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CIE – IGCSE
Winter 2013

INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY

Zubair Junjunia
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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
Zubair Junjunia
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TYPES AND COMPONENTS OF

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Hardware
 Tangible physical components of a computer system.
 You can feel it or touch it
 E.g. Monitor, printer, processor

Software
 Programs that control computer systems
 Set of instructions that make the computer system do something
 You cannot physically touch software
 Relates to ideas and instructions for using physical objects
 Two types of softwares:

System Software
 Programs that allow the hardware to run properly
 Control computer's hardware and application program
 Communicate with user
 E.g. Operating system

Application software
 Programs that allow the user to do specific task
 Design to carry out tasks
 Can be general purpose software or custom made software (specialist software)
 E.g. Spread sheets, databases, word processing

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Basic computer model

Backing store
 Stores data/information and programs not being used at current time
 Backing store device = reader or recorder e.g. Hard disk drive
 Backing store media = hardware containing data e.g. Hard disk

CPU
 Processing done by central processing unit
 Three main components
o Control unit - coordinates input and output devices and carries out program instructions
o Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) - performs calculations and logical comparison: A < B?
o Immediate access store (IAS) - holds data and program instruction in current use

Main components of computer systems

 Input devices: keyboard, mouse
 Output devices: monitor, printer
 Secondary storage devices: DVD R/W drive, removable hard drive
 Process and internal memory devices: Central Processing Unit (CPU), internal hard disk, random
access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM)

Microprocessor
 Used instead of CPU
 Single integrated circuit

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Main memory
 Stores all data: application software, operating system, data files
 Also known as primary memory and immediate access store (IAS)
 Consists of ROM and RAM
 Both RAM and ROM are integrated chips

RAM
 Random access memory (RAM) is an internal chip where data is stored temporarily
 Memory can be written to and read from
 RAM usually larger than ROM (except washing machines)
 Stores anything that needs to be changed
 All program and data being used are on RAM
 Contents lost when computer is turned off
 Referred to as volatile memory

ROM
 Read only memory (ROM) is memory used to store permanent information
 Used to contain configuration data for a computer etc.
 Chips cannot be altered, only read from
 Data not lost when computer is turned off
 Referred to as non-volatile memory

BIOS
 ROM contains boot file, referred to as BIOS (basic input/output system)
 Tells computers what to do when it first starts
 BIOS carry out hardware check when computer is turned on
 Then it loads operating system into RAM
 BIOS stores date, time and system configuration in a non-volatile chip called CMOS (complementary
metal oxide semiconductor), which is usually battery powered

Operating system
 Enables users to communicate with computer systems
 Controls operation of input, output and backing storage device
 Supervises loading, running and storage of application program
 Deals with error in application programs
 Maintains security of whole computer system
 Maintains a computer log
 Main types of user interfaces: Command Line Interfaces (CLI) and Graphical User Interface (GUI)

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GUI - Graphical User Interface

 Uses graphics to stand for the complicated actions
 Use icons
 Use a mouse to selector the icons
 Screen divided into windows allowing different things on each
 WIMP - Windows Icons Menus Pointers
 Requires little IT knowledge

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Easy to explore and find your way around the system
 Do not have to learn complicated commands
 Exchange data between different softwares
 Good help facilities provided with GUIs

Disadvantages
 Larger amount of hard disk space than other interfaces
 Significantly more memory (RAM) to run than other interface type
 GUI use more processing power than other types of interfaces
 GUI can be slow for experienced programmers to use, they find CLI much faster

CLI - Command Line Interface

 Types commands to tell the computer what to do
o The user must know all the commands
o Must not make typing errors
 Used by technicians
 Can access everything on the computer system
 GUI users can only access places they have icons for

Advantages
 Knowing the correct commands, this can be much faster than any other interface type
 Uses much less memory (RAM) than any other interface type
 Low resolution, cheap monitors can be used
 CLI does not require Windows to run

Disadvantages
 Can be confusing
 Commands have to be typed precisely, if there is a spelling error the command will fail
 If you mistype an instruction, it is often necessary to start all over again
 Large number of commands need to be learned

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Types of Computers
PC/Desktop Computers
 Refers to general purpose computers
 PC refers to IBM compatible computers, distinguishing them from the Macs
 Made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse and processing unit

Advantages
 Spare parts standardized results in low costs
 Tend to have better specifications
 Large casing allows good dissipation of heat build up

Disadvantages
 Not portable since they are not made up of separate components
 Wiring clutters up desk space
 Necessary to copy files as they aren't portable

Laptop (Notebook)
 Refers to computers where monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor together in a single
unit.
 Extremely portable systems
o Low weight
o Low power consumption
 Processor doesn't generate too much heat

Advantages
 Portable because monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor and backing store units are together
in one box.
 No trailing wires
 Full advantage of Wi-Fi
 Can link into any multimedia system

Disadvantages
 Easy to steal
 Limited battery; need to carry charger
 Keyboard and pointing device awkward to use
 Heat dissipation is difficult due to laptop structure

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Netbooks
 Computer that can almost fit onto a hand
 Smaller version of a laptop
 Used to be known as a palmtop

Advantages
 Portable because monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor and backing store units are together
in one box.
 No trailing wires
 Full advantage of Wi-Fi
 Can link into any multimedia system

Disadvantages
 Easy to steal
 Limited battery; need to carry charger
 Keyboard and pointing device awkward to use
 Heat dissipation is difficult due to structure
 Don't have optical drives
 Keyboards are 80% the size of laptop keyboard

Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

 Small handheld computer
 Usually comes with a touchscreen and stylus
 Data enters onscreen keyboard
 Expanded to include calling facilities, data loggers, satellite navigation systems etc.
 Many now have basic database, word processing and spread sheet facilities

Advantages
 Can be used anywhere due to their size
 Light weight and more portable than laptops

Disadvantages
 Difficult to enter text quickly
 Limited capabilities due to software and operating systems

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Main frame computers

 Large, very powerful computer systems
 Purpose is to run commercial applications
 Several CPUs
 Very fast processor speed
 Support multiple operating systems
 Huge amount of storage capacities
 Huge internal memories (RAM)
 Often operate using time sharing or batch processing

Advantages
 Can do very large due to feature listed above
 Used in time sharing systems
 Capable of very large number crunching

Disadvantages
 Needs to be permanently housed in a large room
 Very expensive to maintain and operate

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

 Input devices: Are hardware devices that allow data to be input into a computer

Inputs
Keyboards
 QWERTY- layout
 Ergonomic- reduces health related problems

Uses
 Keyboards are used to input data into application
software
 Also used to for typing commands to the computer
(Ctrl+P)

Advantages
 Enables fast entry of new text into a document
 Well tried technology and well known method of entry
 Most people find them easy to use
 Easy to do verification check as data is entered, as it appears on the screen simultaneously

Disadvantages
 Users with limited arm/wrist use can find keyboards hard to use
 Entering data is slow when compared to direct data entry (e.g. Optical mark recognition)
 They use up desk space as they are quite large

Concept keyboard
 Uses icons or phrases instead of standard letters
 A single key represents an item on the keyboard

Uses
 Used in: Fast food restaurants, offices and shops

Advantages
 Enables fast data entry (there is no need to type in whole commands)
 Waterproof, useful in a restaurant environment
 They are tamperproof, preventing people from keying in information (which could corrupt the
system)

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Numeric Keypads
 A numeric keypad is used to enter numbers only
 Although some have function key to allow input of alphabetical
characters

Uses
 Used in Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where customers can
key in their personal identification number (PIN), or an amount
of money
 Used to key in phone numbers into telephones
 Electronic point of sale (EPOS) terminals have numeric keypads in case the barcode reader fails
 Used in Chip and PIN devices to key in PIN, or amount of money
 Used to enable fast entry of numeric data into a spread sheet

Advantages
 Numeric keypads are faster than standard keyboards for entry of numeric data
 Since many are small devices (e.g. mobile phones), they are easy to carry around

Disadvantages
 Can be difficult to use due to the very small keys
 Difficult to use for entering text
 Sometimes the order of the numbers isn’t very intuitive

Mice
 An example of a pointing device
 The ball underneath the mouse is used to detect movement
 The left button is for selecting by double on it and the right is to bring
drop-down menus
 There is usually a scroll button which speeds up the process of moving
through a document

Uses
 Used for opening, closing and minimising software
 Used for grouping, moving and deleting files
 Useful when editing images (e.g. controlling the size and position of the image)
 Used for controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow:
o Selection from a menu
o Selecting an icon
o Scrolling up/down and right/left

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Advantages
 Faster to select an option by a mouse than a keyboard
 Enables rapid navigation through applications and the internet
 Mice are small and don’t take much area

Disadvantages
 People with restricted hand/wrist movement can find it hard to operate a mouse
 Easily damaged and can easily be clogged up with dirt
 They are hard to use if there is no flat surface available

Touchpads
 Touchpads are used in many laptop computers as a pointing device
 The pointer is controlled by the user moving their
finger on the touchpad

Uses
 Used for opening, closing and minimising software
 Used for grouping, moving and deleting files
 Useful when editing images (e.g. controlling the
size and position of the image)
 Used for controlling the position of a pointer on the
screen to allow:
o Selection from a menu
o Selecting an icon

Advantages
 Faster to select an option by a touchpad than a keyboard
 Enables rapid navigation through applications and the internet
 Since the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer, there is no separate mouse, aiding
portability
 They can be used when no flat surfaces are available

Disadvantage
 People with limited hand/wrist movement can find touchpads hard to use
 It can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared to a mouse
 They are more difficult when doing operations such as ‘drag and drop’

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Tracker balls
 Tracker balls are similar to a mouse except that it has a ball on the top of the device
 Users control the pointer on the screen by rotating the ball

Uses
 Have the same pointing/cursor control capability as a mouse
 Used in applications where the user has a disability (RSI)
 Used in a control room environment, where it is faster than a mouse to
navigate through process screens and more robust than a mouse

Advantages
 Tracker balls don’t need the same fine control as a mouse
 People with limited hand/wrist movement find easier to use than a mouse
 The pointer can be positioned more accurately on the screen than with a mouse
 They take less desk space than mice since they are stationary

Disadvantages
 Tracker balls are not supplied with the computer as standard, so they are more expensive
 User may need training since they are not standard equipment

Remote Controls
 A remote control is used to control the operation of other devices
remotely by using infra-red signals

Uses
 In home entertainment devices such as Televisions, DVD
player/recorder and satellite system
 Used to control multimedia systems
 Used in industrial applications to remotely control processes, stop and
start machinery

Advantages
 Enable devices to be operated from any distance, which is useful for people with disabilities
 Some chemical processes are hazardous, so it is safer to operate equipment from a distance

Disadvantages
 People with limited hand/wrist movement can find them hard to use
 The signal between the control and the device can be easily blocked

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Joysticks
 By gripping the stick, a pointer on the screen can be controlled
 Buttons are used to make selections

Uses
 Video/computer games are often controlled by joysticks
 They are used in simulators to mimic actual controls

Advantages
 Easier to navigate round a screen compared to a keyboard
 Control is in three dimension

Disadvantages
 More difficult to control the on-screen pointer with a joystick than with other devices such as mice

Touchscreens
 User can choose an option by simply touching a button/icon on the screen
 The selection is automatically made without the need for any
pointing device

Use
 Used for service tills e.g. petrol stations
 Used where selections are made on a screen e.g. ATMs, public
information systems, airports and railway stations
 Used in PDA’s
 Used in Interactive white boards
 Used in computer based training (CBT)

Advantages
 Enable faster entry of options than a keyboard or a mouse
 Very easy to choose options
 User friendly method for inputting data
 They are tamperproof, preventing people from keying in information (which could corrupt the
system)

Disadvantages
 There is a limited number of options available
 Using touchscreens often can lead to health problems e.g. (straining of arm muscles and RSI)
 The screen can get very dirty with constant touching

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Magnetic Stripe readers

 Used to read information on the magnetic stripe
 The stripe contain useful information such as start and
expiry date

Uses
 Credit and debit cards have magnetic stripes that are used
by ATMS or EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer point of
sale) terminal
 Security cards for entering building e.g. hotel rooms
 Travel systems e.g. train and underground tickets

