RESEARCH WORK IN

TIMBER

SUBMITTED BY: ISRAELA PASCUAL BURAYAG

BS- ARCHITECTURE 4-A

SUBMIITED TO: ENGR. ISAURO ANDASAN

TIMBER
 STEEL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a similar thermal expansion
coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is also used
to provide deep foundations and basements and is currently the world's primary
building material.

Structural steel is a popular construction material, often used alongside concrete to

create impressive and long-lasting buildings. Its versatility, sustainability and
flexibility are some of the main reasons for its use, as well as being a very cost-
effective material. With a high strength-to-weight ratio, steel can often provide a
solution where other materials are unsuitable. Let’s look at some of these advantages
and how they can be incorporated into the design of a building to overcome specific
issues.

Flexibility and Adaptability

Long-span steel sections can be used to create large, open spaces which can be easily
adapted, making them extremely flexible in terms of use. These spaces can be divided
easily using temporary or flexible partition solutions and changed later with minimal
cost, demolition, and disruption as the requirements of the building change. Steel also
comes in varying sizes and weights that make it suitable for a wide range of uses in
construction, depending on the loads involved and the desired result.

Sustainability
Steel has several environmental benefits, such as being 100% recyclable. In the UK,
the estimated recovery rate of recycled steel from steel structures is 96%, and globally
recycled steel accounts for 50% of new steel production. Prefabricated and highly
accurate steel structures also allow for easy and waste-free assembly on site, reducing
construction duration as well as the amount of materials sent to landfill.

Speed of Construction
One of the main reasons for choosing structural steel is the speed of construction,
especially where disruption to nearby roads and buildings can be an issue. As steel is
fabricated to exact measurements, erection is a reasonably straightforward process of
joining the structural elements together on site. By minimizing the impact on the local
area and speeding up the construction process, many cost savings can be realized.

Sustainability
Steel has several environmental benefits, such as being 100% recyclable. In the UK,
the estimated recovery rate of recycled steel from steel structures is 96%, and globally
recycled steel accounts for 50% of new steel production. Prefabricated and highly
accurate steel structures also allow for easy and waste-free assembly on site, reducing
construction duration as well as the amount of materials sent to landfill.

Speed of Construction
One of the main reasons for choosing structural steel is the speed of construction,
especially where disruption to nearby roads and buildings can be an issue. As steel is
fabricated to exact measurements, erection is a reasonably straightforward process of
joining the structural elements together on site. By minimizing the impact on the local
area and speeding up the construction process, many cost savings can be realized.

The Importance of Steel in Today's Construction

Steel has been used in construction since the first skyscrapers were built in the late
19th century. But recently, steel has become an option for smaller buildings and even
personal residences. Using steel has certain advantages:

Steel is considered a “green” product in that it is entirely recyclable. In fact, a builder

will be able to buy recycled steel for a new commercial building or home.

The material provides strength that is unavailable for buildings built with wood
frames and brick walls. It does not warp, buckle, twist, or bend and is flexible and
easy to install. Because of its increased quality and ease of maintenance steel is an
attractive building material. It resists mold and mildew, a plague that sometimes
afflicts wood frame buildings. Steel is sturdy enough that it resists the damage caused
by natural disasters, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and earthquakes. Steel buildings
are much more resistant to fire and termites. Because of steel’s greater durability, the
owner of such a building could get a better deal on insurance.

Because of steel’s strength and durability compared to wood, architects have more
flexibility in designing buildings and homes, creating greater spaces

Building with steel has some drawbacks, however. Steel is more costly than more
conventional materials. How Stuff Works notes that a steel building is 14 percent
more costly than an equivalent structure constructed with more conventional
materials. To make a steel building truly energy efficient requires additional
insulation because of the material conducts heat and cold more than conventional
materials. If a steel building is not designed well, it may be prone to corrosion.
The trick to building with steel is to find a contractor who is experienced in using the
material, as well as plumbers and electricians willing to work on a steel building. But
building with steel is a worthwhile investment if one is willing to spend the money up
front.

