GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 76, NO. 4 (JULY-AUGUST 2011); P. B127–B137, 15 FIGS.

10.1190/1.3581199

Case History

Characterizing seismic bright spots in deeply buried, Ordovician

Paleokarst strata, Central Tabei uplift, Tarim Basin, Western China
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Hongliu Zeng1, Guizhong Wang2, Xavier Janson1, Robert Loucks1, Yiping Xia2, Ligui Xu2,
and Bingheng Yuan2
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

ABSTRACT and allowed terrigenous sediments to enter an underground

cave system. Karst-related bright spots probably correspond to
Anomalous seismic-amplitude bright spots are a common paleocaves that initiated along an early regional fracture net-
feature in deeply buried (5500 to 6500 m) Ordovician lime- work and later were enhanced and altered by additional dis-
stone strata in the Central Tabei Uplift area of the Tarim Basin charges in the surface drainage system. A few examples of
in northwest China. Those anomalies have proven to be useful bright spots are interpreted to be related to postkarstification
indicators of reservoir quality. The bright spots as seen on seis- faults that might have had a hydrothermal origin.
mic data are tied to high-gamma ray, low-velocity zones in Distribution of bright spots provides a useful reference in
wireline logs, and correspond to clastic cave sediment-fills in mapping regional collapsed-paleokarst systems. Bright spots
the host limestone in core. Synthetic seismic models confirm typically are associated with circular and linear faults, and
this relationship between seismic bright spots and cave- V-shaped depression patterns are related to a collapsed paleo-
sediment fills. A seismic traveltime map of the top Ordovician cave complex. Seismic-scale mapping and visualization of
unconformity illustrates erosional topography and seismic the paleokarst system can be achieved by interpreting circular
geomorphologic patterns associated with the unconformity and linear faults using continuity attributes and by analyzing
with numerous sinuous fluvial channels and canyons, fluvial the relationship among faults, local depressions, and bright
valleys, sinkholes, and tower karsts and hills. A mature surface spots.
drainage system interacted with a near-surface karst system

INTRODUCTION west, with a slope of 18 to 28 (Figure 1b). Complex Ordovician

oil and gas plays generally are not structural closures but
The Tarim Basin (Figure 1a) is a complex basin with a num- depend more on stratigraphic trapping. They commonly include
ber of uplifts and depressions that developed as the result of a multiple poorly connected pools with different hydrocarbon-
long and complicated tectonic history (Jia, 1997; Jia et al., water contacts (Zou et al., 2009). Although a karst-related pore
1998). The northern Tarim Basin includes three main tectonic network has not been convincingly identified in core, it has
units: the Kalpin Uplift, the Kuqa Depression, and the Tabei been suggested that karst processes are a factor in the play (e.g.,
Uplift (Figure 1a). Guo, 1993; Li et al., 1996; Gu, 1999; Lü et al., 2004; Liu et al.,
Karsted Ordovician limestone and dolostone are highly pro- 2007; Peng and Shi, 2008; Zou et al., 2009). Zeng et al. (2010)
ductive oil and gas reservoirs in the central Tabei Uplift. The show interaction between the surface karst-drainage system and
field is a large anticline that is bounded by reverse faults in the the shallow-subsurface cave-passage system in Ordovician strata
north and by flanks of the anticline dip to the south and south- in the area. Surface fluvial canyons appear to initiate in areas

Manuscript received by the Editor 16 November 2010; revised manuscript received 4 March 2011; published online 3 June 2011.
1
University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences, Austin, Texas. E-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected].
2
BGP Inc., CNPC, China. E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected].
C 2011 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
V

B127
 B128 Zeng et al.

associated with intense sinkhole development. Also, surface river Loucks (1999) indicates that large cave-related voids gener-
valleys tend to correspond to dip-oriented surface depressions ally have collapsed and disappeared by 3000 m of burial. There-
partly related to near-surface cave collapse. Zeng et al. (2010) fore, large voids associated with paleocave chambers would be
characterize the Ordovician carbonate reservoir succession as a unexpected and unusual at these depths. In addition, core analy-
product of complex karstification related to a paleokarst drainage ses have shown that the matrix porosity in conventional cores is
system and subsequent paleocave collapse during burial. extremely low (<3%). Consequently, strong reflection ampli-
In the last decade, 3D seismic data have played a crucial role tudes related to high reflection coefficients at brine-hydrocarbon
in hydrocarbon exploration in the area. The frequent occurrence fluid contacts, typical in shallow porous unconsolidated reser-
of anomalous seismic amplitudes (bright spots) in the Middle voirs (e.g., Gregory, 1977), are not expected. However, bright
and Lower Ordovician succession beneath the top Ordovician spots (lamb kebab as the operator called them) typically are used
unconformity is characteristic of the studied area. These bright- as indicators of reservoir quality in carbonate strata in the area.
spot anomalies in limestones are uncommon at these great Local exploration has shown that targeting the bright spots has
depths (5500 to 6500 m) because limestones generally are tight resulted in hydrocarbon shows with a more than 80% success rate.
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as a result of extensive diagenesis. The major objectives of this study are to document the origin
of bright spots in the context of coalesced,
collapsed-paleocave systems, and provide an
effective procedure for interpreting seismic-
scale collapsed paleocaves that will help predict
new drilling locations.