Advantages
 Data entry is fast compared with keying in using a keyboard or keypad
 System is error free, no typing involved
 Information is secure since there is no typing and the information can’t be read directly by a person
 Can prevent access to restricted/secure areas
 Magnetic stripes are unaffected by oil water and moisture
 No moving parts therefore physically robust

Disadvantages
 If the magnetic stripe is damaged the data is lost
 Card needs to be in close contact with the reader
 Since the information is not human readable, they need to find a way to show the information to the
customer (e.g. hotel room number not printed on cards)

Smart Card readers

 Contain chips
 Data is stored on a chip and can be updated
 Chip has a larger storage capacity than a magnetic stripe

Uses
 Loyalty cards, ID cards and public transport passes
 Can be used to track customer/passenger movement
 Used with a satellite system to decode program signals
 Used for electronic passports and driving licences

Advantages
 Some smart cards are used instead of money
 The chip on the card does not need to be in contact with the reader
 Data is more secure since it’s easier to copy data of magnetic stripe than on a chip

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Disadvantages
 If the card is lost information stored on the chip could be used for identity theft

Chip and PIN readers

 The device has a slot where the card is placed and the chip is read
 A small screen is part of the reader which gives instructions to the
operator

Uses
 Chip and PIN readers are used where payments are made using cards
e.g. travel agents

Advantages
 Provide a more secure payment system than requiring a signature or using magnetic stripe, since the
PIN typed in must match up with the PIN stored on the chip
 Provide a more robust system than magnetic stripe since the chip does not need to be in contact
with the reader

Disadvantages
 Customer needs to be careful when typing in the PIN so nobody reads it giving an opportunity for
Fraud

Scanners
 Used to enter information on hardcopy e.g. text documents

Uses
 Used to scan in documents and convert them into a format for
use in various software packages
 Old and valuable documents and books can be scanned,
protecting the original copies from damage
 Non-digital photographs can be scanned for storing on a
computer

Advantages
 Images can be stored for editing at a later date
 Scanners are much faster and more accurate than typing in documents again
 It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning them and then using
appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy

Disadvantages
 The quality can be limited depending on how good the scanner resolution is

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Barcode readers
 Used to read information in the form of a barcode
 Handheld scanners or wands are very common for reading barcodes

Uses
 Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked
with a barcode
 Used in libraries to scan users library card and barcodes on books
(in order to keep track of books on loan)
 Used as a safety function in many companies to ensure that
electrical equipment is checked on a regular basis

Advantages
 Faster than keying in information, and fewer mistakes are made
 Used as a way of recording data, can improve safety
 Barcodes enable automatic stock control
 Barcode scanning is a tried and trusted technology
 When an item price is changed, only the central database needs to be updated, there is no need to
change the prices individually on each item

Disadvantages
 Barcode scanning is an expensive system to administer since every item in the shops needs a
barcode and every barcode needs to be entered on the system. Also there is a need to invest in the
computer technology together with staff training, which can all be expensive
 The system is not fool proof- barcode can be swapped around on items

OMR Devices
 Optical mark recognition is a system which can read marks written in pen or pencil

Uses
 OMR devices are used to read questionnaires, multiple choice
examinations papers and other types of forms in the form of lines
or shaded areas

Advantages
 A very fast way of inputting results of a survey
 Since there is no typing, it is more accurate than keying in data
 OMR is more accurate than OCR

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Disadvantages
 Forms need to be carefully designed to make sure that the marks/shadings are correctly positioned
to gather accurate information
 There can be problems if forms aren’t filled correctly, sometimes they have to be checked manually
before being read by an OMR, this is both time consuming and expensive

OCR readers
 Optical Character recognition is a software that takes scanned text and converts it into a computer
readable form

Uses
 Processing of passports and Identity cards
 OCR is used when scanning documents to modify them using a
suitable software

Advantages
 Much faster data entry system than manually keying in data
 Since there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is reduced

Disadvantages
 The system has difficulty reading handwriting
 It is still not a very accurate technique

MICR Device
 Magnetic ink character recognition is a system which can read
characters printed in a special ink

Uses
 Used to process cheques in banking operations – cheque is
read using a batch processing method

Advantages
 MICR offers great security than OCR since the oriented
characters cannot be altered
 There is no manual input, thus errors are reduced
 If somebody writes over the magnetic ink characters it can still be read

Disadvantages
 Only certain characters can be read and the number of different characters is very limited
 It is a more expensive method than other methods used for direct data entry

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Digital Cameras
 Photographs are stored in memory
 They can be easily transferred to a computer using a USB

Uses
 Digital cameras can produce photographs for direct transfer to
a computer or to print out
 Digital cameras allow short video clips to be produced
 Photographs can be uploaded directly into application
software such as word processor

Advantages
 Easier to produce better quality photographs than with a tradition camera
 Easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer
 There is no need to develop film and print out photographs (saves paper and no longer needs the
chemicals to produce photographs from films)
 Easy to delete an image from the memory if it’s not satisfactory
 The memory card can store several hundred photographs

Disadvantages
 The camera user needs to be computer literate to use the camera properly
 There is some artistry lost since clever software corrects errors in the photographs
 The resolution is not yet as good as traditional cameras
 Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used
 It is possible to fill up computer memory very quickly with several photos of the same subject(in
order to find the perfect snap shot)

Webcams
 Connected directly to a computer via a USB port

Uses
 While chatting online webcams can be used to have
conversations
 Used to enable video conferencing to take place

Advantages
 Can be left on constantly and activated when required
 Allow people to keep in contact with each other without the need
to travel, particularly useful for disabled or elderly people

Disadvantages
 Webcams have limited features and the picture is often of poor quality
 They need to be connected to a computer

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Microphones
 Can be connected directly to a computer
 Sounds can be inputted and manipulated

Uses
 Microphones are used to input speech/sounds to be used in
various applications
 They are used in voice recognition software- for conversion
of speech into text, and recognition of commands

Advantages
 Faster to read in text than to type it using a keyboard
 Possible to manipulate sound in real time using special
software
 If used in a voice activation system, this has the advantage of improving safety

Disadvantage
 Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory
 Voice recognition software isn’t as accurate as typing in manually

Sensors
Type of sensor Applications
Temperature Automatic washing machines, central heating systems, automatic green
houses, ovens
Pressure Burglar alarm systems , robotics, environmental monitoring , Automatic
washing machines
Light Automatic doors, street lighting control , Burglar alarm systems, automatic
greenhouses
Sound Burglar alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in pipes
Humidity/moisture Automatic greenhouses, environmental monitoring, factories where moisture
levels are crucial
pH Automatic greenhouse, chemical processes, environmental monitoring

Advantages
 Readings by sensors are more accurate than taken by humans
 Readings are continuous, there is no break in monitoring
 Because it is a continuous process any necessary action or warning will be initiated immediately
 The system can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention, this is particularly
important if the process is hazardous

Disadvantages
 Faulty sensors can give spurious results

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Graphic tablets
 A graphic tablet is used with a stylus to produce freehand drawings

Uses
 Graphics tablets are used to produce drawings,
computer graphics
 In countries where characters are complex e.g. japan
they are used as a form of input
 They are used in computer aided design (CAD) work

Advantages
 It is possible to modify drawings before they are input
 They offer an accurate method of drawing

Disadvantages
 They are more expensive than other pointing devices

Light Pens
 Contain sensors that send signals to a computer
whenever light changes are detected

Uses
 Light pens are used for selecting objects on CRT
screens
 They are used for drawing on screens e.g. with a (CAD
package)

Advantages
 Light pens are more accurate than touchscreens
 They are small, so can be used where space is an issue
 They are easy to use

Disadvantages
 There are problems with lag when drawing on screens
 Only work with CRT monitors at the moment
 They are not very accurate when drawing

Output Devices
 Hardware devices that allow data to be output from a computer
 Some hold data temporarily e.g. a monitor
 Some produce permanent output in the form of a hardcopy e.g. a printer

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CRT Monitors
 Cathode Ray Tube monitors
 Least expensive type of monitor, becoming rarer as TFT monitors take over
 Come in various sizes
 Picture created is made up of tiny dots (red green or blue), the intensity of
the colour of the dot determines the colour perceived by the eye

Uses
 Primary output device for computers, user can immediately see what they are typing in
 Used with light pens to allow designs to be created on screen

Advantages
 Produce higher quality images than TFT monitors
 Angle of viewing is better than a TFT monitor
 They work with light pens in CAD and CAM applications (Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing)

Disadvantages
 Tend to be heavy, weight hazard if not supported properly
 Run very hot, can cause fires if left unattended – especially if they are old
 Consume more power than TFT monitors
 They can flicker, this leads to headaches and eyesight problems with prolonged use

TFT Monitors
 Thin Film Transistor monitors
 Taking over from CRT monitors as the main output device
 The progress in TFT technology is one of the reasons for the rapid
development of laptop computers
 The screen is made up of thousands of tiny pixels which are made up
of transistors controlled by a microprocessor.
o Each pixel has three transistors-red, green or blue; the
intensity of each determines the colour of the pixel seen.

Uses
 Primary output device for computers, user can immediately see what they are typing in
 Integral part of laptop computers

Advantages
 Lightweight, so no weight hazards like CRT monitors
 Less glare produced than in CRT monitors; also emit less radiation
 Consume much less power and generate less heat than CRT monitors

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Disadvantages
 Angle of viewing is critical, image appears unclear if viewed slightly from the side
o This is an issue if several people are looking at the screen at the same time
 The definition is sometimes not as good as CRT monitors
 They cannot yet be used with light pens, so cannot be used in CAD

Laser Printers
 Produce very high-quality hard copy output
 Print rate per page is fast if a large number of pages are being
printed
 Rely on large buffer memories – the data for the whole document is
stored before pages can be printed out

Uses
 Used where noise levels need to be kept low e.g. in an office
 The best option for fast, high quality, high volume printing

Advantages
 Printing is fast for high volumes, slightly faster than inkjet if only a few pages are to be printed
 Can handle very large print jobs
 Quality is consistently high
 Toner cartridges last for a long time; laser printers can be a cost effective option if colour outputs are
not required

Disadvantages
 Expensive to buy
 Only really fast if several copies are being made
 Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run since four cartridges are needed as well as diffuser
kits, etc.
 Produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their printing method and type of toner/ink
used
o These have been linked to health hazards in the office

Inkjet Printers
 Used to produce good quality hard copies – the quality is not as good as
in laser printers but much better than that of dot matrix printers
 Do not have large buffers like laser printers, so printing is done a bit at a
time
o This is why printing is sometimes paused – the whole page can’t
be stored in the buffer, it has to wait for the computer to send
more data

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Uses
 Used where low volume outputs are needed
 Ideal for high quality printing for small print jobs or single pages e.g. for photo quality printouts

Advantages
 High quality output
 Cheaper to buy than laser printers
 Very lightweight and take up little space (small footprint)
 Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers

Disadvantages
 Output is slow if several copies needed – there is little buffer capacity to store the pages
 The ink cartridges run out too quickly to be used for large print jobs
 Printing can smudge if the user is not careful
 Can be expensive to run if they are used a lot – original ink cartridges are expensive

3D Inkjet Printers
 A new type of printer that produces solid 3D models using
modified inkjet technology called tomography
 Very thin layers of fine powder (plaster, resin, starch) are
bonded together as a 3D model is slowly built up
 Items produced are known as prototypes

Uses
 Used to produce prototypes which actually work from CAD packages, photograph images, stored
drawings etc.
 Scale models are produced in colour before the real thing is manufactured
 The ultimate objective is to produce organic objects using this layering technology (such as
replacement human organs)

Advantages
 Save a lot of money, other methods of making prototypes are very time consuming and expensive
 The powders used can often be ground up and reused
 Physical scale models are produced with working parts, which gives a better idea of how the end
product will look

Disadvantages
 Expensive to buy
 Slow at producing their output
 End product is sometimes a little rough, often further work needs to be done

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Dot Matrix Printers

 A type of impact printer
 A print head made up of a matrix of pins presses against an inked
ribbon

Uses
 Can be used in noisy environments e.g. garage workshops
 Can be used in applications were the print quality is not very
important

Advantages
 Can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser and inkjet printers – dusty, dirty or
moist atmospheres
 Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced
 Very cheap to run and maintain
 Easy to use if continuous stationary is required e.g. long print jobs such as wage slips

Disadvantages
 Very noisy – not good in an office environment
 Cost more than an inkjet printer to buy
 Very slow
 Printing is of poor quality

Graph Plotters
 Devices that produce hard copies but operate in a different way to printers.
 Not limited to normal printer paper size and are capable of producing
highly accurate, very large drawings and posters
 The most common types are pen plotters, electrostatic(similar
method to laser printers) and inkjet plotters
o With pen plotters, coloured pens are controlled by a
computer and the paper can move backwards and forwards
to allow accurate shapes to be drawn

Uses
 Used to produce large drawings e.g. blueprints of buildings; are often used with CAD applications
 Used to produce large pictures for use on billboards or giant posters
o They can also print on plastic coated paper
 If the pens are replaced by cutting tools, it is possible to make large signs

Advantages
 Can produce huge printouts
 Print quality is extremely high

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Disadvantages
 Slow in operation
 Expensive to buy and maintain

Speakers
 Can be connected directly to a computer or are built into the
monitor or casing (as in laptop computers)
 Uses a digital to analogue converter (DAC) to convert digital data
from the computer to analogue from so the speakers can process
it; the signal is then amplified through the speakers.

