nota Program KPSL JUPEM. Ipoh: PUO.
Mikhail, Edward M. (1981). Analysis and Adjustment of Survey Measurements. Van

Nostrand Reinhold
NFZ-JKA PMM 87
SURVEY ADJUSTMENT provides the students with knowledge on adjustment.
The book emphasizes the calculation of adjustment using the least square
adjustment method through observation and condition equations in solving
surveyed data. Besides, it is also provides students with knowledge and
practical skills to calculate and adjust surveyed data.
True value of measurement is unknown

Actual size of error is unknown
Errors exist in measurement data & computed
results

Survey Adjustment

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Least Square Adjustment

True value of measurement

NOOR FAIZAH BINTI ZOHARDIN

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Noor Faizah Zohardin

SURVEY ADJUSTMENT provides the students with knowledge on adjustment.

NOOR FAIZAH BINTI ZOHARDIN

Chapter 2 : STATISTICAL SAMPLE

Chapter 3 : VARIANCE- COVARIANCE PROPAGATION

Chapter 4 : WEIGHT OF OBSERVATION

Chapter 5 : LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT APPLICATIONS

Good measurement required a combination of human

Chapter 1: Introduction to Survey

• Adjustment is a process of making measured values of a quantity

• The method of estimating and distributing random errors in the

PURPOSE OF SURVEY ADJUSTMENT

• To evaluate and measure the confidence in result

• To determine how accurate each value is

• To estimating and distributing random errors in the observed values

• To reduce error size when making measurement

• To analyst the error and adjust the data

• To analysing and adjusting survey data

• To identify the Accuracy standard for survey obtained from least

Table 1.1 : Mathematical Model

Adjustment computations is an The determination of variances, and

To describe a system or physical To describe probability variable like

Equations used in modeling Describes random/stochastic

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Table 1.2 : Different between accuracy and precision

Degree of closeness between the Degree of closeness of observation

Figure 1.1: Comparison between accuracy and precise

ERROR IN SURVEY MEASUREMENT

Figure 1.2 : Source of error in Survey Observation

• The result of blunders or mistakes that are due to carelessness of the

Table 1.3 : Types of error

Gross Error Systematic Error Random Error

caused by confusion or • Biases Remain in measurement

They are not classified as If condition change, -normal distribution table

1. Determine purpose of survey adjustment

2. Justify advantages of Survey adjustment

3. Describe the term of accuracy and precision in land survey.

4. Explain the types of error in measurement

5. Sketch a suitable diagram and state the meaning of accuracy and

6. Explain the source of error in measurement

7. Explain two types of Mathematic Model

Chapter 2: Statistic & Analysis

Numerical Statistical Sample

Mean is the average of the observation.

most commonly observed value in a set of data

• The midpoint of sample data set when arranged in ascending or

range = max value of observation – min value of observation

𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

60.214 60.217 60.214

60.215 60.211 60.219

60.214 60.213 60.212

Table 2.2 : Observation data

Range = 35.432 – 35.419 = 0.013

Figure 2.1 : Step to get median and mode

Table 2.3 : Answer for this question