DATA AND RESOLUTION

A high-quality 3D seismic data set of 400-
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

km2 (Figure 1b) was available for this study. Bin

size of the data is 25  25 m, with a full fold of
72. Acquired and processed in 2008, the data are
significantly improved from previous surveys in
the area. The seismic traces are characterized by
a frequency content of 5 to 55 Hz with a pre-
dominant frequency of 25 Hz in the deep inter-
val of study at 5650 to 6400 m (Figure 2).
Compared to typically 10 to 15 Hz frequency
content in the Permian Basin of west Texas and
other areas at similar depths, the available data
are of exceptional quality. As a result, complex
erosional features expressed at the unconformity,
seismic reflection terminations (e.g., onlap,
fault), internal reflection configurations (e.g., sag,
disturbed zone), and amplitude anomalies can be
identified easily at these great depths (Figure
3a). In addition, wireline logs in four wells
within the seismic survey, conventional cores in
the field outside of the 3D survey area (Figure
1b), and outcrop data and analyses from the Xik-
eer area near Kalpin city (Figure 1a) provided
crucial calibration data for seismic interpretation.
The quality of interpreted results also depends
on seismic resolution. Theoretical vertical seis-
mic resolution, or one-quarter wavelength for
the 25-Hz wavelet, is 20 ms in traveltime.
Therefore, interpreters can resolve two uncon-
formities 60 m apart, or the top and base of
a 60-m-thick, collapsed-paleocave zone with
seismic data for the 6000-m/s limestone. The
seismic detection limit is much smaller than the
Figure 1. Location of the Tarim Basin and studied areas. (a) Tectonic components of resolution limit, and is determined predomi-
the Tarim Basin and surrounding area as a result of Cenozoic reactivation and rejuve- nantly by the signal-to-noise ratio of the seismic
nation of late Paleozoic orogenic belts and Indian-Tibetan collision (modified from
Jia et al., 1998). Shan means mountains in Chinese. (b) The study area is an anticline data. For this study, interpretation of seismic-
dipping gently south and southwest. Contours are on top of Ordovician. Dashed line is amplitude bright spots is of major interest. Real-
the boundary of current oil and gas play. istic modeling using interpreted subsurface
 Bright spots and paleokarst systems B129

Ordovician stratigraphy and wireline-log-derived rock properties

in the study area estimated the detection limit for the bright
spots to be 6 m (Xavier Janson, personal communication, 2010).

ORDOVICIAN PALEOKARST SYSTEM

Stratigraphy and seismic correlation
Ordovician stratigraphy in the Tarim Basin is summarized in
a stratigraphic column with a composite wireline log from the
study area (Figure 4). In the Tarim Basin, the Ordovician sec-
tion is divided into six formations (Figure 4), and the lower sec-
tion is equivalent to the Lower Ordovician Ellenburger Group in
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Texas.
Two regional unconformities (Tg5 and TO1p) have been identi-
fied at the top and at the base of the Ordovician, respectively.
As many as four unconformities (TO1y, TO2y, TO2yi, and Tg5pp),
probably third-order sequence boundaries, are found within the
Ordovician section in the study area. The upper part of the sec-
Figure 2. Frequency spectrum of seismic data used in this study.
tion beneath the top Ordovician unconformity (approximately Data sampled at 3900- to 4150-ms (5650- to 6400-m) interval that
150 ms or 450 m, or between Tg5 and TO2yi) is the main interval includes Ordovician and Lower Silurian sediments.
of this study (Figure 3b).
The Ordovician interval is composed predom-
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

inantly of limestone; dolostone is present only

in the Penglaiba Formation in the Lower Ordo-
vician section (Figure 4). The Ordovician sec-
tion in the study area is overlain by Silurian
sandstones and shales, Devonian shales, Carbon-
iferous sandstones and shales, and Permian
volcanic rocks and sediments. The Ordovician
section is exposed along thrust belts on the
north and northwest margin, mainly around Kal-
pin city (Figure 1a). In the subsurface, the Or-
dovician section has been penetrated extensively
by wells in the north, central, and east parts of
the basin, and the section can be correlated
throughout the basin (Zhang et al., 2003, p. 18).
In particular, correlation between the Kalpin
section in the outcrop area and the section in
the subsurface study area has been confirmed by
regional 2D-seismic correlations.
Detailed well-to-seismic ties are established
using synthetic seismograms (e.g., the synthetic
trace along the well track, Figure 3b). The top
of the Ordovician unconformity is characterized
by significant lithologic and acoustic changes
across the unconformity. The Ordovician lime-
stone has a high-velocity (average 6100 m/s)
and a low-API gamma ray reading, whereas the
overlying Silurian sandstone/shale units have a
low-velocity (average 4800 m/s) and a high-API
gamma ray reading.
The unconformity was picked in the 90 -phase
seismic data as a trough-peak zero crossing
(Tg5). For seismically thin beds, the zero crossing
on a 908-phase trace represents an acoustic im-
pedance (AI) boundary (Zeng and Backus,
Figure 3. Seismic dip section A–A0 showing reflection characteristics, well-seismic
2005a, 2005b). As a result, near the unconfor- tie, and major seismic reference events in Ordovician succession. See Figure 1b for
mity, the peak (black) event indicates Ordovician location. (a) Uninterpreted section with geologically meaningful seismic anomalies
limestone, and the overlain trough (red) event is highlighted. (b) Interpreted section with superimposed wireline logs and synthetic.
 B130 Zeng et al.