Uses
 Used to output sound from multimedia presentations
 Used in home entertainment centres
 They can help blind people through audio output of text on the
screen (together with speech generation software)
 Used to play downloaded sound files

Advantages
 Usually long lasting and durable (if operated within their intended power levels)
 Often provided with the computer/laptop although these may not be the best quality

Disadvantages
 Can take up a lot of desk space, compared to headphones
 Can distract people around you, everyone can hear what you are playing
 May not be able to hear the full sound spectrum, this requires multiple speakers

Multimedia Projectors
 Receive analogue and digital signals, although most
modern projectors only work with digital inputs
 The signal source is usually from a computer, television
or DVD player
 The image from the source is magnified and projected
onto a large screen
 The devices usually work with a remote control, but can
also use virtual mouse technology – cordless PC mouse
(has a laser pointer)
o It is then possible to direct the presentation without being tied to the computer
o Most multimedia projectors take input from various types of video format e.g. PAL, NTSC or
SECAM

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Uses
 Used for training presentations ( allows the whole audience to see the images from a computer)
 Also used for advertising presentations (shown at exhibitions, shopping malls etc.)
 Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a DVD or television) use multimedia projectors

Advantages
 Enables many people to see a presentation rather than all of them crowded around a small computer
screen
 Avoids the need for several networked computers
o e.g. when looking at a video clip on the internet, everybody can see the video on the large
screen rather than logging on to a number of computers

Disadvantages
 Images can sometimes be fuzzy
 Expensive to buy
 Setting up projectors can be a little difficult

Control Devices
 Another type of output device
 Used to control processes when combined with sensor input devices

Actuators
 Transducers that are used to take signals from a computer and convert them into some form of motion
e.g. operating motors, pumps, switches and valves
 Digital signals are sent from the computer to an actuator to operate a device
 Conversion of the digital signal to analogue is required first (using a DAC)

Motors
 Turned on or off by the actuator

Uses
 Used in many domestic appliances
o Automatic washing machines (to make the drum
rotate)
o Cookers (to switch on fans)
o Water pumps in central heating systems
o Automatic greenhouses to open windows and
switch on fans
 Used to control robot arms in the industry
 Operate fans, disk drives and DVD drives in computers

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Buzzers
 Switched on or off by the actuator

Uses
 Used in cookers and microwave ovens to tell the operator when the cooking process is complete
 Used in burglar alarm systems to warn if intruders are present

Lights
 The actuator is connected to the switch that turns the lights on or off

Uses
 Security lights
 Used in greenhouses to control the lighting conditions

Heaters
 Actuators are connected to switches which turn the heater on or off

Uses
 Used in automatic washing machines, cookers and central heating systems
 Used in automatic greenhouses to control the temperature

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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STORAGE DEVICES AND

MEDIA
Backing up data
What is backing up of data?
 Backing up refers to the copying of files and data to a different medium in case of a problem with the
main storage device
 Backing up files and data on a regular basis is seen as good computing practice and many computer
systems can be set to back up files automatically on a regular basis
 The backups are often stored in a different place to the main storage
 This is in case of fire or some other situation which could lead to irretrievable loss of key data and
files

Why back up data?

 Data could be lost due to failure of the original storage device, hardware failure
 Hackers may corrupt or even cause you to lose the data completely
o Viruses: usually caused by hackers to delete and destroy your data in a storage device
 Might need backup if files need to be used elsewhere – original files are then protected against
possible corruption or loss
 However, backups do not necessarily guard against the effect of a virus – the virus could attach itself
to the files which could mean that the backups were also affected

Types of access
Serial access
 This type of access is the slower type because you have to go through everything one by one until
you reach what you want.
 If you want to watch a show that you recorded earlier, you have to rewind / fast-forward through all
other shows until you find it. (can’t just skip)
 The good thing is that when this type of access needs updating you can easily just add another tape
and merge the old one with the new.

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Direct access
 Computer uses a key field to calculate where data has been stored
 It is then able to access the data directly from the calculated position
 Access is much faster than with serial access
 Used in applications where access speed is vital
 When updating media which uses direct access, the new data is written to the next available location
and its position is calculated using the built-in algorithm

Backing storage media

 Magnetic
 Optical
 Solid state

Magnetic
Fixed Hard Disk
 Available on all computers and is the main method used for data storage.
 Uses a read/write head to write and read data from it
 Disk surface coated in magnetic film, storage is done by altering binary codes to 1 or 0s.

Uses
 Used to store operating systems and working data
 Used for storing application software
 Real time systems and online systems used fixed hard drives
 Used in file servers for computer networks

Advantages
 Very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data
 Have very large memory capacities

Disadvantages
 Can be easily damaged
 They lack portability

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Portable hard disk drives

 Similar to hard disks but are usually connected via universal serial bus

Uses
 Can be used as backup systems to prevent loss of data
 Can be used to transfer data, files and software between computers

Advantages
 Data access time and transfer rate is very fast
 Large memory capacities
 Can be used to transfer information between computers

Disadvantages
 Can be easily damaged

Floppy disk drives

Uses
 Used if small files need to be stored/transferred
 Older computers use this method of storage

Advantages
 Using a CD to store a small file is often regarded as wasteful
 It is a very simple technology and are also extremely cost

Disadvantages
 Very low memory capacity
 Old technology – not compatible with modern computer
 Slow data transfer
 Not very robust

Magnetic tapes
 Thin strip of plastic which is coated in a magnetic layer
 Read and written by read/write head

Uses
 Application where batch processing is used
 Used as a backup media

Advantages
 Generally less expensive and very robust technology
 Data transfer rate is fast

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Disadvantages
 Access time is very slow
 When updating another tape is needed

Optical Storage Media

CD-ROM and DVD-ROM
 Read only memory – cannot be overwritten
 Data is stored as a series of pits and lands formed by a laser beam etching the surface at
manufacturing stage

Uses
 Store music files and software.
 Very large storage capacity and are used to store films.

Advantages
 Holds more data than floppy disks
 Less expensive than hard disk drives

Disadvantages
 Data transfer rate and data access time are slower

CD-R and DVD-R

 The letter ‘R’ means the disc is recordable only once and then it becomes ROM
 Use a thin layer of an organic dye as the recording media
 DVDs also use an additional silver alloy or gold reflector
 Laser beam produces heated spots and unheated spots

Uses
 They are used for home recording of music (CD-Rs) and films (DVD-Rs)
 They are used to store data for later use
 Used in applications where it is necessary to prevent the deletion or over-writing of important data.

Advantages
 Cheaper than RW disks
 Once burned (and finalized) they are like ROM

Disadvantages
 Can only be reordered once
 Not all CD/DVD players and can read CD-R

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CD-RW and DVD-RW

 ‘RW’ means that these disks are re-writable media can be written over several times
 Unlike CD-R/DVD-R they don’t become ROMs
 The recording layer uses a special phase-changing metal alloy
 The alloy can switch between crystalline and amorphous (non-crystalline) phases, thus changing its
reflectivity to light, depending on the laser beam power
 Spots are produced which can be read by a laser
 System allows data to be written, erased and re-written many times

Uses
 CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are used to record radio and television programs
 They are used in closed circuit television (CCTV) systems

Advantages
 Can be re used many times
 Different file formats can be used each time
 Less wasteful than R format since files or data can be added at a later stage

Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive media
 Possible to accidentally overwrite

DVD-RAM
 Recent addition to optical media group
 Unlike other CD and DVD formats, DVD-RAMs have several discrete concentric tracks rather than a
single spiral track
 Gives them advantage that writing and reading can occur at the same time
 Makes it possible to watch an already recorded television program at the same time as a different
program is being recorded
 Recording layer is made from similar phase-changing material to that used in RW technology
 Shiny and dull marks represent data to a computer where they are interpreted

Uses
 DVD-RAMs are used in recording devices such as satellite receivers to allow simultaneous recording
and playback
 They are used in camcorders to store films

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Advantages
 Have a long life (30 years)
 Can be re written on more than the DVD-RWs (100,000 times)
 Very reliable as they have built in verification software to ensure accuracy of data
 Access is very fast
 No need to finalize the disk
 Very large capacities
 Ability to read and write data at the same time

Disadvantage
 DVD-RAMS are not as compatible as R or RW, many systems will not recognize this format
 More expensive than DVD-RW

Blu-ray disks
Uses
 Blu-ray disks are used in home video consoles
 Used for storing and playing back films
 PCs can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard drives
 Camcorders can use this media to store film footage

Advantage
 Very large storage capacity
 Data transfer rate is very fast
 Data access speed is faster than with other optical media

Disadvantage
 Disks are relatively expensive
 Blu-ray disks still have encryption problems

Solid state
 Solid state systems control the movement of electrons within a microchip: if the transistor conducts
a current, this is equivalent to a 1, otherwise it is a 0
 Have no moving parts, consume much less power and are extremely robust
 Used primarily as removable storage devices and are collectively known as flash memory

Memory sticks/pen drives

 Can store several GBs of data and use solid state technology
 Connected to a computer through USB port and power to operate drawn from host computer
 Some expensive software increasingly use these storage methods as a form of security

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Uses
 Used to transport files between computers
 Used as a security device – a dongle – to prevent software piracy

Advantage
 Very compact and portable media
 Very robust

Disadvantage
 Not possible to write protect the data and files
 Small physical size and are easy to lose.

Flash memory cards

 Are a form of electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) and are another
example of solid state memories

Uses
 Used to store photos on digital cameras
 Mobile phones use them as memory cards
 Used in MP3 players to store music
 Used as a backup in hand held devices

Advantages
 Very compact
 Very robust

Disadvantages
 Very expensive per Gb of memory when compared to hard drive disks
 Has a finite life in terms of the number of times they can be read from or written to
 Lower storage capacity than hard disk

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Comparing different storage media

Volume of data
Very large Fixed hard disks
storage capacity Portable hard disks
Magnetic tapes
Large storage Memory sticks/pen drives
capacity Flash memory cards
Blue-ray/HD DVD
DVD-ROM
DVD-R
DVD-RW
DVD-RAM
Limited storage CDs
capacity

Speed of data access

Very fast Flash memory cards
Memory sticks and pen drives
Fast Fixed hard disks
Portable hard disks
All CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray
Slow Magnetic tape

Portability
Very portable Flash memory cards
Memory sticks/pen drives
All the CDs and DVDs
Less portable Portable hard disks
While some tapes are small others are large
Not portable Fixed hard disks

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Robustness
Very robust Memory sticks/pen drives
Flash memory cards
Robust but might CD-ROM, DVD-ROM
damage in some CD-R, DVD-R
circumstances HD-DVD, Blu-ray
Robust but may CD-RW, DVD-RW
lose data if DVD-RAM
wrongly used BD-RE (Rewritable Blu-ray)
Portable hard drive
Magnetic tape
Very fragile if Fixed hard drive
moved

Cost
Low cost CDs, DVDs
HD-DVD/Blu-Ray
Medium Cost DVD-RAM
Memory sticks/Pen drives
Flash memory cards
Expensive Magnetic tape
Portable hard drives
Fixed hard drives

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Common types of networks
 File servers: allow users to save and load data/files
 Applications servers: deal with distribution of applications software
 Printer servers: ensure printing from devices on the network is done in a queue
 Proxy servers: used as a buffer between WANs and LANs

Local area networks (LAN)

 Not over a large geographical area (e.g. in one building)
 Typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices
 Devices and computers will be connected to hubs or switches.
 One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router and modem to allow the LAN to
connect to the internet
 In doing so it then becomes part of a wide area network

Advantages of Networking using LAN

 The sharing of resources
 Communication between users
 Network administrator can control and monitor all aspects of the network

Disadvantages of Networking using LAN

 Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
 Development of printer queues
 Slower access to external networks, such as the internet
 Increased security risk
 If main server breaks down, usually the networks will no longer function.