How steel is used in buildings and infrastructure?

The possibilities for using steel in buildings and infrastructure are limitless. The most
common applications are listed below.

For buildings
Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building and make up
25% of the steel use in buildings.
Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete and make up
44% of steel use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a
similar thermal expansion coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective.
Reinforced concrete is also used to provide deep foundations and basements and is
currently the world’s primary building material.
Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins, internal walls,
ceilings, cladding, and insulating panels for exterior walls.
Non-structural steel: steel is also found in many non-structural applications in
buildings, such as heating and cooling equipment and interior ducting.
Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails, shelving and stairs are also made of steel.

For infrastructure
Transport networks: steel is required for bridges, tunnels, rail track and in
constructing buildings such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About
60% of steel use in this application is as rebar and the rest is sections, plates and rail
track.
Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the steel used for this application is in
underground pipelines to distribute water to and from housing, and to distribute gas.
The rest is mainly rebar for power stations and pumping houses.
 COMPARISON OF STEEL, LUMBER, AND CONCERETE

Concrete

makes it possible to design very robust and durable buildings, and taking advantage of
its thermal mass by keeping it inside the building envelope can help regulate interior
temperatures. There is also an increasing use of precast concrete in the building
industry, which offers advantages in terms of environmental impact, cost and speed of
construction - especially if choosing carbon negative concrete CMU blocks using
Carbicrete and also low-carbon concrete from CarbonCure.
“Concrete has been used for structures since Ancient Greece and Rome,” said
Marianne Fourie of the International Federation for Structural Concrete.
“Technological improvements and innovations over the centuries have refined its use.
Structural concrete today allows engineers and architects to design and achieve
striking edifices that are as robust as they can be aesthetic. Advances have also led to
the more widespread use of precast concrete, which offers great benefits of cost and
speed of construction.” When it comes to larger edifices, such as tall buildings and
bridges, Fourie argues that nothing comes close to structural concrete for sheer
strength and durability. Part of its attraction, she says, is also its versatility. “There is
no reason to limit design to one material only,” said Fourie.  “Assimilating other
materials into concrete structure design is simple. However, structural concrete is not
only used in conjunction with other materials but also incorporates them, for example,
with fibre-reinforced concrete.

Steel

stands out for its speed and efficiency in construction. It's relative light weight and
ease of construction allows for a workforce about 10 to 20% smaller compared to a
similar concrete-based structure being built. Steel structures also have excellent
durability.
“Steelwork in major construction is on the rise as builders become more attuned to the
advantages of using the material in easing onsite risks, speeding development for
earlier returns and environmental benefits,” said Alan Marshall, communications
manager at the Australian Steel Institute. The US-based Council on Tall Buildings
and Urban Habitat recently reported the number of composite multi-level projects
over 200 metres that typically comprise a steel frame with metal decking, rose 54 per
cent worldwide in 2014. Marshall argues the case for steel under three key criteria:
speed and efficiency; the reduction of on-site risks; and sustainability and waste
reduction.
Lumber

is much lighter by volume than both concrete and steel, it is easy to work with and
very adaptable on site. It is durable, results in less thermal bridging than its
counterparts and easily incorporates prefabricated elements. Its structural performance
is very high and its compressive strength is similar to that of concrete.It has higher
structural efficiency as carried load per unit weight compared to reinforced concrete
and steel structures. A common stud used in house construction has similar
compressive strength to general purpose concrete. Many timbers are either naturally
durable or can be easily treated to make very durable. Wood, the raw material of
structural lumber products, is made from energy from the sun and carbon absorbed
from the air (from the carbon dioxide in the air). Half the dry mass of timber is carbon
absorbed from the air. Lumber used internally provides a healthier environment for
occupants as it helps maintain a better relative humidity. The vast majority of
structural lumber is sourced from sustainably managed forests and plantations.