thought to be Silurian sandstone and shale. As seen with seismic lowering of the water table. If erosion lasts long enough, karst
data, the Silurian sandstones and shales onlap the unconformity towers may develop from the incisions and sink holes.
(Figure 3). In the shallow subsurface, cave passages developed in the
phreatic zone, which later were modified in the vadose zone,
Paleokarst system creating larger passages, chambers, and shafts. Within the cav-
ities, cave sediment was deposited, which can partially or totally
The typical near-surface karst terrain is well summarized in a fill a passage. Cave breakdown also occurs near the surface, cre-
block diagram by Loucks (1999) (Figure 5a). The model in the ating piles of breccia. Cave sediment and breakdown breccias
diagram depicts four basic elements of a karst system. Surface can form complex intermixed deposits.
drainage features such as rivers, streams, or canyons form on During burial, caves collapse, producing a collapsed zone
the exposed surface by eroding into carbonate host rocks. Sink- (Figure 5b, Loucks, 1999) with unique features such as chaotic
holes form as underground cavities collapse as a result of the breccia (fine and coarse), crackle fractures, circular faults, and
sag structures in younger formations. A buried, coalesced,
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collapsed-paleocave system commonly consists of numerous

collapsed-cave passages that are of variable size and filled with
breccia and sediment, and a broader damage zone of faults and
fractures connecting these collapsed tubes. Formation damage
includes intrastratal deformation in karsted strata and suprastra-
tal deformation in postkarst deposited strata (Loucks, 2007).
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

Figure 5. General features of a paleokarst system (modified from

Loucks, 1999). (a) Block diagram of near-surface karst terrain,
including surface, phreatic, and vadose cave features. (b) Sche-
matic diagram showing geometry and component facies of single-
Figure 4. Composite wireline log section showing stratigraphy, cave passage buried in deeper subsurface, where collapse and
lithology, and seismic horizon designations in the study area. extensive brecciation occur. Formation deformation includes
Stratigraphic nomenclature is modified from Zhang et al. (2003), intrastratal deformation in karsted strata and suprastratal deforma-
p. 19. tion in postkarst-deposited strata.
 Bright spots and paleokarst systems B131

The final product can be hundreds of meters thick and kilo- and discuss the links among bright spots and lithology, paleo-
meters wide and long. drainage systems, and late faulting.
A 3D relief map of interpreted seismic traveltime (Figure 6)
illustrates erosional topography on the Ordovician unconformity, Bright spots linked to cave sediments
which is interpreted at a strong trough-to-peak crossover in the
908-phase data (Tg5 in Figure 3b). Seismic geomorphologic fea- A conventional core section (Figure 8) in a well outside the
tures on the unconformity reveal a mature paleodrainage system 3D seismic survey but within the study area penetrates a
predicted in the model (Figure 5a). The geomorphologic and
depositional features that are recognized using seismic data
include fluvial channels and canyons, fluvial valleys, sinkholes,
and tower karsts and hills.
Fluvial channels and canyons cut into the carbonate terrain on
the higher plateau in the upstream area; channel width increases
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downstream, from tens of meters in upstream tips to several kilo-

meters in the downstream lowland area, with depths ranging from
50 to 100 m. Fluvial channels and canyons gradually widen and
merge into wide valleys in the southern downstream area. Numer-
ous sinkholes (50 to 500 m in diameter and 50 to 100 m deep)
are scattered throughout the area but are more clustered updip.
Tower karsts and hills are located between canyons, valleys, and
sinkholes. The modern Lijiang River drainage system on top of
the karsted formation in south China is a good analog (Purdy and
Waltham, 1999). For a more detailed description of the paleokarst
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

system in the study area, refer to Zeng et al. (2010).