LAN Network Topologies

Ring networks
 Every computer in the network is connected in a ring, including the server.
 Data is transmitted around the ring and each computer takes data relevant
to it
 Allows each computer to send and receive data since they all have a unique
identification/ address.

Advantages
 Work well under heavy loading.

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 Possible to create very large networks using this topology

Disadvantages
 If fault in wiring between two computers then whole network will fail.
 Adding a new device or computer to the network can be difficult since it has to be placed between
two existing devices.

Bus networks
 Each computer or device is connected to a common central line.
 Data travels along central line until it reaches the computer or device that requires
it.
 The ends of the line have terminators to prevent signal bounce, which would cause
data interference.

Advantages
 Easy to add a new computer or device to the network
 If one device or computer fails, does not affect the rest of the network.
 Doesn’t need a hub or a switch and also requires less cabling - saves on costs.

Disadvantages
 Difficult to isolate any fault on the network
 If central line has a fault then whole network fails.
 Becoming an increasingly outdated topology for network design
 Performance worsens noticeably as more and more devices/computers are added.

Star networks
 Each computer or device connected via central hub or switch.
 Data sent to the hub which then sends out data along every cable to every
computer or device

Advantages
 If one computer or device fails, then the rest of the network is unaffected.
 Problems on the network are easy to identify and work can fixed without affecting
rest of the network.
 Easy to expand the network

Disadvantages
 If the central hub breaks down, the whole network crashes.

Tree network
 A tree network has a central line connecting together a series of star networks
 The server is also connected to this central line.
 Because of its flexibility, and the fact that it has the advantages of both bus and
star networks, this topology is becoming increasingly popular.

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 The advantages and disadvantages are the same as for bus and star networks.

Wireless LANs (WLANs)

 Do not involve any wiring or cabling
 Provide wireless network connection overs a short distance
 They use radio or infrared signal's instead of cables
 Devices known as Access Points (APs) are used for a larger range
 APs usually use spread spectrum technology (larger range)

Advantages
 All computers can access the same services and resources
 No cabling is involved
 The system is more flexible
 Adding new computers and devices is very easy
 Cost is reduced and safety is improved

Disadvantages
 Security is an issue
 Problems and interference can affect the signal
 The data transfer is slow than in the wired LAN

Wi-Fi
 Any system which allows you to connect to a network or computer through wireless communication
 Examples :
o WLANs
o PDAs
o Laptop computers
o Peripheral devices such as printers

Wi-Fi Hotspots
 Wi-Fi systems rely on AP (radio frequency technology) to enable the device to receive and send
signals
 Wi-Fi hotspots are places where you can access Wi-Fi (free or paid)
 Hotspots are found in public places like Airports, hotels and cafés
 War driving: The act of driving and searching for unsecured Wi-Fi hotspots
 This gives a risk to the Wi-Fi system

Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is an example of wireless personal area networking (WPAN) technology
 Spread spectrum transmission (radio waves) is used to provide wireless links between to devices
such as mobile phones and allow connection to the internet
 A small home network can be created with this system

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 Example: Used to transfer photos from camera to a mobile phone

 It behaves like a mini-LAN

Wide area networks

 WAN is formed by a number of LANs being connected together through a router or a modem
 Some companies set up Private WANs, it is expensive however it comes with a much enhanced
security
 It is common to use an Internet service provider (ISP) for connections to the internet and
communicate via this network system
 Additional hardware is needed for a WAN: Routers, modems and proxy servers

Network Devices
Modems
 It stands for modulator demodulator.
 Converts computer’s digital signals (modulates it) into analogue for transmission through telephone
lines.
 Reverse this process- analogue signal from a telephone line into digital for a computer to process the
data. (demodulates it)
 The main use it to connect to computer networks over long distances using existing telephone lines.

Types of Modems
 Dial-up modems: operate at 60 kilobits/sec (slow compared to modern standards)
 (ADSL) asymmetric digital subscriber line modems operate at 11,000 kilobits/sec.
 Asymmetric: faster at downloading than uploading
 They don’t tie up the line while accessing the internet, which allows simultaneous internet access
and usage of telephone.
 Cable modems: allow cable TV users to receive TV signals as well as internet access.

Network Hubs
 They are devices that can have multiple devices connected to them.
 Main task is to receive data from different ports and send it to each device
 The information will be received to the device whether its relevant, or not

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Switches
 More efficient than hubs in distributing data.
 Each device has an access control media address MAC which identifies it uniquely
 MAC is a number unique to each device connected to the network (like fingerprints)
 Data sent will have a mac address which tells the source and receiving device.

Bridges
 It connects 2 different types of networks together e.g. a bus and star network
 It can only connect networks that use the same way for handling messages
 They do this by changing the form of message to suite the different type of network

Routers
 Acts like a bridge, yet can link between two or more networks
 Makes decisions on messages being passed between the networks
 Formats the messages making it suitable for the new network
 Reads information about the message and decides where the message should go and the best route
for it to get there
 Used to provide a connection between a network and the internet
 You need an ISP account to have access to the internet (internet server provider)

HTTP Proxy Server

 Type of server that acts as a buffer between a WAN and a LAN.
 Retrieves web pages and passes them onto the computer that made a request.
 Stores any page retrieved on the server, which means that when a different computer requests the
same page it would be available.
 Speeds up the browsing process

Internet
 The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks.
 It allows for web browsing, gaming, file sharing, video and email.
 User can access by web browser.

Websites
 Web is made up of millions of websites and web pages
 Web pages are documents on a computer screen containing various multimedia and text, pictures
 A website consists of many of these pages linked together

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Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 Web browsers use URLs to retrieve files.
 They are standard way of locating on the internet
 Standard form: 4 numbers e.g. 194.106.220.19
 Also alphanumeric form: protcol://site address/path/filename
 Where; Protocol is usually http
 Site address consists of: computer name, domain name, domain type, and country code
 Path is the web page
 Filename is the item on the page

Accessing the Internet

Type of access Description
Dial up internet  Slowest type (60kbps)
access (dial up  Connects via the telephone line dialing a number given by ISP
 Disadvantage: telephone line gets tied up while a dial up modem is in
modem) operation

Cable internet  Local cable television operators gives user access through cable networks
access (cable
modem)
Internet access via  Fastest download speed connections (at least 11000kbps)
DSL (broadband
modem)

Intranet
 It is an internal website that is setup internally for companies and can be accessed by employees for
the purpose of standard documents or information and many items of information and data.

Benefits
 Safer and less chance of hacking
 Possible to prevent employees from accessing unwanted sites
 Companies ensure that info. available is specific to their needs
 Easier to send sensitive messages that remain within a company

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Comparison between Internet and Intranet

 Internet comes from – international network
 Intranet comes from – internal restricted access network
 Intranet is used to give local information whereas internet covers topics of global interest
 Intranet requires password entry and can be access from agreed points. Internet can be accessed
from anywhere provided the user has an ISP account
 Intranet is behind firewall which gives protection from hackers, not possible with internet due to
international scales
 Intranet information is usually stored on local servers which makes them secure

Network Security
User IDs
 To log on to a network, a user must type in a user ID
 User ID assigns user privilege once user logs in
 The top level privilege for a network is an administrator:
o Able to set passwords and delete files from server etc.
 User privilege may only allow to access their own work area

Passwords
 After typing in user ID, the user will be requested to type in their password.
 Generally, it is a combination of letters and numbers
 Passwords are shown as stars (***) so nobody overlooking can see it.
 Many systems ask for password to be typed in twice as a verification check, in case of input errors
 To help protect the system, user is has a finite number of attempts.
 If password is forgotten, administrator has to reset it
 If password is forgotten on a website, it will be sent to your e-mail

Encryption
 The conversion of data to code by encoding it
 Done by using encryption software
 Since data is encoded, it appears meaningless to a hacker
 This technique does not prevent illegal access
 Necessary to use decryption software to decode the data
 Used to protect sensitive data e.g. banking details
 Encryption keys are complex algorithms which makes codes almost unbreakable

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Authentication techniques
 These are the ways in which a computer user can prove who they are
 Most systems adopt following logics:
o Something you know – password/pin
o Something belonging to you – bank card
o Something unique to you – your fingerprint
 At least two of these are needed to prove who you are

Communication Methods
Fax (Facsimile)
 A system that scans documents electronically and converts them into a bit map image (a bit is a
binary digit and is a 1 or a 0)
 Then transmitted as a series of electrical signals through the telephone network
 Receiving fax machine converts the electronic image and prints it out on paper
 It is also possible to generate fax signals from a computer to allow documents to be sent to a fax
machine
 This saves printing out the document first and then passing it through the fax machine
 Fax/modem software in the computer converts the image into a form fax machines can recognized

Email
 Another method for sending text and attachments from one computer to another over a network

Advantages
 Speed of sending and receiving replies is quick
 Low cost (no stamps, paper etc.)
 Not needing to leave home to send the mail

Disadvantages
 Possibility of virus threats and hacking
 Need for the email address to be correct
 Inability to send bulky objects via emails

Video Conferencing
 This is a method of communication between people at 2 or more separate locations
 It is done in real time and makes use of LAN, if internal, or WAN if through the internet.
 Uses hardware like; webcam, microphones, speakers and monitors
 It also uses special software like CODEC converts and compresses analogue data into digital data to
send down digital lines.

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How it works
 Delegates at one end speak into a microphone and look into the webcam.
 The other delegates can see them and hear them using speakers and monitors,
 However there are several problems with these as the conference call often lags and quality is not
always high.
 Also, as travelling tickets increase in price, terrorists can use this way of communicating with each
other, increasing risk.

VOIP
 VOIP (Voice over internet protocol) is a method used to talk to people over internet
 VOIP converts sound (picked up by a microphone) into discrete digital packets that can be sent to a
destination via internet
 The biggest advantage is that it is free and can be used all over the world
 The biggest disadvantage is that sound quality is usually bad.

Security Issues
 Identity and service theft
 Viruses and malware
 Spamming (sending junk mail)
 Phishing attacks (the act of sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be an established legitimate
enterprise in an attempt to scam user in different ways

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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DATA TYPES
 Data: simply any numbers, letters or symbols that can be entered into a computer system
 Data stored on computers = digital (for storage & manipulation)
 Physical measurements of continuously varying data (real world) = analogue
 Stored in logical sequence (allow access and/or search)

Types of Data
Numeric
 Integers - Whole numbers (no decimals)
E.g. amount of people
 Real numbers- Numbers that have a decimal part
E.g. person’s height

Alphanumeric
 Can have alphabets and numerical characters
 Usually symbols ($%^+@, etc.) and spaces are also allowed.
 If they are needed for calculations then they are numeric if not then they can be alphanumeric
 E.g. (Dog, ABC123, [email protected])

Data & Time

 Often takes the form of 3 pairs of numbers
o 27/04/09
o 04/27/09
 May store 4 digits for the year.
o 27/04/2009
 This takes up more storage space
 Time: E.g.
o 11 am
o 15:00
o 17:05:45

Logical/Boolean
 Can only have two values TRUE or FALSE
 Used when carrying out a search in a database or on the internet.
 Examples: Yes or No, True or False, On or off

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Currency
 Real numbers that are formatted in a specific way.
 Usually currency is shown with a currency symbol and two decimal places.
 Examples : £12.45, $5500

Selecting Data Types

Data Name Example Data Data Type
Name Bob Text
Height 1.85 Real
Date of Birth 19 May 1990 Date
Phone no. 012 44565 Numeric

Pay rate $35.75 Currency

Tax rate 15% Percentage

Data Structures
 File- full set of data
 Record(row)-set of data associated with a single object or person
 Field(cell)-Each item of data for a record is stored in a field
 Key Field/Primary Field-
o Each primary key is unique and is used to locate a record in a file
o First field of the set of data (table)

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Type of Files
Sequential
 Records are stored in order of the key
 Easier to use and find things