All about steel construction: safe, reliable, high ROI

In Canada, the cost of steel typically falls between wood and concrete, and the
associated return on investment (ROI) is generally quite high. According to a recent
study by ArcelorMittal comparing six-storey concrete and steel structures, steel came
in 9.6% cheaper than concrete with all factors considered and apple to apple
comparison is made.
This low-maintenance material has a longer lifespan than wood, which makes for
lasting structures that can be erected in any type of weather. Thanks to lightweight
profile of steel components and high strength to weight ratio, foundations for steel
buildings are considerably lighter than under concrete structures that can be up to
50% heavier than steel structures. Steel also has an advantage in the event of
earthquakes. It offers the highest ductility of all materials and allows resistant
building steel structures to bend considerably without breaking. In the event of a fire,
steel will not combust, while wood carries a larger risk – in short, its durability is a
major selling point!
Steel has recycled content of 93% and a recycling rate of 98%, which makes it the
highest of any building framing material. Other products can only be recycled into
lower quality products (down-cycled), while steel can be recycled over and over again
and remade into new components without any loss of quality (multi-cycled). This
makes steel the first and only true “cradle to cradle” building framing material.
Since you can prefabricate steel components, this material is particularly easy to
install and requires much less manipulation on-site. Compared to wood and concrete,
it provides superior sound insulation, and contrary to popular belief, it’s just as
effective for climate control (since all structures need to respect the same energy
efficiency standards).

All about concrete construction: durable, fire-resistant, sound insulation

Similarly to steel, concrete boasts high sound and fire ratings, and it is overall quite
durable and low-maintenance. However, it cannot be cast in certain weather
conditions, making for a shorter construction season: it is unable to set in the winter or
in extreme heat. Additionally, while steel is 100% recyclable, concrete can only be
reused as aggregate, and it creates lots of CO2 during production.
Given the limited regional availability and the lack of skilled labour required to install
it, this material is typically the most expensive of the three – though prices do
fluctuate quite a bit from coast to coast. The weight of concrete makes it susceptible
to damage in the event of an earthquake, and it is also associated with more costly soil
improvement when used on a subpar soil condition.
In our recent case study we compared the building schedule of our Hambro steel
building system versus traditional concrete, for a four-story 155,000 square feet
(14,400 square meter) senior care residence and we found that the steel structure took
10 weeks less to erect (14 weeks for steel versus 24 weeks for concrete) . This
translates into hundreds of thousands of dollars in savings if building revenues and
reduced bank interest costs were taken into account due to earlier occupancy of the
building.

All about lumber construction: affordable, widely available labour

Traditionally, wood is the lowest-cost material on the market, though it tends to be
less durable than steel and concrete. Due to shrinkage, warping, and susceptibility to
mold, wood requires more maintenance, and it is more vulnerable to pest infestations
due to its organic nature.
In that same vein, construction of lumber structures are highly susceptible to adverse
weather conditions and must be erected in good weather conditions: if the percentage
of moisture in the wood material is too high, the wood will experience too much
shrinkage and you will be unable to close up the structure. If you are building in a
predictable climate, this should not be an issue, but it can lead to delays and budget
overages in less consistent climates.
Compared to steel, lumber is often not prefabricated, meaning that most of the
components need to be cut and assembled onsite. While labor for wood tends to be
more available and less expensive, the additional input can still rack up a large bill.
Arguably the largest drawback of lumber is the combustion risk and fire protection:
on-site, it is prone to fire due to the friction created by tools and the heaters used on
the construction job sites.
When there is a fire in a steel or concrete building, the structure does not burn; only
the finishes and contents inside the building. Following a fire, steel and concrete
buildings can be rehabbed and reused again. The same is not true for combustible
lumber construction. That is why the All Risk insurance rates for wood buildings are
double those for steel buildings. It is much less cost effective to bring the wood
structures to the same level of basic code requirement for fire and sound protection.  
Environmentally speaking, lumber has the lowest carbon footprint, especially if it is
harvested sustainably and associated with forest regrowth efforts. However, it is less
recyclable than steel, and its availability can be limited if a harvest zone is
experiencing a pest infestation or fires.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION

Steel is one of the most generally utilized materials of construction time. Without
steel, the structure doesn't make a definite while seismic tremors like earthquakes Etc
happen. Steel structures are susceptible to various ecological conditions. There are a
few properties wherein concrete designs are preferred over steel. The utilization of
steel is consistently expanding everywhere globally in development projects and civil
engineering-related fields. The utilization of steel in development building became a
common practice, the weight of the structure material and the forces of gravity and
pressure defined the endurance, chance of stability in structure, and its architectural
possibilities. Each steel structure has some advantages as well as disadvantages. And
now, we are going to elaborate on the complete description regarding steel here.