In dip (Figure 3b) and strike (Figure 6) seismic sections, the Figure 6. Three-dimensional relief map on top of karsted Ordovi-
reflections of Ordovician limestone are deformed geometrically cian section (Tg5), picked at seismic volume flattened at Lower Si-
lurian reflection (Tg4p) (A–A0 in Figure 3). Topographic features
to various degrees. Whereas in some segments subhorizontal can be interpreted in terms of geomorphology of paleokarstic
and parallel reflections interpreted as reflecting the original bed- drainage systems, including fluvial channels and canyons, fluvial
ding of the strata still are preserved (undisturbed zone), else- valleys, sinkholes, and tower karsts and hills. Maximum relief
where reflection patterns are chaotic and random (disturbed from bottom of canyon to top of adjacent karst tower is 150 m.
zone). These chaotic features in disturbed zones were interpreted
as coalesced, collapsed paleocaves related to the paleokarstic
drainage system on top of the Ordovician (Zeng et al., 2010).
More intensive development of karstification occurred under flu-
vial valleys (Figure 6). A tight association between bright spots
and formation damage (karst effect) is observed; although scat-
tered bright spots can be identified throughout the section, they
are more clustered in disturbed zones (e.g., Figure 3b).
A coherency or continuity (Landmark ESP) attribute map at
the Ordovician unconformity surface (Figure 7) further reveals a
relationship between the surface drainage system and formation
damage. The circular, low-continuity features indicate highly
disturbed rocks in and around sinkholes near the surface, which
mostly are distributed to the updip (north) area of the drainage
channels and canyons. The disturbed zones in the sectional view
(e.g., A–A0 in Figure 3b and B–B0 in Figure 6) more likely are
tied to low-discontinuity (blackish) zones at or near the chan-
nels, canyons, and valleys. In the contrast, the undisturbed zones
are situated in high-continuity (whitish) zones between the chan-
nels, canyons, and valleys. The long-distance linear features
(white dashed lines) reflect late (Permian) faults in the area that
penetrated the deep strata (e.g., B–B0 in Figure 6) but show little
influence on orientation and distribution of the drainage system.
Figure 7. Continuity (Landmark ESP) attribute map at the Ordo-
INTERPRETATION OF BRIGHT SPOTS vician unconformity surface showing the relationship between the
surface drainage system and formation damage. The drainage
Isolated bright spots are the most striking features in the Ordo- channels, canyons and valleys are drawn from the interpreted
traveltime topography on the unconformity (Figure 6). Low-conti-
vician on seismic data. Their geologic interpretation and origin nuity (blackish) anomalies indicate sinkholes, disturbed near-sur-
are essential for oil and gas exploration and development of the face collapsed paleocaves in and around drainage system, and late
Ordovician in the study area. The following sections describe faults (white dashed lines).
 B132 Zeng et al.

disturbed zone in the Middle Ordovician beneath the unconfor- ment and in lesser abundance in laminated lime mudstone de-
mity surface (Tg5). The lower part of the cored section (photo c posited in a tidal flat environment.
in Figure 8) is undisturbed host rock composed mainly of bur- These facies show no visible pore network. This interval is
rowed lime mudstone deposited in a shallow, subtidal environ- overlain by matrix-supported, chaotic breccia containing large
clast that corresponds to the collapsed-cavern zone. Blocks that
measure decimeters to 1 m in size appear to be a mixture of
clasts that either were transported within the cave or fell from the
ceiling. Also present are matrix-supported, fine-clast chaotic brec-
cias, deposited by debris flows within an open cavity, which gen-
erally range in size from 1 mm to 1 dm. Several zones of reddish
(e.g., photo b in Figure 8) and greenish (e.g., photo a in Figure 8)
terrigenous sand, silt, and clay are interpreted as cave sediment
fill. Ripples and laminations in the sandstones are evidence of
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flow in underground streams.

These cave-sediment fill zones appear as high-gamma ray,
low-velocity zones on the sonic log in the well. Sonic-log veloc-
ities of 3700 to 3800 m/s characterize the cave sediments, which
is significantly lower than the 6100 m/s for the host limestone.
Although accounting for only 10% to 20% thickness of the
cored paleocave section along with low-gamma ray, higher-
velocity chaotic breccia, cave sediments can lower significantly
average impedance values of collapsed paleocave zones in the
host rock at the seismic scale.
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

The calculated average reflection coefficient across these im-

pedance contrasts is about 0.12, which would generate a reflec-
Figure 8. Core description of collapsed-paleocave section in Mid- tion event at the collapsed-paleocave interval having amplitudes
dle Ordovician, and correlation to wireline logs and equivalent
seismic section. (a and b) Zones of cave-sediment fill (high- similar to that of Silurian reflection atop the Ordovician uncon-
gamma ray, low-velocity sandstones) encased in host rock and formity, but significantly stronger than that of background
cave breccia. (c) Host rock (low-gamma ray, high-velocity lime- reflections within the Ordovician carbonate sequence. A syn-
stone). See Figure 1b for well location. thetic seismogram at the well ties two thicker packets (cave
sediments a and b, Figure 8) to seismic trough events, which
correlate to two seismic bright spots away from the well. The
bright spots therefore may indicate the existence of low-velocity
cave-sediment fills in paleocaves. An outcrop study in the Xik-
eer area (Figure 1a) adds evidence that probably Silurian-age,
laminated to massive, reddish, muddy to sandy sediments occur
between chaotic breccia bodies in the Ordovician system (Zeng
et al., 2010).