Serial
 In order of how they were inputted
 Difficult to find record you are looking for
 Index can be created to allow records to be stored randomly. Index will be in order and indicate
where the record can be found.
 Enabling rapid look-ups which is called direct file access

File Maintenance
Updates
 Change one or more items of data not the whole record.
 E.g. Student changes form

Insertions
 Inserting a new record
 E.g. A new student joins the school

Deletions
 Delete a whole record
 E.g. Student leaves the school

Databases
 A collection of information which is structured in some way to permit manipulation and searching of
data

Uses
 To promote data consistency

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 Data duplication is reduced – only one copy of each data item needs to be kept
 Relatively easy to expand
 Security of data easier to monitor and maintain

Types of Databases
Flat file
 Only contains a single table of data
 All the data stored in this one place
 Disadvantage = repeated data
 Wastes space and a pain to update
 Takes time to input, typing the same data over and over (and mistakes may be made)

Relational
 Consists of a no. of separate tables which are related and each table contains a primary key field that
is also a field in at least one other table.
 Connected by links called relationships
 Foreign Key – when a key field from one table appears in a different table

 Advantages:
o Faster data retrieval because of links between tables
o Easy expansion of the database
o Only need to change data in one table

Analogue and Digital Data

 Digital data- discrete, fixed value (used by computers)
 Analogue data/signals- continuous value that varies smoothly
o Analogue device = measure length, weight, temperature etc.
o E.g. Thermometer – represents temp. by the height of the liquid column
o Sensors : measure physical and analogue qualities

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Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)

 Used when you want to attach an analogue input device to a digital device such as a computer.
 This is so the analogue data can be understood/processed by the computer since computers only
work w/digital data
 E.g. When processing data sent from a sensor

Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)

 Used when you want to attach an analogue output device to a digital device such as a computer
 E.g. If the computer is being used to control a device (motor/valve) the device will be controlled by
variable voltages, the DAC will be used to send out analogue signals.

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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THE EFFECTS OF USING ICT

Software copyright
 A law that protects books, music art and other media that are written is copyright law.
o It is an automatic right and does not need applying for
o The person who owns the rights must be asked before it can be used again
 Software is a specific thing created and written on a computer
o Needs to be protected as it is so easy for people to copy
o This is a way of protecting software from being used without permission
o Users create a license which determines the terms and conditions

The Rules that must be obeyed

 It is not legal to make a copy of software, then sell it or give it away to other people
 Software cannot be used on a network unless a network license has been acquired
 Not legal to use coding from software in your own software without permission
 Renting out software without permission is illegal
 It is illegal to use the name of copyrighted software without permission

Software Protection
 Installed software will require a unique reference number
 User will have to accept license agreement
 Holograms are used to indicate software is original
 Software may only run if CD-ROM or DVD-ROM is actually in the drive
 Some software will only run if a memory stick is plugged in USB ports

Viruses and Hacking

Viruses
 It is a program that replicates itself and is designed to cause harm to a computer system
o May cause the computer to crash
o Loss of files, corruption of the data
 Viruses infect computers through email attachments, illegal software or downloaded files.

Prevention of Viruses
 Anti-virus software - Detects and then removes or isolates and use firewalls
 Do not use illegal software
 Only download from reputable sites

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Hacking
 Hackers are people who get into your computer system without having the rights
o Some prove that a system is vulnerable - maybe employed to test
o Some want to steal data
o Alter or destroy data
o For fun or a challenge

Prevention of Hacking Damage

 Authentication would prevent access
 Encryption would make it unreadable
 Have a backup of data in case of damage
 Firewalls

Impact of ICT on Employment

 Led to unemployment in many areas
o Manufacturing - robots have taken over many tasks and are much faster
o Computer controlled warehouses – automatic, does not need people
o Labor intensive work - printing industry and filing
 New jobs have been created in ICT
o Writing software
o Maintenance of robots
o Internet related jobs

Effects on People:
 People need to be retrained due to new technology
 Cleaner working environment, robots complete dirty manual tasks
 De-skilling of workforce
 Computers can now do tasks that required high skill level
 Safer working environment
 Fewer manual tasks such as heavy lifting

Effect on Companies:
 Can employ less people
 Robots do not take holiday, get sick or need breaks
 Greater consistency in products made

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Impact of ICT on Shopping and Banking

 Fewer staff needed
 But new staff needed to provide online services
o Shops: packaging and sending out orders
o Banks: Online exchange
 Online shopping and Banking increased

Advantages
 No need to travel, which saves money on fuel and time spent shopping
 Access to worldwide market
 Disabled and elderly have access to all shops
 Can be done 24/7, all day every day
 Have more time to do more leisure activities

Disadvantages
 Lack of socialization
 Health risks - Lack of exercise, obesity
 Security risks - hacking, viruses, fraud
 Need specific hardware and access to internet
 Not possible to see or try on goods
 High street shops and banks are having to close

Effects on Companies
 Companies can save cost by employing fewer staff and having less shops
 Customer base can be increased
 Suffer different costs
o Re-train staff
o More staff in dispatch departments
o Website costs
 Could lead to drop in customer loyalty
o Lead to loss of customers
o Lack of personal service

Policing the Internet

 Currently, the internet has no boundaries
 Anything and everything can be put online

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For Policing
 Prevent illegal material being posted
 People can easily find info on how to become hackers or make bombs etc.
 Prevent children from accessing undesirable websites
 Could reduce the amount of incorrect information

Against Policing
 Material already available in other sources i.e. books
 Very expensive
 Users would have to fund
 Difficult to enforce rules
 Against freedom of information
 Laws already exist to deal with perpetrators

Microprocessors at home
 Nowadays common household items are fitted with microprocessors
 Controls many functions

Labor saving devices

 Automatic washing machines
 Microwave ovens
 Ovens
 Dishwashers
 Advantages:
o Lead to more leisure time - devices can be programmed to do tasks
o More time to socialize
o Becoming very sophisticated and can make use of embedded web technology
 Disadvantages:
o Unhealthy diets
o People become lazy and rely on devices
o Dependency on technology increases

Other household devices

 TV sets
 Hi-fi’s
 Fridge/freezers
 Central heating systems
 Advantages:
o Save energy - switch off automatically
o Easier to program device rather than set timings, dates, etc. Manually

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 Disadvantages:
o More wasteful society - devices thrown away if they fail, not economic to repair
o Leaving on standby wastes resources

Information from the internet

There are 4 main aspects to consider when looking at the quality of information found on the internet
using a search engine:

 Reliability of information
 Undesirability of certain websites
 Security issues
 Other internet issues

Reliability of information
 Information is more likely to be up to date than in books, since websites can be updated very quickly
 Much easier to get information from websites- search engines link key words together and find info.
that matches the criteria
 Vast amount of information on the internet- easier to locate than using indices in books
 Information on the internet however may be incorrect, inaccurate or even biased- it does not go
through any checking process
 Information overload can make it difficult for the user to find relevant info.

Undesirability of certain websites

 Risk of finding undesirable websites
 Risk of doubtful websites which are not genuine
 They could lead to problems such as undesirable web links, security risks etc.

Security issues
Phishing
 Phishing is a fraudulent operation involving the use of emails
 The creator sends out a legitimate looking email hoping to gather personal and financial information
from the recipient of the email
 The message appears to be from a legitimate source (e.g. a famous bank)
 When the user clicks on the link they are sent to a spoof website
 They will be asked for personal info e.g. credit card details, PINs
 This could lead to identity theft
 ISPs attempt to filter out phishing emails

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Pharming
 Pharming is a scam in which malicious code is installed on a computer hard disk or a server
 This code can misdirect users to fraudulent websites without their knowledge
 Phishing requires an email to be sent to every person who has been targeted, while pharming does
not require emails to be sent out to anyone
 Pharming can target a larger group of people more easily

How pharming works:

 A hacker will infect the computer with a virus, either by sending an email or installing software on
their computer when they first visit their website
 Once infected, the virus sends the user to a fake website that looks identical to the one they wanted
to visit
 Personal info. from the user’s computer can be picked up by the pharmer/hacker
 Anti-spyware, anti-virus software or anti-pharming software can be used to identify this code and
correct the corruption

Spam
 Spam is electronic junk mail and is a type of advertising from a company sent out to a target mailing
list
 It is harmless but can clog up networks and slow them down
 It is more of a nuisance than a security risk
 Many ISPs are good at filtering out spam
 It is often necessary to put a legitimate email address into a contact list to ensure wanted emails are
not filtered out by mistake

Spyware
 Spyware is software that gathers user info. through their network connections without them being
aware that this is happening
 Once spyware is installed, it monitors all key presses and transmits the info. back to the person who
sent out the spyware
 This software can install other spyware software, read cookies and change the default home page or
web browser
 Anti-spyware can be used to search out thus software and correct the corruption

Other internet issues

Cookies
 Cookies are small files sent to a user’s computer via their web browser when they visit certain
websites
 They store info. about the users and this data is accessed each time they visit the website
 For example:

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 They remember who the user is and send messages such as “Welcome Sarah” each time they log
onto the website
 They recognize the user’s buying preferences e.g. if a user buys CDs, pop ups related to their buying
habits will appear on the user’s screen each time they visit the website
 Without cookies, web server would have no way of knowing that the user had visited website before

Internet developments
Blogs
 Personal internet journals where the writer posts their observations on a topic
 No training is needed to do this
 Blogs range from minor projects (e.g. people gossiping about a topic) to important subjects such as
politics or advertising products
 Comments are not immune from the law
 Bloggers can be prosecuted for offensive comments

Wikis
 Software allowing users to easily create and edit web pages without using any web browser
 A wiki will support hyperlinks and has a very simple syntax (language rules) for creating pages
 Wikis are described as ‘web pages with an edit button’
 Anyone can uses wikis- content should be treated with caution
 Example of a wiki: Wikipedia

Digital media sharing websites

 These allow users to upload video clips and other media to an internet website
 The video host will then store the video on a server and show the user the different types of code
which can be used to enable them to view the video clip
 Becoming popular since most users don’t have unlimited web space
 Example: YouTube

Social networking sites

 These focus on building online communities of users who share the same interests
 Enable people to share photos of themselves, their favorite music and videos, what they like to do,
what they like to eat etc.
 Example: Facebook
 These are becoming the modern way of interacting socially
 They allow people to communicate across the world and share their interests and views with many
people.

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Folksonomies
 Folksonomies are closely related to tagging and mean ‘the management of people’
 Tagging is a type of social bookmarking
 A user can tag any web page with words that describe its contents
 In folksonomies the visual representation is a tag cloud- this is a sequence of words of different sizes
that represent popular tags by showing them in a larger font size e.g. Flickr

Health and safety issues

Health aspects
Health risk Solution
Back and neck  Use adjustable chairs- correct posture
problems/strain  Use foot rests to reduce posture problems
 Tilted screens- ensure neck is at correct angle
Repetitive strain injury (RSI)-  Ensure correct posture (e.g. correct angle of arms to keyboard)
damage to fingers and wrists  Take regular breaks
 Use ergonomic keyboards
Eyestrain  Ensure there is no screen Flickr
 Take regular breaks
 Change to LCD screens- Flickr is less of a problem than with CRT
screens
Headaches  Use an anti-glare screen to cut out light reflections
 Take regular breaks
 Have eyes tested regularly
Ozone irritation caused by  Proper ventilation- removes ozone gas quickly
laser printers in an office  Put the house laser printers in a designated printer room
 Change to other types of printers (inkjet printer)

Safety aspects
Safety hazard Ways of eliminating or minimizing hazard
Electrocution  Use a residual circuit breaker (RCB)
 Check insulation on wires regularly
 Do not allow drinks near computers
 Check equipment regularly
Trailing wires (trip hazard)  Cable ducts- make wires safe
 Cover wires/tuck them away
 Use wireless connections
Heavy equipment falling  Strong desk/tables to support heavy hardware
 Use large desks and tables so that hardware doesn’t fall off edge
Fire risk  Have a CO2 fire extinguisher nearby
 Don’t cover equipment vents- can cause equipment to overheat
 Make sure hardware is fully maintained
 Do not overload sockets with too many items

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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THE WAYS IN WHICH ICT IS

USED
Communication applications
 Ways of communicating information
o Multimedia presentations
o Printing fliers and posters
o Use of websites
o Music production
o Cartoon animations

Multimedia presentations
 Uses a mixture of media to present information: animations, video, sound, transitions, hyperlinks
 Produced using software packages
 Used with a projector so large audience can view
 Advantages:
o Use of sound and animation/video effects
o Interactive/hyperlinks built into presentations
o More likely to hold audience’s attention
 Disadvantages:
o Need for special equipment – expensive
o May require internet access

Paper-based presentations
 It is always possible to produce presentations in hardcopy format
 Advantages:
o Disabled people do not have to go to the venue to see the presentation
o It is possible to print it out in Braille for the benefit of blind people
o The recipients have a permanent copy, which they can refer to at any time they want
 Disadvantages:
o The presentation needs to be distributed in some way
o There are no special effects
 Sound/video/ animation
o There are printing costs
 Paper/ink/etc.