ADVANTANGES
Steel is moderately cheap when compared with other structural materials
Steel structures are highly fire-resistant when contrasted to a wooden design as wood
is a combustible material and less fire-resistant when determined with RCC structure.

One of the advantages of using a steel structure in development is that steel's ability to
span greater distances with steel ceiling joists. This enables architects to grow their
choices, allowing them to make new/huge space utilizing steel items that weren't
accessible with different materials.

Steel can be efficiently & effectively manufactured and significantly delivered. Steel
structures can be provided off-site at shop floors and after that gathered nearby. This
spares time and increases the efficiency of the general development process.
Steel structures can withstand outside weights, for example, earthquakes,
thunderstorms, and cyclones. A well-fabricated steel structure can last more than30
years whenever looked after well.

Flexibility is the main advantages of steel structure, which means that it tends to be
planned according to the design requirements. This plots a steel structure to withstand
heavy winds or earthquakes, especially in the bridges or tall towers.

Because of simple-to-make portions of a steel structure, it is hassle-free to install and

assemble them on-site, and there is no need to estimate and cut off parts nearby.

Some of the common advantages of using steel buildings are Design, Strength and
Durability, Light in Weight, Easy Installation and Speed in Construction, Versatile,
Flexibility, Ductility, Easy Fabrication in Different Sizes, Fire Resistance, Pest, and
Insect Resistant, Moisture and Weather Resistance, Adaptability, Cost-effective,
Environment Friendly, Energy Efficiency, Improved Construction Quality,
Temporary Structures, Safe and Resistant and Risk Index.

DISADVANTAGES
Buckling is an issue with steel structures. As the length of the steel segment builds,
the chances of buckling also increase.

Steel is available only at the steel plants where it is produced and should be
transported for long distances to the construction site, not at all like concrete or
different materials that might be accessible right at the site of development.

Due to rust in steel, costly paints are required to reestablish from time to time so that
resistance against severe conditions increments.

Even though steel is a flexible material, it is challenging to make field corrections if

one or more components do not fit appropriately. A large portion of the metal
structure performs adhere to strict quality assurance procedures guarantee all pieces of
a system fit accurately. But in actual it is not possible. One can't form it or cut it in the
ideal shape on-site once it is fabricated.

Steel can't mold in any path you required. It must be utilized in structures in which
areas initially exist.

Steel is a good conductor of heat, touches off materials in contact, and often causes
fires, quickly spreading to different segments of a structure. Hence, steel structures
may require extra fireproofing treatment.
All the Advantages & Disadvantages of Steel Structures are explained to know
complete information about steel to able to use the steel in a better manner for the
construction process.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LUMBER IN CONSTRUCTION

Lumber, also known as timber, is wood that has been processed into beams and
planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for
structural purposes but has many other uses as well. ... It is more commonly made
from softwood than hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood.

ADVANTAGES

Simplicity of construction. The wood beams, joists, and studs can be cut to size onsite
and, unlike some other construction materials, no heavy equipment is required.
Speed of construction. While the frame is generally built on site, some elements can
be prefabricated allowing for greater control of details and less time in construction.

Sustainability. Wooden buildings are, unlike concrete and steel ones, made from a
renewable resource and one that is especially abundant in North America: trees.
Carbon-capture benefits. Over the course of its life cycle, trees remove carbon from
the air, but they return that captured carbon into the soil and the atmosphere when
they eventually decompose. When wood is used in the construction of a house,
however, the carbon remains trapped, at least as long as the building still stands.
Insulation. Compared to other materials like glass, concrete, and steel, wood has low-
thermal conductivity—in other words, it retains heat and makes for a more energy
efficient home.