Bright spots related to paleocaves and passages

Without observing any large open-solution void (cave cham-
ber) or pore networks in the tight limestone core that may lead
to anomalous amplitudes, we conclude that most of the bright
spots are likely the result of a constructive tuning effect pro-
duced by thick cave sediments. If so, the bright spots highlight
the presence of collapsed paleocaves at the seismic scale.
A gross distribution map of bright spots (Figure 9) was made
by extracting maximum negative amplitudes in the upper section
of the Ordovician between Tg5pp and TO2yi (Figure 3b). The
interval comprises approximately 300 to 400 m of Ordovician
limestone that possibly was affected by karstification during ex-
posure at the top Ordovician unconformity. Individual bright
spots are roughly circular to ellipsoid, and generally range from
Figure 9. Gross distribution of high-amplitude bright spots made 100 to 500 m in width.
by extracting maximum negative amplitudes in the upper 300- to The density of bright spots varies from 1 per km2 in some
400-m section of Ordovician between Tg5pp and TO2yi (Figure 3b). parts of the south area to 15 per km2 in the northwest area. For
Outlines in white highlight surface drainage systems (fluvial chan-
nels, canyons, and valleys) on top of the Ordovician unconformity reference, an outline of the surface drainage system (fluvial
(same as in Figure 7). Boxes following faults indicate bright spots channels, canyons, and valleys in Figure 7) on top the Ordovi-
distributed along faults. cian unconformity is superimposed on the map. The bright spots
 Bright spots and paleokarst systems B133

demonstrate extremely complex relationships to the drainage caves result in distinctive amplitude anomalies similar to those
system. Some bright spots tend to align along overlying chan- observed in subsurface seismic data (e.g., Figure 3). These
nels and valleys, but others are distributed randomly in associ- results resemble those of a previous 2D-modeling experiment by
ated drainage basins. It is inferred that surface waters that were Yao et al. (2005) on seismic responses of the paleocave reser-
discharged into the paleodrainage systems partly filtered into the voir in western China. Two key parameters that control the
subsurface, enhancing and complicating initial caves that devel- characteristics of the amplitude anomaly associated with low-AI
oped along the early regional fracture network at the time of paleocaves are cave dimension and impedance contrast. The
karstification. vertical seismic detection limit for a paleocave complex of 75 
75 m probably is no more than 6 m (Xavier Janson, personal
Bright spots related to late faulting communication, 2010).
This seismic modeling shows that that amplitude anomalies
A small percentage (probably <1%) of bright spots seemingly like those seen in the 3D seismic volume can be recreated by
are related to a set of postkarstification faults (Figures 9 and 10).
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These faults were activated during the Permian and were linked
to volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks at that time (Figure 10).
Although the strike-slip faults show only limited discontinuity
on map view (Figure 7) because of small vertical displacements,
they can be identified clearly on vertical seismic sections (e.g.,
Figures 6 and 10).
The most direct evidence of late-fault control comes from
some bright spots being aligned closely to late faults in the ver-
tical and horizontal directions (e.g., bright spots in the boxes in
Figures 9 and 10). These bright spots may be related to solution
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

pores and voids produced by aggressive hydrothermal fluids that

migrated up from the deep basin during volcanic activities in
the Permian. Although actual drilling data from these fault-
related bright spots are not available, hydrothermal minerals
have been identified in Ordovician cores in nearby areas in the
Tarim Basin (e.g., Lü et al., 2008); the mechanism is inferred to
be similar to that of Upper Ordovician hydrothermal reservoirs
in the U. S. (Smith, 2006). Differentiating hydrothermal-related
bright spots from karst-related ones along the faults, however, is
highly challenging when using seismic data alone.

SEISMIC MODELING
Figure 10. Bright spots related to a postkarstification fault. High-
A 17-by-15-km-wide and 600-m thick geocellular model was amplitude anomalies in boxes align to high-angle faults activated
built using the unconformity surface mapped on the actual seis- during the Permian that probably served as volcanic vents. See
mic data (boundary between a basal Ordovician interval and an Figure 9 for locations.
overlying Silurian siliciclastic interval) (Figure 11a). Collapsed
paleocaves with cave sediments were modeled by randomly dis-
tributing low-AI ellipsoidal geobodies that
measured 250  150 m horizontally and 18 m
vertically. The AI (approximated by acoustic ve-
locity) was distributed using a sequential Gaus-
sian simulation with parameters derived from a
sonic log in the cored well (Figure 8). The
acoustic model then was used to generate 3D
synthetic seismograms (Figure 11b) using a 25-
Hz, 90 Ricker wavelet by applying a 3D
exploding-reflector modeling technique in the
Madagascar package (Fomel and Hermann,
2006) using a robust approximation of the wave
equation (Kessinger, 1992). The result then was
depth migrated using a smoothed velocity
model. Figure 11. Seismic modeling of the top of the Ordovician unconformity surface and
The synthetic seismogram (Figure 11b) shows collapsed paleocaves filled with cave sediments and breccia inside Ordovician inter-
val. (a) Acoustic impedance (AI, approximated by acoustic velocity) model showing
a realistic reflection character and geometries large AI contrast across top Ordovician unconformity. Modeled low-AI paleocave
similar to those of actual subsurface data. Low- complexes (breccia and cave sediments) are 250  150 m in horizontal dimension and
AI anomalies created by the collapsed paleo- 18 m thick. (b) Seismic model illustrating paleocave complexes as bright spots.
 B134 Zeng et al.