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Flyers and posters

 A word processor or Desktop publisher is used to create it
 Need to hold minimum amount of information and be accessible very quickly
 Need to make an immediate impact when people look at them
 Anyone can produce them but there are highly skilled professionals who can produce expert posters
 Some posters require larger printers than A4
 Sequence in which a flier or poster is produced on a computer system
o A word processor or DTP application is opened
o The user creates frames, boxes and text boxes
o If necessary, photos are taken, using a camera
o The images are uploaded from the camera, loaded from a CD/DVD, scanned from hard-copy
photos or downloaded from the internet
o The photos are saved to a file
o The photos are imported or copied and pasted into the document
o The photos are edited and typed in or imported from a file and then put into required style

Websites
 Collection of webpages, text, graphics, video and sound
 Hosted on a web server on the internet
 Need to write code or use a web authoring application
 Hyperlinks to other pages can be added
 Interactive websites require programming knowledge
 Can use a camera, scanner, microphone to input data
 Usually hire space from web hosting company
 Advantages:
o Ability to add sound/video/ animation
o Links to other websites/hyperlinks
o The use of hot spots
o Buttons to navigate/move around the website
o Hit counters to see who has visited the websites
 Disadvantages:
o Can be hacked and modified or viruses introduced
o Need for a computer and internet connection
o Lack of portability compared with paper based system
o Need to maintain website once it is set up

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Music production
 Music samplers and mixers allow original tracks that were recorded in a studio to be modified
 Electronic instruments can play back through electronic effects machines
 Synthesisers combine simple wave forms to produce complex music creations
 Electronic organs can mimic any other instrument
 Music scores can be generated from music itself using software
 Software can automatically correct music notes in a score
 There is no need to understand music notation to write a music score
 Music notes are automatically printed out in the correct format

Cartoon animations
 Animations can be produced using computer hardware and software
 With 3D animations objects are designed on a computer and a 3D skeleton is produced
 Parts of the skeleton are moved by the animator using key frames
 The difference in appearance of the skeleton in these key frames is automatically calculated by the
software and is known as tweening or morphing
 The final stage is to make a realistic image by a technique known as rendering

Satellite and mobile network communications

Mobile phone networks
 Communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large areas
 The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone networks
 Each tower transmits within its own cell
 If you are driving a car and get to the edge of a cell the mobile phone signal starts to weaken
 This is recognized by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of the
adjacent cells
 If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different country then satellite
technology is used to enable the communication to take place
 Mobile phone technology can now be used by computers
 A plug-in device allows the computer to connect to the mobile network which then allows access to
internet
 This service is usually provided through a monthly contract which gives a download limit

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Embedded web technology

 New development that uses the internet in real time to control or interact with a device in the home
or a device which is part of an industrial application
 The device must contain an embedded microprocessor for the system to work
 The device can be controlled by an authorized user from a computer anywhere on a network or from
a web enabled mobile phone

Global Positioning satellite (GPS) systems

 Used to determine the exact location of a number of modes of transport
 Cars usually refer to GPS as satellite navigation systems
 Satellites surrounding the Earth transmit signals to the surface
 Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these signals
 Knowing their position on the Earth depends on very accurate timing – atomic clocks are used in the
satellites which are accurate to within a fraction of a second per day
 Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time
 The computer on board the mode of transport calculates its exact position based on the information
from at least three satellites
 Advantages:
o The driver does not have to consult paper maps while driving – far safer
o Removes errors as it can warn drivers about one way streets
o System can warn driver about location of speed cameras
o System can estimate time of arrival
o Possible to program in the fastest route
o System can give useful information
 Disadvantages:
o If maps are not up to date, can give incorrect instructions
o Unless system is sophisticated road closures can cause problems
o Loss of satellite signals can cause problems
o If incorrect start point or end point keyed in, system will give wrong information

Data handling applications

Surveys
 All data handling starts with data collection
o Data capture forms can be used for many applications
o Decide what needs to be collected and then what questions should be used to collect it
o Paper or electronically

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 Rules for creating forms

o Make them look official
o Spaces should be thought about giving enough space for answers
o Restrict the amount of possible answers, do not use open questions
o If open questions are used limit the amount of space available for answers
o Asking for ‘Name’ needs to be carefully thought about
 Are you asking for sensitive information
 People may not feel comfortable being truthful
 What names do you want?
 First name, family name etc.
o Date of Birth
 What format do you want it in?
o Give instructions about how to answer questions
o How will the data be collected
 Paper surveys are scanned using OMR or OCR
o Advantages
 Faster to get results
 Fewer errors
 It is easier to do statistical analysis
 Less expensive to carry out. Requires fewer people
 Online questionnaires
o Usually use radio buttons
o No data preparation needed
o Results sent directly to database for analysis

School Reports
 Database applications such as SIMS store large amounts of data which can be used to create annual
and termly school reports
 Things able to be gathered from here are:
o Data individual to student – tests/exam results
o Student progress – target grades being met or not
o Number of absences – create a percentage of amount of days attended school
o Teacher comments – adds comments on to report

Tuck shop records

 Uses spreadsheets to keep a record of prices and takings
 Advantage: Easier to vary parameters to show how to optimize profits or to see why loss is being
made
 System can be programmed to automatically warn of any problems

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Club and Society Records

 Need to keep a record on members usually in a database
 Usually payment details, contact details and interests
 It makes it easy to match people with interests and send information about what they are interested
in.
 This can be done my using mail merging
 Easy to check memberships and send out reminders
 It is important to follow the data protection act.

Data Protection Act

 Failure to abide to rules can lead to fines or imprisonment

Rules
 Data must be fairly and lawfully processed
 Data can only be processed for the stated purpose Data must be adequate, relevant and not
excessive
 Data must be accurate
 Data must not be kept longer than necessary
 Data must be kept secure
 Data must not be transferred to another country unless they have adequate protection

Guidelines
 Don’t leave personal information lying around
 Lock all filing cabinets when leaving an office
 Do not leave computer without locking or logging off
 Protect passwords
 Change passwords regularly
 Do not fax or email anything of sensitive nature.

Record keeping
 Record keeping is keeping files and information in a simple database and stored in electronic format
 It is used to make it easy to contact the customers and make it far more easy to search
 Advantages:
o Less room would be used up in the shop since no paper records
o Quicker and easier to find details
o Less expensive. Not necessary to employ somebody to file and search
o Fewer errors due to no manual checking of paper files
 Disadvantages:
o Buy a computer and software
o Would take time to transfer paper files to database.

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Modelling applications
 A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system on order to study the behavior of the system
 The model is computer generated and is based on mathematical representations
 The idea is to try and find out what mechanisms control how a system behaves and consequently
predict the behavior of the system in the future and also see if it is possible to influence the future
behavior
 Computer models have the advantage that they save money, can help find a solution more quickly,
and can be considerably safer
 Examples of a modelling application are:
o Tuck shop model
o Traffic light simulation

Why simulations are used

 They are less expensive than having to build the real thing e.g. bridge
 On many occasions, it is safer to run a simulation
 With simulations various scenarios can be tried out in advance
 It is nearly impossible to tryout some tasks in real life because of the high risk involved
 Some applications may take years before a result was known – quicker
 Limitations of Simulations:
o They are only as good as the data used and the mathematical algorithms representing the
real life situation therefore have limited use in complex applications
o Can be very expensive to set up and often require specialist software
o Frequently require very fast processors

Types of Processing
Batch Processing
 Number of tasks are collected together over a set period of time
 Job then loaded into a computer system and processed all at once
 Once the batch processing starts, no user interaction is needed
 This type of processing can be done where there are no time constraints
 A big advantage of batch processing is that job can be processed when the computer system is less
busy (e.g. at night) so use of resources is optimized
 Used in billing systems, payroll systems and processing of bank checks

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Real-time (transaction) Processing

 Real time processing is an example of online processing.
 It is used in things like booking seats in a flight or at a theatre.
 This type of processing is required so when a query is sent the response to it should be immediate to
prevent any problems(e.g. in booking seats if the response is not immediate then can cause
problems like double booking)
 Examples that use Real-time are :
o Flight bookings
o Cinema
o Theatre bookings
o Automatic teller machine (ATM)

Real-time Process Control

 Although it’s an example of online processing, it is very different to real-time (transaction) processing
 System usually involves sensors and feedback loops
 In real-time process control, physical quantities are continually monitored and input is processed
sufficiently quickly to influence the input source

Control Applications
Turtle Graphics
 Based on computer language called LOGO and is now usually known as turtle graphics
 It is the control of the movement of a ‘turtle’ on a computer screen by a number of key instructions
which can be typed in
 The use of ‘repeat’ instructions makes a piece of code more efficient

Command Meaning
FORWARD 𝑥 Move 𝑥 cm forward
BACKWARD 𝑥 Move 𝑥 cm backward
LEFT 𝑑 Turn left through 𝑑 degrees
RIGHT 𝑑 Turn right through 𝑑 degrees
REPEAT 𝑛 Repeat next set of instructions 𝑛 times
ENDREPEAT Finish the repeat loop
PENUP Lift the pen up
PENDOWN Lower the pen

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Applications using Sensors

 There is a difference between monitoring and controlling an application using a computer and
sensors
 In both cases, sensors are used to send data to a computer where the data is processed – it is what
happens next where the differences occur:
 In monitoring, the computer simply reviews the data from the sensors (by comparing it to data
stored in memory) and updates its files and/or gives a warning signal if the values are outside given
parameters. No changes to the process are made during monitoring.
 In control applications, the computer again reviews the data from the sensors (by comparing it to
data stored in memory). But if the values are outside the given parameters it takes action to try and
get the values within acceptable ranges. It does this by sending signals to devices controlling the
process.
 Examples of monitoring applications:
o Monitoring a patient’s vital signs in a hospital
o Monitoring a scientific experiment in a laboratory
o A burglar alarm system
o Environmental monitoring (e.g. oxygen levels in a river)
 Examples of control applications:
o Controlling a chemical process
o Controlling a nuclear reactor
o Controlling a greenhouse environment
o Controlling a central heating system
o Controlling a set of traffic lights
 Analogue data from sensors needs to be converted into digital data using an analogue to digital data
converter (ADC) so that the computer can understand and process the data from the sensors
 If the computer sends signals to motors, valves, etc. then this data also needs to be converted to
analogue using a digital to analogue converter (DAC) so that the computer can effectively control
these devices

Monitoring Examples
Monitoring a patient’s vital signs in a hospital
 Sensors read key vital signs (such as pulse/heart rate, temperature, blood pressure, respiration, etc.)
 The data from the sensors is converted into digital using an ADC
 The data is stored in the computer memory
 The computer compares the data from the sensor with the values stored in its memory
 The results are output on a screen in the form of graphs and/or digital read-outs
 An alarm is activated if any of the data is outside acceptable parameters
 The system continues to monitor the patient until the computer is turned off

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Measuring oxygen levels in a river (environmental monitoring)

 Sensors read data from the river (oxygen levels and acidity levels using a pH sensor)
 The data from the sensors is converted into digital using an ADC
 The computer stores the received data
 The oxygen levels and acidity levels are compared to the historical data stored in memory and they
are also compared to alarm levels stored in memory
 One of two things will now happen: either the data is transferred to a CD/DVD or to a memory stick
and taken away for analysis later or the computer is connected into a mobile phone network and
transmits the data back automatically to the monitoring station

Electronic timing
 Manual timings using stop watches are useful at sports days as minimal error is made and accepted
 At athletics meets more accuracy is needed so a computer is used
o Computerized start/timer/stop all used
o Start and stop actions are supplied by sensors
o Cable from the gun at the start line
o Light sensors at the finish line
 GPS – Global Positioning System
o Relies on time taken for signal to get to GPS from satellites - must be accurate