Improved air quality. Some studies indicate that the air quality in wood buildings is
better, with fewer toxic emissions compared to some other construction materials.
Disadvantages

DISADVANTAGES

Wood rot. While huge advances have been made in the treatment of wood to extend
its life span, it still remains more subject to rot than concrete. Mold and mildew can
also be concerns with wood construction, though they can also be avoided if attention
is paid to moisture control, properly sealing windows, and taking other preventative
measures.

Structural limitations. Wood is an excellent choice for many traditional houses,

especially those in a timber frame style. Some design features found in more
contemporary houses, however, like cantilevered elements or large windows, can be
difficult to achieve relying on wood frame construction. Concrete and steel structures
may be more appropriate choices for some contemporary home designs.
Fire risks. The application of fire retardants and the installation of sprinkler systems
can limit the risk of fire in completed wood-frame buildings, but builders should be
aware of the fire hazards in the early stages of construction, when the wood frame is
largely exposed and unprotected.
Building code limitations. While the International Code Council has become more
accepting of wood construction, in general these buildings still cannot be as tall as
others. Recent changes to building codes have, however, created more alternatives.
For example, a 2015 update allows for construction of wood structures atop concrete
podiums, allowing mostly wood constructions to reach new heights.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

IN CONSTRUCTION

Concrete is considered as a chemically combined mass where the inert material acts
as a filler and the binding materials act as a binder. The most important binding
materials are cement and lime. Inert materials used in concrete are termed as
aggregates. Most common aggregates are sand, brick chips, stone chips, gravels,
shells etc. The concrete plays a very important role in all branches of civil
engineering.

Concrete is an inexpensive, quick and durable way to complete many construction

projects. However, there are advantages and disadvantages associated with this
material. For example, while concrete becomes stronger and more durable with time,
it is susceptible to water and freezing temperatures, meaning that water can seep into
cracks and cause damage to the concrete.

There are many benefits associated with using concrete in construction projects
including the fact that the material can be molded into any shape and used for just
about any function. If it is reinforced with steel, concrete can also be used to create
solid, earthquake-proof structures. Repairs are easily done by spraying additional
material onto the concrete or filling in cracks and divots with new material. The
material can also be used in hard-to-reach locations.

Concrete is porous, which makes it susceptible to staining and molding issues. For
this reason, many concrete slabs are finished much like granite. This is especially true
if the material is used indoors. Concrete expands and contracts along with moisture
and temperature conditions, making it possible for cracks to form if the concrete is not
laid using proper contraction joints. The material is also heavy, which makes it
impractical for some jobs.

ADVANTANGES

*Concrete ingredients are easily available.

*Concrete can be easily handles and moulded to any desired shape.

*Concrete can be easily transported from the place of mixing to place of casting
before initial set takes place.

*Concrete can be pumped or sprayed to fill into cracks and lining of tunnels.
Using steel as reinforcement it is possible to build any structure; be it lintel or a
massive fly-over.

*The monolithic character of concrete gives it better appearance and much rigidity to
the structure.

*The property of concrete to possess high compressive strength makes a concrete

structure more economical than steel structure.

*Ingredients of concrete are easily available in most of the places.

*Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.

*Concrete can be manufactured to the desired strength with an economy.

*The durability of concrete is very high.

*It can be cast to any desired shape.

*The casting of concrete can be done in the working site which makes it economical.

*The maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.

*The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.

*Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its noncombustible nature.

*Concrete can withstand high temperatures.

*Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm shelters.

*As a soundproofing material cinder concrete could be used.

DISADVANTAGES

*Concrete possess low tensile strength. Therefore concrete is required to be reinforced

to avoid cracks.

*In long structures, expansion joints are required to be provided if there is large
temperature variance in the area.

*Due to drying shrinkage and moisture expansion concrete may crack. Therefore
construction joints are provided to avoid these types of cracks.

*If soluble salt is present in concrete then it may lead to efflorescence when comes in
contact with moisture.
*Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement, gets integrated in the presence of
alkalies, sulphates etc.