modeling low-velocity ellipsoids that match the interpreted showing extensive collapse and coalesced systems (Figure 12).
shapes and sizes of caves filled with sediments in coalesced-col- Bright spots, which are characterized by a signal-to-noise ratio
lapsed paleocave complexes. higher than background data, are the best available seismic indi-
cators of the magnitude of a collapsed and deformed paleocave
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRIGHT SPOTS AND system.
COALESCED, COLLAPSED-PALEOCAVE
SYSTEMS Small-scale paleocave complexes showing minor collapse
(Figure 12a)
Cave sediment-fills made of fine-grained sands and silts con-
Some small complexes (30 m thick, 100 to 200 m wide) in
stitute one of the lithofacies associated with collapsed paleo-
Ordovician limestone are revealed as abrupt brightening of
caves (Figure 5b). In the study area, bright spots highlight the
amplitudes along a seismic event. Little or no visible structural
seismic response of cave sediments, but they do not represent
deformation at the seismic scale is associated with the bright
the complete collapsed-paleocave system. Seismic characteristics
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spots; faults are few, if any, with small throw (<10 m). Also,
of large-scale (kilometer-scale) deformation caused by karst col-
no seismically suprastratal deformation is detectable in the over-
lapse have been studied by several authors (e.g., Hardage et al,
lying strata (Silurian, above Tg5 in this case). These bright spots
1996; Loucks, 1999; Zeng et al., 2006; McDonnell et al., 2007;
are interpreted to be small paleocave complexes with minor col-
Sullivan et al., 2007).
lapse at or below seismic resolution. They occur throughout the
These workers observe that deformational components, such
study area, but mostly are clustered in the updip (north) plateau
as intrastratal deformation (e.g., chaotic breccia, collapsed roof
area. They probably are related to small cave systems associated
and wall, and faults) and suprastratal deformation (e.g., sag and
with the regional fracture network described earlier.
faults, Figure 5b), are intrinsic components of the system. Seis-
mic responses of intrastratal and suprastratal deformation are
indicators of the extent and magnitude of the collapse. The fol- Moderate-scale paleocave complexes showing moderate
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

lowing sections describe some important relationships between collapse (Figure 12b, 12c)
bright spots and other seismic components of collapsed-paleo- V-shaped bright spots characterize these complexes. A single
cave systems. bright spot generally is 200 to 500 m wide, commonly convex
downward, with a maximum vertical displacement of 50 to 150
Association with faults and collapse complexes m. Small faults developed adjacent to the bright spots. The
faults’ displacement and vergence vary depending on their posi-
Interpretation of bright spots in the context of faults and dis- tions relative to the collapsed complex (McDonnell et al., 2007,
turbed strata reveals a spectrum of collapsed-paleocave systems Figure 8d).
that range from small-scale (tens of meters) systems showing In the inner compressional trough zone, reverse fault devel-
minor collapse features to large-scale (kilometers) systems oped (labeled “R” in Figure 12b and 12c), whereas in the outer
extensional zone, normal fault and jointing
developed (nonlabeled faults in Figure 12b
and 12c). Minor sag structures are visible in the
overlying postkarstification strata (suprastratal
deformation). A V-shaped bright spot might
have formed when a lower cave chamber below
the strata at the position of the bright spot col-
lapsed and cave sediment and breccia were
dragged down.
Although faults and cave walls may contrib-
ute to the reflection, V-shaped bright spots
probably were caused primarily by inclined and
thinning cave sediment against the faults and
cave wall. These bright spots, commonly pres-
ent beneath fluvial canyons and channels on the
unconformity surface, probably are related to
reworked and enlarged paleocave complexes,
with additional discharge from surface drainage
channels.

Large-scale complexes showing extensive

collapse (Figure 12d, 12e)
Figure 12. Relationship among bright spots, faults, and collapsed paleocaves as seen Large complexes (500 to 5000 m wide) are
on 2D seismic sections. Upper row: uninterpreted, with arrows indicting bright spots.
Lower row: interpreted. (a) Small, lightly collapsed complexes; (b and c) midsized, composed of multiple small, V-shaped bright
moderately collapsed complexes; (d and e) large, heavily collapsed complexes. spots with multiple faults in between. Measured
R ¼ interpreted reverse fault. See Figure 9 for locations. by accumulative throws across the faults, the
 Bright spots and paleokarst systems B135

complex might have a maximum accumulative vertical collapse of

300 m (Figure 12e). These systems include a well-developed sag
structure in postkarstification strata, which has a maximum vertical
depression of as much as 200 m in the center (Figure 12e). These
complexes, occurring beneath major fluvial canyons and channels,
are interpreted as coalesced, collapsed-paleocave systems formed
by concentrated karst-related processes during a long period of ex-
posure and followed by a period of collapse during burial.
In summary, bright spots, along with interpreted faults and
deformation patterns, are interpreted to represent the seismic
response of cave sediment and other genetic components of a
coalesced, collapsed-paleocave system at the seismic scale.
Occurrence and shape of bright spots are the most reliable
Downloaded from library.seg.org by Cornell University on 06/25/16. For personal use only.

measurements of compartments and magnitude of collapsing

and probably of fault/fracture density.