Advantages of using computers and sensors for monitoring

 The computer will not forget to take readings
 The computer’s response time is much faster, which is particularly important in the patient
monitoring example
 Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can all get on with other tasks while the monitoring is done
automatically
 Computer give 24 hours cover every day (i.e. 24/7)
 The readings will tend to be more accurate
 Readings can be taken more frequently if they are done by a computer and sensors
 It could also be safer if whatever is being monitored may have potential hazards (e.g. children falling
into the river whilst attempting to take readings)

Controlling Examples
A greenhouse environment
 Temperature controlled the same as central heating system
 Humidity must also be controlled
o Humidity sensor tells computer how humid it is
o Computer then makes a decision to turn the water supply to sprayers

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 Windows also operated by the computer

o Need to find the balance of how often to have windows open
 Blinds that can be computer controlled
o Light sensor measures light intensity
o When sun is strong the computer actuates electric motors which close blinds
 Control in greenhouse is more likely to be used in commercial areas or large greenhouses not in
gardens

Chemical process
A certain chemical process only works if the temperature is above 70°C and the pH (acidity) level is less
than 3.5. Sensors are used as part of the control system. A heater is used to warm the reactor and valves
are used to add acid when necessary to maintain the acidity. The following description shows how the
sensors and computer are used to control this process

 Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process

 This data is converted to digital using an ADC
 The computer compares the incoming data with ‘ideal’ data stored in memory:
o If the temperature is too low, a signal is sent to switch on the heaters
o If the temperature is too high, a signal is sent to switch off the heaters
o If the temperature is within an acceptable range, no action is taken
o If the pH is too high, a signal is sent to open a valve and acid is added
o If the pH is too low, a signal is sent to close this valve
o If the pH is within an acceptable range, no action is taken
o The computer signals will be changed into analogue signals using a DAC so that it can control
the heaters and valves
o This continues as long as the computer system is activated

Washing Machines
 Have a microprocessor in them which contains the software which controls the washing machine
 Appling the factors
o Inputs
 Pressure sensor on the door to detect if open or closed
 Sensor to detect if the required level of water is in
 Temperature sensor to check temperature
o Outcome
 Clothes have been washed

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o Outputs
 Heater
 Motor to spin drum
 Lights on machine to show user stage the cycle is at
 Actuators to turn the inlet valves on to allow hot and cold water into the machine
 Actuator to turn the outlet valve on to let the water out of the machine when the
wash is complete
 An actuator to control the pump
o Processing
 Software to make decisions which will allow the clothes to be washed
o Time taken before next inputs
 Timer as part of the software
 Time different cycles (when to add soap/conditioner/etc.)
 Time delay in measuring temperature. Needs to be time for changes to
have effect.
o Unmanageable situations
 Door may not be shut. Needs to draw users attention, usually a buzzer and light

Central Heating System

 Applying factors
o Inputs
 Inputs from the user
 Room temperature required
 Time systems turns on/off
 Inputs from the system
 Actual room temperature
 Clock giving the time
o Outcome
 Heating or cooling the room during the required times
o Outputs
 Boiler
 Air conditioner
o Processing
 Check time against the one input and switches on when that time is reached. Same
done to check when to turn off
 When on the microprocessor reads the temperature from sensor and compares it
with desired temperature
 If too low it will heat up by turning the boiler on and if its too high it will
turn the air conditioner on. These will stay on until desired temperature is
reached.

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Advantages of using sensors and computer systems to control processes

The advantages given earlier for monitoring systems also be apply to control systems. However, there
are a number of additional advantages:

 The response time if some parameter is out of range is much faster

 This is safer, as some processes are potentially dangerous if they go wrong – the computer can
control the process in a more accurate way, ensuring that the conditions are always correct
 If a process is dangerous, it is better to control it from a distance

Robotics
 Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heavy work right through to delicate
operations e.g. car bodies, welding bodywork, manufacturing of microchips etc.
 Control of robots is either through embedded microprocessors or linked to a computer system
 Programming of the robot to do a task is generally done in two ways:
o The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out a series
of tasks
o Alternatively, a human operator manually carries out a series of tasks and how each task is
done is relayed back to the robot (embedded processor) or controlling computer. The
sequence of instructions is remembered so that the robot can automatically carry out each
task identically each time (e.g. assembling parts in a television)
 Robots are often equipped with sensors so they can gather important information about their
surroundings
 Sensors also prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’, such as stopping a robot spraying a car if no
car is present, or stopping the spraying operation if the supply of paint has run out etc.
 Robots are very good at repetitive tasks
 However, if there are many different tasks (e.g. making specialist glassware for some scientific work)
then it is often better to still use human operators

Advantages
 Robots can work in environments harmful to human operators
 The can work non-stop (24/7)
 They are less expensive in the long term (they don’t need wages) however they are expensive to buy
initially
 Productivity is higher, since they do not need holidays, are not ill etc.
 There is greater consistency – every car coming off a production line is identical
 They can do boring, repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do more skilled work

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Disadvantages
 Robots find it difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks (e.g. one-off glassware for a chemical company)
 They replace skilled labor, leading to unemployment
 Since robots do many of the tasks once done by humans, there is a risk of de-skilling
 Because robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be moved anywhere in the world,
again causing unemployment

Batch processing applications

Payroll
 At the end of each pay period (weekly or monthly) a company needs to pay its employee. 0ayroll
systems are used to calculate wages and print out pay slips
 The inputs are: employee details from file, number of hours worked, any overtime working, holidays,
etc.
 The processing done is calculation of: gross pay, any deductions, net pay etc.
 The outputs are: printed pay slips, updating of the employee file, transfer to Bankers Automated
Clearing Service (BACS) is wages paid into a bank account, etc.
 This is run as a batch system, where all the timesheets, etc. are gathered together before the payroll
calculations are done in one go (often overnight). Since there is no need for any further input, nor is
it urgent to get the output (unlike in e.g. booking system)

Billing systems
 Because companies send out their bill/invoices on a pre-determined date, all the information is
gathered together and then processed in one go (batch).
 Consider an electricity billing system:
 The inputs are: customer details (address), charge per KW (unit) of power, previous readings, new
readings taken from the electricity meter, bank account details (if using direct debit), etc.
 The processing done is calculation of: number of units of electricity used (i.e. new reading minus old
reading), customer’s cost (i.e. units used times charge per unit), monthly payments made (if using
direct debit), outstanding amount owed or carried over to next bill, etc.
 The outputs are: bill showing all the details, updating of customer file, production of request for
payment if not done through direct debit, etc.

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Automatic stock control

 Automatic stock control systems rely on the use of barcodes
 Barcodes now appear on most products sold in shops
 They allow quick identification of product details once the barcode has been scanned by a barcode
reader
 Supermarkets, in particular, use electronic point of sale (EPOS) terminals, which incorporate a
barcode reader that scans the barcode, retrieve the price of the article and relay information back to
the computer system allowing it to update its files
 Barcodes are made up of alternating dark and light lines of varying thickness
 A number underneath the barcode usually consists of four parts: country code, manufacturer’s code,
product code, and a check digit
 The check digit is a form of validation which is used to make sure no errors occurred during the
reading of the barcode
 Every time the barcode is read, this calculation is performed to ensure that it has been scanned
correctly
 Barcodes are used in the following applications:
o Library book systems
o Administration systems
o Passport and ID card systems
o Some burglar alarm systems
o Equipment checking systems (safety records on maintenance of equipment)
o Automatic stock control systems

Online booking systems

 Online banking systems rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double
booking, which could happen if the system response time was slow
 Booking systems are used for transport (flights, trains and buses), cinemas and theatres

Theatre booking system example:

 Customer clicks on performance they wish to see
 They enter date and time of performance and required number of seats
 A seating display at theatre is then shown on screen and user clicks where they want to sit
 Database searched to check availability of selected seats. If seating plan shown on screen, this isn’t
required
 If seats available, sear numbers are shown together with total price
 If customer is happy with this, they select ‘confirm’
 The seats are now temporarily set at ‘no longer available’
 The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a returning customer

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 They select a payment method and make the payment

 The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name
 The final details are shown on the screen, together with a reference number
 An email is sent to the customer which they print out as their proof of purchase. In some cases, this
also acts as their printed ticket when they go to the theatre – an e-ticket
 The database is updated with the transaction

Banking applications
 The use of computer technology has revolutionized how we do our banking transactions, for
example:
o Internet banking
o The use of automated teller machines (ATMs)
o Chip and PIN technology

Automated teller machines (ATMs)

 Automated teller machines (ATMs) are places where customers can get cash (or carry out certain
other banking activities such as order a statement) using their credit or debit card

Sequence at ATM What goes on behind the scenes

Customer puts card into ATM  Contact is made with bank’s computer
PIN is entered using the keypad  PIN is checked to see if it is correct
 Card is checked to see if it is valid
A number of options are given:
 Change PIN
 Top up mobile
 See balance
 Get money
The customer selects the cash option. A number of
cash options are shown
The customer accepts of the options or types in a  The customer’s account is accessed to see
different amount if they have sufficient funds
 It is checked to see if they are withdrawing
more than their daily limit
The customer is asked if they want a receipt
The card is returned  Transaction is okay
Money is dispensed  Customer’s account is updated
 Although ATMs are very convenient for customers, they do have a few disadvantages:
o They are often in places where theft can take place unnoticed
o ‘Fake’ ATMs can be set up to gather information about the card and retain the card
o Some banks charge customers for the use of ATMs
o Someone else could see the PIN being entered and could use it to commit fraud at a later
date (also known as ‘shoulder surfing”)

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Chip and PIN

 Many credit cards are equipped with a chip as well as a magnetic stripe – this contains key
information such as the PIN
 This system is designed to enhance security since it is better than relying only on a signature
 When paying for items using a chip and PIN card, a form of electronic funds transfer (EFT) takes place

Paying for a meal example

 Waiter inserts card into chip and PIN reader
 Restaurant’s bank contact customer’s bank
 Card is checked to if valid
 If card is stolen or expired then transaction is terminated
 Customer enters PIN using keypad
 PIN is read from chip on card and is compared to one just keyed in
 If they are the same, the transaction can proceed
 Check is then made on whether they have enough funds
 If there are not enough funds available, transaction is terminated. Otherwise, transaction is
authorized
 Authorization code is sent to restaurant
 Price of meal is deducted from customer’s account
 Same amount of money is credited to restaurant’s bank account
 Receipt is produced as proof of purchase

Library systems
 Many library systems are computer controlled
 They usually involve the use of barcodes on the books being borrowed and on the borrower’s library
card
 The following describes a computerized library system based on barcodes
 There are two files:
o Book file, containing fields for example: barcode, book title, name of author etc.
o Borrower’s file, containing fields for example: borrower’s number, borrower’s name etc.
 When a borrower takes out a book, the book’s code is scanned. The book details are then found on
the book file
 The borrower’s library card barcode is then scanned for the borrower’s unique number. The book file
is linked to the borrower’s file and both files are updated to indicate which book has been borrowed
and when it is due back

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 On a daily basis, the borrower’s file is interrogated by the computer to see which books are overdue
for return:
o The computer reads a record from the book file
o It compares the date due back with the current date
o If the date due back is less than (or equal to) the current date (i.e. earlier date)…
o …using the barcode number of the book…
o …the book file is linked to the borrower’s file…
o …and the corresponding record is read from the borrower’s file
o The customer details are then found and a letter or email is automatically sent out
o The next record in the book file is then read…
o …until the whole file has been checked

Expert systems
 These systems have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a
particular field
 Examples include:
o Diagnosing a person’s illness
o Diagnostics (finding faults in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
o Prospecting for oil and minerals
o Tax and financial calculations
o Chess games
o Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds
o Road scheduling for delivery vehicles

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How to set up an expert system

 Experts in the field are interviewed to find out what is needed in the expert system
 Data is then collected from these experts
 A knowledge base is designed and then created
 The rules base is designed and created
 The inference engine is designed and created
 The input screen and output format are also designed and created – this is known as the user
interface
 The expert system is tested against known conditions and scenarios
 It is also checked to see if it meets the original specification
 Experts are interviewed about how effective it is before the expert system goes out on general
release

Advantages
 Expert systems provide consistent answers
 They never ‘forget’ to answer a question when determining the logic
 Using expert systems reduces the time taken to solve a problem
 A less skilled worker force is needed, which gives the potential of saving money, but also allows areas
of the world access to expertise which they could not normally afford

Disadvantages
 They tend to lack common sense in some of the decision-making processes
 Errors in the knowledge base can lead to incorrect decisions being made
 It can be expensive to set up in the first place
 Considerable training is necessary to ensure the system is sued correctly by the operators

Example of an expert system: oil prospecting

 An interactive user screen appears
 Questions are asked about geological profiles
 Answers to the questions and information about the geological profiles are typed in
 The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base
 The system:
o Suggests the probability of finding oil as an output
o Indicates the probable depth of deposits
o Makes predictions about geological deposits above the soil
o Produces contour maps showing concentration of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.