*Sustained loads develop creep in structures.

*Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively

low.

*Concrete is less ductile.

*The weight of compared is high compared to its strength.

*Concrete may contains soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence.

EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENT ROLL STEEL SHAPES

Different Forms of Rolled Steel Sections

Various forms of rolled steel sections are as follows:

Angle sections
Channel sections
T- sections
I-sections
Round bars
Square bars
Flat bars
Corrugated sheets
Expanded metal
Plates
Ribbed bars (HYSD)
Ribbed bars (mild steel)
Thermo-mechanically treated bars
Welded wire fabrics
1. Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some angle
sections contains legs with similar dimensions are called as equal angle sections and
some contains different legs are called as unequal angle sections.
Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler joist floors.

Equal angle sections are available from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200mm

x 25 mm with their corresponding weights as 9 N and 736 N per meter length
respectively.
Unequal angle sections are available from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200mm x
150mm x 18mm with 11 and 469 N per meter length weight respectively.

2. Rolled Channel Sections

The channel section or C- section consists two equal flanges connected to web at both
ends. Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed structures.
They are available in various sizes ranging from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400mm x 100
mm. Corresponding unit weights are 58 N and 494 N per meter length respectively.
3. Rolled T- Sections

T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used in steel
roof trusses to form built up sections. Two angle sections can also be joined to get T
section.
Rolled T sections size varies from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150mm x 10
mm with 9 N and 228 N as their corresponding weights per meter length.

4. Rolled I - Sections

I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are extensively used
as beams, lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges and a web connected as shown
in figure.
These are available in various sizes ranges from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N per meter
length to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N per meter length.
5. Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as reinforcement in
concrete and steel grill work etc. Round bars are available in various diameters varies
from 5 mm to 250 mm.

6. Rolled Square Bars

Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for gates,
windows, grill works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges from 5 mm to 250
mm.
7. Rolled Flat Bars

Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are designated
with width of the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm. thickness of flat bars will
be from 3 mm to 40 mm.

8. Corrugated Sheets

Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by pressing them
called corrugations. These sheets are used for roof coverings.
9. Expanded Metal

Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut through
machine and expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is appeared in this type of
sheets.

10. Rolled Steel Plates

Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for connecting steel
beams, tensional member in roof truss etc. They are designated with their thickness
which is varying from 5 mm to 50 mm.
11. Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing but
projections produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled condition. The twist
is made according the standard requirements.

HYSD bars are important innovation of steel and they are extensively used as main
reinforcement materials in all concrete works like bridges, buildings, precast concrete
works, foundations, roads etc..

12. Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike HYSD ribbed
bars but these bars are not recommended by any code and they also have very less
strength compared to HYSD bars.
13. Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars

Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a special

technique in which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched by spraying water on
it. So, surface of bar gets cooled down and inner side or core of the bar still in hot
condition.
The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of different
temperature, the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits good elongation at
ultimate failure.
Copper, phosphorus and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing process of TMT
bars which improves its corrosion resistance.

14. Welded Wire Fabrics

Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are arranged
perpendicular to each other and welded at all intersection.These are used as
reinforcement for floor slabs, small canal linings, pavement’s etc.
 Example of cross section, label with of web, flanges, depth,etc.

W-Shape
The W shape is a structural member whose cross section forms the letter H and is the
most widely used structural member. It is designed so that its flanges provide strength
in a horizontal plane, while the web gives strength in a vertical plane. W-shapes are
used as beams, columns, and truss members, and in other load-bearing applications.

Bearing Pile
The bearing pile (HP-shape) is almost identical to the W-shape. The only difference is
that the flange thickness and web thickness of the bearing pile are equal, whereas the
W-shape has different web and flange thicknesses.

Wide Flange
The typical "I Beam" used in construction. Example - W18x35, where "W" = Wide
flange, 18 = nominal depth of member in inches, and 35 = weight of beam in pounds
per linear foot. Used for beams, columns, piles, bracing and other heavy applications.
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