Spatial distribution
Generally, 3D geometry of collapsed-paleocave complexes is
difficult to interpret in vertical seismic sections because of com-
plicated, highly variable faulting and deformation patterns of the
formation in 3D space. As a result, patterns of local subsidence
and related faults interpreted in a section (e.g., in Figure 12) are
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

difficult to extend to adjacent sections. Alternatively, continuity

attributes can be used for quicker and more spatially accurate
mapping of paleokarst architecture.
As an example (Figure 13), faults can be picked on a seismic
section (Figure 13a) that are correlated to, and calibrated by,
low-continuity (blackish) stripes on a calculated continuity sec-
tion (Figure 13b). Although all these faults look similar in verti-
cal section, their horizontal patterns can be very different, Figure 13. Use of continuity attribute in interpreting faults and
collapsed-paleocave systems. (a) Faults interpreted on stacked
depending on the spatial relationship between individual col- seismic section (see 13c for location). (b) Faults interpreted on
lapsed paleocaves (Figure 13c). continuity attribute section. (c) Continuity time-slice showing hor-
In horizontal dimension, two types of faults can be recog- izontal patterns of faults and their relationships (see Figures 1b
nized. Circular faults are related to isolated, collapsed-paleocave and 13a for locations). Circular faults and linear faults can be
complexes of variable sizes. Linear fault segments tend to con- interpreted from amplitude section and be calibrated using conti-
nuity section, but their differentiation is seen clearly only on a
nect circular faults of different sizes, probably highlighting col- time slice. Low-continuity regions highlighted by yellow lines
lapsed former linear passageways between paleocave complexes. indicate coalesced collapsed-paleocave systems.
The linear faults are short (typically <300 m) and random in
orientation. Circular faults and linear faults are different from
conventional faults in that the displacement and vergence may
vary from fault to fault. Numerous such circular faults and lin-
ear faults compose low-continuity (highly deformed) regions or
zones (highlighted by yellow lines in Figure 13b and c). Practi-
cally, these low-continuity zones can be used to broadly define
coalesced, collapsed-paleocave systems.
Some isolated collapsed-cave complexes can be visualized in
3D using continuity and amplitude attributes. In Figure 14, a
collapsed-paleocave complex is characterized by a bell-shaped
circular fault and many small, irregular fault segments. A bright
spot is located inside the cave, indicating the position of a for-
mer passage having thick cave sediment fill. The paleocave
complex is about 100 m in diameter and 100 m high.
Coalesced, collapsed-paleocave systems also can be illustrated
with some clarity in 3D. In Figure 15a, a time slice shows many
low-continuity circular faults (collapsed-paleocave complexes)
and high-amplitude bright spots (cave sediments) within these
faults (e.g., features a through g). However, their spatial rela- Figure 14. Three-dimensional visualization of isolated, collapsed
paleocave. Blue is circular fault and many small fault segments
tionships and orientations are not necessarily clear from a single characterized by lowest continuity. Yellow is where bright spots
slice view. (thickened cave sediments) occur. See Figure 15f for location.
 B136 Zeng et al.

Visualization of multiple slices in a 20-ms (60-m) window nected to and interacted with the shallow subsurface cave and
improves interpretation by showing many funnel-shaped depres- passage network and was capable of providing cave sediments
sion features corresponding to collapsed-cave-sediment zones to the underground passages. Such low-AI sediments can pro-
and circular faults (Figure 15b, a0 through g0 ). Composed of duce a significant impedance contrast between the near-surface
collapsed-cave complexes and linear passages, coalesced-paleo- collapsed-cave system and the disturbed section dominated by
cave systems are of extremely complicated geometry and are high-AI limestone, leading to anomalous seismic amplitudes. A
oriented in multiple directions, although they probably are asso- relatively small number of bright spots may be related to post-
ciated with regional fracture networks and surface drainage karstification (Permian) faulting and volcanic activity.
channels. Hydrothermal fluids from the basin might have interacted
with the Ordovician limestone, creating solution voids along the
fault zones. Core observation in this study has found no open
DISCUSSION
voids in the tight host rock and no porous cave sediments. The
This study suggests two possible origins of seismic bright lack of these pore networks is related to the great depth of bur-
Downloaded from library.seg.org by Cornell University on 06/25/16. For personal use only.