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Definitions
Knowledge base
 This is a database designed to allow the complex storage and retrieval requirements of a
computerized knowledge-based management system (in support of an expert system)

Inference engine
 This is software that attempts to derive answers from the knowledge base using a form of reasoning
 It is how expert systems appear to use human-like reasoning when accessing information from the
knowledge base in an effort to find a conclusion to a given problem
 The inference engine is a type of reasoning engine

Rules base
 This is made up of a series of ‘inference rules’ (e.g. IF the country is in South America AND the
language used is Portuguese THEN the country must be Brazil)
 These inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions
 They closely follow human-like reasoning

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INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN
Introduction
 A systems analysis team is often brought in to review an existing system and suggest a number of
improvements
 The existing method used may be either a manual paper-based system or a computer-based
operation that is no longer regarded as adequate for the task

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Analysis Stage
The basic steps in the analysis stage can be summarized as follows:
1. Fact finding/collecting data from the current system
2. Description of the current system – establishing the inputs, outputs and processing being done
3. Identification of the problems with the current system
4. Agreeing the objectives with the customer
5. Identifying and agreeing the customer’s requirements
6. Interpreting the customer’s requirements
7. Producing a cost-benefit analysis
8. Producing a data flow diagram

 There are four common methods used in fact finding

 The methods are:
o Observation
o Questionnaires
o Interviews
o Looking at existing paperwork

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Name of Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Observation Involves watching personnel using the  The analyst obtains reliable data  People are generally uncomfortable being
existing system to find out exactly  It is possible to see exactly what us being watched and may work in a different way
how it works done  If workers perform tasks that violate
 It is a relatively inexpensive method standard procedures, they may not do this
while being watched
Questionnaires Involves sending out questionnaires to  The questions can be answered quite  Often the number of returned questionnaire
the work force and/or to customers to quickly is low
find out their views of the existing  It is a relatively inexpensive method  The questions are rather inflexible since they
system and find out how some of the  Individuals can remain anonymous if they have to be generic
key tasks are carried out want  There is no immediate way to clarify a vague
 It allows quick analysis of the data or incomplete answer to a question
Interviewing Involves a one-to-one question-and-  It gives the opportunity to motivate the  It can be rather time consuming
answer session between the analyst interviewee into giving open and honest  It is relatively expensive, due to the use of
and the employee/customer answers to the analyst’s questions the analyst’s time
 It allows the analyst to probe for more  The interviewee cannot remain anonymous
feedback from the interviewee, as it is
easier to extend a question
 It is possible to modify questions as the
interview proceeds and ask questions
specific to the interviewee
 It is a good method if the analyst wants to
probe deeply into one specific aspect of the
existing system
Looking at Allows the analyst to see how the  It allows information to be obtained which  It can be very time consuming
existing paper files are kept, look at operating was not possible by any of the other  Because of the analyst’s time, it is a
instructions and training manuals, methods relatively expensive method
paperwork check the accounts, etc.  The analyst can see for themselves how the
paper system operates
 It allows the analyst to get some idea of the
scale of the problem, memory size
requirements, type of input/output devices
needed, etc.

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Design stage
 Once the analysis has taken place and the systems analyst has some idea of the scale of the problem
and what needs to be done, the next stage is to design the key parts of the recommended system
 A list of tasks is summarized here
o Designing data capture forms/input forms
o Designing screen layouts
o Designing output forms and reports
o Producing systems flowcharts and/or pseudo code
o Selecting and designing validation rules that need to be used
o Selecting the most appropriate data verification methods
o Designing and agreeing the file structures and tables
o Selecting and designing the hardware requirements
o Selecting and designing the software requirements
o Producing algorithms or program flowcharts
o Designing a testing strategy/plan

Verification
 A way of preventing errors when data is copied from one medium to another
 Two common ways verification checks are carried out:
o Double entry: in this method, data is entered twice, using two different people. The
computer compares the two entries, either after data entry or during the data entry process,
and identifies any differences
o Visual check: this is the checking for errors by comparing entered data on the screen with
the data in the original document (not the same as proof reading)

Validation
 Process where data is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria when input into a computer, for
example to see if the data falls within accepted boundaries

Validation Check Description Example/s

Range Check Checks whether data is within A person’s age should be in the range > 0
given/acceptable values but < 150
Length Check Checks if the input data contains the If a field needs six digits then inputting a
required number of characters five- or seven-digit number, for example
should cause an error message
Character/type Checks that the input data does not A person’s name should not contain any
Check contain invalid characters numbers but a person’s height should only
contain digits
Format/picture Checks that data is in a specific Date should be in the form dd/mm/yyyy
Check format

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Limit Check Similar to range check except that Input data must be > 10
only one of the limits (boundaries) is
checked
Presence Check Checks if data is actually present and In an electronic form, a person’s
has not been missed out telephone number may be a required field
and if no data is present this should give
rise to an error message
Consistency Checks if fields correspond (tie up) If ‘Mr’ has been typed into a field called
Check with each other title then the gender field must contain
either ‘M’ or ‘Male
Check Digit Look at an extra digit which is Check digits can identify three types of
calculated from the digits of a error:
number and then put on the end of  If two digits have been inverted
the number during input
 An incorrect digit entered twice
 A digit missed out altogether

Development and testing

 Once the design stage is completed, it is then necessary to create the system and fully test it
 This section considers some of the development stages and testing strategies which are often
adopted by system analysts

Development stages
 If the system contains files (e.g. a database) then the file structure needs to be finalized at this stage
(e.g. what type of data is being stored in each field, length of each field, which field will be the key
field, how the data files will be linked, etc.)
 Once the file structure has been determined, it is then created and fully tested to make sure it is
robust when the system actually goes live
 Since it is important that the correct data is stored in files, there are certain techniques that need to
be adopted to make sure the data populating the file/s and database/s is at least of the right type
and that it conforms to certain rules
 Validation routines and verification methods are used to ensure this happens
 Again, routines have to be fully tested to ensure they trap unwanted data but also to make sure any
data transferred from a paper-based system to an electronic system has been done accurately
 Any system being developed will have some form of user interface.
 The types of hardware were chosen in the design stage.
 How these are used to interface with the final system now needs to be identified, for example how
the screens will be used to collect the data and the way the output will be presented.
 If specialist hardware is needed (e.g. for people with disabilities), then it will be necessary to finalize
how these devices are used with the system when it is implemented.
 This will be followed by thorough testing to ensure the user screens are user friendly and that the
correct output is associated with the inputs to the system.

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Testing strategies
 Testing of each module needs to be done to ensure each one functions correctly on its own.
 Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs to be tested (i.e. all
modules functioning together).
 Even though each individual module may work satisfactorily, when they are all put together there
may be data clashes, incompatibility and memory issues, etc.
 All of this may lead to a need to improve the input and output methods, file and database structures,
validation and verification methods, etc.
 Then the system will need to be fully tested again.
 It is a very time-consuming process but the system has to be as perfect as possible before it goes live.
 Testing will use many different types of data, which will fall into one of three categories: normal,
extreme or abnormal.
 Let us suppose one of the fields in a database is the date and this must be in the form dd/mm/yyyy,
where each element of the date must be numeric:
o Normal: this is data which is acceptable/valid and has an expected (known) outcome, e.g.
the month can be any whole number in the range 1 to 12.
o Extreme: this is data at the limits of acceptability/validity, e.g. the month can be either of
the two end values i.e. 1 or 12.
o Abnormal: this is data outside the limits of acceptability/validity and should be rejected or
cause an error message. For example, all the following values are not allowed as inputs for
the month:
 Negative numbers (e.g. -1,-15)
 Any value greater than 12 (e.g. 32, 45)
 Letters or other non-numeric data (e.g. July)
 Non-integer values (e.g. 3.5, 10.75)

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Implementation
 Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully implement it.
 We will now consider changeover to the new system in more depth.
 There are four common methods used for changing over from the old system to the new system.
 Each one has advantages and disadvantages which need to be weighed up before the most
appropriate method is chosen for a particular application.

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Changeover method Description Advantages and disadvantages

Direct The old system is stopped overnight and the new system  The benefits are immediate.
introduced immediately.  Costs are reduced - since only one system is used
there is no need to pay for two sets of staff.
 There is less likelihood of a malfunction since the new
system will have been fully tested.
 This method can be disastrous if the new system fails.
Parallel running The old and new systems are run side by side for a time  If the new system fails, the old system is still available
before the new system takes over altogether as a back-up.
 It is possible to train staff gradually.
 Staff have time to get used to the new system.
 It is more expensive than direct changeover, since
extra staff are needed to run both systems together.
Pilot implementation The new system is introduced into one part of the  If the new system fails, only one part of the company
company (e.g. into a warehouse of a supermarket) and its is affected.
performance assessed.  It is possible to train staff in one area only, which is
much faster and less costly than parallel running.
 The costs are also less than parallel running, since only
one part of the system is being used in the pilot.
 It is more expensive than direct changeover, since
each pilot scheme needs to be evaluated before the
next stage is introduced.
Phased Initially, only part of the new system is introduced. Only  If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in
implementation when it proves to work satisfactorily is the next part the system to the point of failure, hence failure is not
introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully disastrous.
replaced.  It is possible to ensure the system works properly
before expanding.
 This is more expensive than direct changeover, since it
is necessary to evaluate each phase before moving to
the next stage.

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Changeover Relative costs Input needed Input needed by Impact of

method by the user systems team failure
Direct Low Medium Low* High
Parallel High High Low Low
Pilot Medium Low Medium Low
Phased Medium Medium Medium Medium

Documentation
 Once the new system is fully developed, a considerable amount of documentation needs to be
produced
a) For the end user
b) For people who may need to modify or develop the system further at some later stage
 There is some overlap between the two types of documentation, but the basic requirements are
shown below.

User documentation
 User documentation is designed to help users to learn how to use the software or system.
 This can consist of any of the following:
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o how to log in/log out
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do a search
o how to sort data
o how to do printouts
o how to add, delete or amend records
o screen layouts (input)
o print layouts (output)
o hardware requirements
o software requirements
o sample runs (with test data and results)
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o tutorials
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Technical documentation
 Technical documentation is designed to help programmers and analysts who need to make
improvements to the system or repair/maintain the system.
 This can consist of any of the following:
o purpose of the system/program/software
o program listing/coding
o programming language used
o flowchart/algorithm
o input formats
o hardware requirements
o software requirements
o minimum memory requirements
o known bugs in the system
o list of variables used (and their meaning/description)
o file structures
o sample runs (with test data and results)
o output formats
o validation rules
o meaning of error messages

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Evaluation
 Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation and carry out any
maintenance, if necessary.
 The following is a list of some of the things considered when evaluating how well the new system has
worked. This can ultimately lead back to a re-design of part of the system if there is strong evidence
to suggest that changes need be made.
 To evaluate the system, the analyst will:
o compare the final solution with the original requirement
o identify any limitations in the system
o identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
o evaluate the user’s responses to using the new system
o compare test results from the new system with results from the old system
o compare the performance of the new system with the performance of the old system
o observe users performing set tasks, comparing old with new
o measure the time taken to complete tasks, comparing old with new
o interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works
o give out questionnaires to gather responses about the ease of use of the new system
 Some results from the evaluation may require changes to either hardware or software. Hardware
may need to be updated because:
o of feedback from end users
o new hardware comes on the market, making change necessary
o there are changes within the company which require new devices to be added or updated
 Software may need to be updated because:
o of feedback from end users
o changes to the company structure or how the company works may need modifications to
the software
o changes in legislation may need modifications to the software

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