spots in Ordovician karsted strata in the Tarim Basin. Most of ial of the Ordovician limestone, which is in agreement with sta-
the bright spots are interpreted to be paleokarst related. Core tistics of deeply buried karsted strata in other fields (Loucks,
and outcrop provide direct evidence that collapsed-paleocave 1999). Bright spots are unlikely to indicate deep open chambers,
complexes in Ordovician strata contain cave sediments of terrig- as some previous studies have proposed (e.g., Yao et al., 2005;
enous origin (sandstones and shale). Liu et al., 2007; Peng and Shi, 2008).
Mapping the top of the Ordovician unconformity surface In the 3D-survey area, bright spots are the most notable seis-
revealed a mature paleokarst drainage system that was con- mic features in the karsted Ordovician succession. Occurrence
of bright spots typically highlights existence of a paleocave sys-
tem. Size of a bright spot represents the minimum size of a
collapsed-paleocave or paleocave complex above the seismic
GEOPHYSICS 2011.76:B127-B137.

detection limit (6 m for a 75  75-m geobody); a V-shaped bright

spot can be related to the local magnitude of collapsing in a paleo-
cave complex.
The relationship among bright spots, faults, and disturbed
zones indicates the interval and gross magnitude of collapsing
for a coalesced system. However, bright spots represent only the
skeletal framework of the whole paleokarst system. Other com-
ponents of the system, such as faults/fractures and suprastratal
deformation, also can be indicative of reservoir quality and can
be important for well location and development of the reservoir.
Bright spots as guided by visualization using coherency and am-
plitude attributes will provide more of a comprehensive under-
standing of coalesced, collapsed-paleokarst systems and related
potential reservoirs.
Although exploration of the Tarim Basin in this area has
proved the existence of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the deep Or-
dovician section, core and outcrop observations could not iden-
tify an effective pore network in these tight rocks for fluid flow.
Fracture networks associated with the collapsed-paleocave com-
plex (including fault-induced fractures and crackle fractures)
and with the basin inversion may most likely provide pore net-
works from which hydrocarbon are produced. Current explora-
tion practice is to target the possible fracture network right
above the bright spots, with most of the completed wells show-
ing hydrocarbon production, indicating that the low-continuity
trends (collapsed-paleocave complexes) with high-amplitude
bright spots (cave sediments) highlighted in Figure 15 indeed
tend to reveal porosity and permeability networks, or fluid-flow
conduits in an otherwise deeply buried and extremely tight car-
bonate sequence.

Figure 15. Three-dimensional visualization of collapsed-paleo- CONCLUSIONS

cave trends. (a) Continuity slice at the top of the 20-ms time win-
dow highlights circular and linear faults and associated bright Anomalously high-amplitude bright spots are related to sedi-
spots (e.g., a through g). (b) Volume extraction of lowest continu-
ity anomalies and bright spots in the 20-ms (60-m) window ment fills associated with paleokarst in the Ordovician carbonate
reveals funnel-shaped collapse features (e.g., a0 through g0 ) and sequence in the central Tabei Uplift area. Clastic cave sediments
collapsed-paleocave zones with variable trends (green lines). (terrigenous sandstone and shale) in collapsed-limestone
 Bright spots and paleokarst systems B137

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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Texas: Paleocave collapse, pull-apart fault systems, or hydrothermal

alteration?: AAPG Bulletin, 91, 1295–1318, doi:10.1306/05170706086.
We thank BGP of CNPC, China, for funding the research pro- Peng, W., and H. Shi, 2008, The paleokarst features of Ordovician carbon-
ject, supplying the well and 3D seismic data for analysis, and ate rocks in Lunnan Area (in Chinese with English abstract): Xinjiang
Petroleum Geology, 29, 37–40.
allowing the publication of this paper. We appreciate Charlie Jer- Purdy, E. G., and D. Waltham, 1999, Reservoir implications of modern
ome Bellian, and Chris Zahm of the Reservoir Characterization karst topography: AAPG Bulletin, 83, 1774–1794.
Smith, L. B., 2006, Origin and reservoir characteristics of Upper Ordovi-
Research Laboratory (RCRL), Bureau of Economic Geology cian Trenton Black River hydrothermal dolomite reservoirs in New
(BEG), for their support of the project and technical input. We York: AAPG Bulletin, 90, 1691–1718, doi:10.1306/04260605078.
thank GEOPHYSICS reviewer Jim Tsai and an anonymous reviewer Sullivan, E. C., K. J. Marfurt, C. Blumentritt, and M. Ammerman, 2007,
Seismic geomorphology of palaeozoic collapse features in the Fort
for their constructive comments that improved this paper. Lana Worth basin (USA), in R. J. Davies, H. W. Posamentier, L. J. Wood,
Dieterich edited and improved the readability of this manuscript. and J. A. Cartwright, eds., Seismic geomorphology: Applications to
Cathy Brown edited the figures. Landmark Graphics Corporation hydrocarbon exploration and production: Geological Society [London]
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provided software via the Landmark University Grant Program for Yao, Y., L. Sa, and S. Wang, 2005, Research on the seismic wave field of
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