Vision: Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses

Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses Erach
Bharucha
CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FOR UNDER
GRADUATE COURSES OF ALL BRANCHES
OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Vision
The importance of environmental science and environmental studies cannot be disputed. The
need for sustainable development is a key to the future of mankind. Continuing problems of
pollution, loss of forget, solid waste disposal, degradation of environment, issues like
economic productivity and national security, Global warming, the depletion of ozone layer
and loss of biodiversity have made everyone aware of environmental issues. The United
Nations Coference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and
world Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002 have drawn the attention
of people around the globe to the deteriorating condition of our environment. It is clear that no
citizen of the earth can afford to be ignorant of environment issues. Environmental
management has captured the attention of health care managers. Managing environmental
hazards has become very important.
Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization. Even our
ancient scriptures have emphasized about practices and values of environmental conservation.
It is now even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a clear
understanding of environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development practices.
India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people. It is also basis for
biotechnology.
Only about 1.7 million living organisms have been diescribed and named globally. Still manay
more remain to be identified and described. Attempts are made to
I
conserve them in ex-situ and in-situ situations. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) have become
importanat in a biodiversity-rich country like India to protect microbes, plants and animals
that have useful genetic properties. Destruction of habitats, over-use of energy resource and
environmental pollution have been found to be responsible for the loss of a large number of
life-forms. It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth may get wiped out in the near
future.
Inspite of the deteriorating status of the environment, study of environment have so far not
received adequate attention in our academic programmes. Recognizing this, the Hon’ble
Supreme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment at every level in
college education. Accordingly, the matter was considered by UGC and it was decided that a
six months compulsory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and
compulsorily implemented in all the University/Colleges of India.
The experts committee appointed by the UGC has looked into all the pertinent questions,
issues and other relevant matters. This was followed by framing of the core module syllabus
for environmental studies for undergraduate courses of all branches of Higher Education. We
are deeply conscious that there are bound to be gaps between the ideal and real. Geniune
endeavour is required to minimize the gaps by intellectual and material inputs. The success of
this course will depend on the initiative and drive of the teachers and the receptive students.
SYLLABUS
Unit 1 : Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies
Definition, scope and importance
(2 lectures)
Need for public awareness.
II
Unit 2 : Natural Resources :
Renewable and non-renewable resources :

Natural resources and associated problems.
a) Forest resources : Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction,
mining, dams and their effects on forest and tribal people.
b) Water resources : Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought,
conflicts over water, dams-benefits and problems.
c) Mineral resources : Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using
mineral resources, case studies.
d) Food resources : World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing,
effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case
studies.
e) Energy resources : Growing energy needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources,
use of alternate energy sources. Case studies.
f) Land resources : Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion
and desertification.
• Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources.
• Equitable use of resoureces for sustainable lifestyles.
(8 lectures)
Unit 3 : Ecosystems
• Concept of an ecosystem.
III
• Structure and function of an ecosystem.
• Producers, consumers and decomposers.
• Energy flow in the ecosystem.

• Ecological succession.
• Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids.
• Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the
following ecosystem :-
a. Forest ecosystem
b. Grassland ecosystem
c. Desert ecosystem
d. Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) (6 lectures)
Unit 4 : Biodiversity and its conservation
• Introduction – Definition : genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. • Biogeographical
classification of India
• Value of biodiversity : consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option
values
• Biodiversity at global, National and local levels.
• Inida as a mega-diversity nation
IV
• Hot-sports of biodiversity.
• Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts. •
Endangered and endemic species of India
• Conservation of biodiversity : In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (8 lectures)
Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution
Definition
• Cause, effects and control measures of :-
a. Air pollution
b. Water pollution
c. Soil pollution
d. Marine pollution
e. Noise pollution
f. Thermal pollution
g. Nuclear hazards
• Solid waste Management : Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial
wastes.
• Role of an individual in prevention of pollution.
• Pollution case studies.
• Diaster management : floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides. (8 lectures)
V
Unit 6 : Social Issues and the Environment
• From Unsustainable to Sustainable development
• Urban problems related to energy
• Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management
• Resettlement and rahabilitation of people; its problems and concerns. Case Studies
• Environmental ethics : Issues and possible solutions.
• Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and
holocaust. Case Studies.
• Wasteland reclamation.
• Consumerism and waste products.
• Environment Protection Act.
• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
• Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act
• Wildlife Protection Act
• Forest Conservation Act
• Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation.
• Public awareness.
(7 lectures)
Unit 7 : Human Population and the Environment
• Population growth, variation among nations.
• Population explosion – Family Welfare Programme.
VI
• Environment and human health.
• Human Rights.
• Value Education.
• HIV/AIDS.
• Women and Child Welfare.
• Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health.
• Case Studies.
(6 lectures)
Unit 8 : Field work

• Visit to a local area to document environmental assets
river/forest/grassland/hill/mountain
• Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural • Study of common plants,
insects, birds.
• Study of simple ecosystems-pond, river, hill slopes, etc. (Field work Equal to 5 lecture
hours)
VII
SIX MONTHS COMPULSORY CORE MODULE COURSE IN ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES : FOR UNDERGRADUATES
Teaching Methodologies
The core Moudle Syllabus for Environment Studies includes class room teaching and Field
Work. The syllabus is divided into eight units covering 50 lectures. The first seven units will
cover 45 lectures which are class room based to enhance knowledge skills and attitute to
environment. Unit eight is based on field activites which will be covered in five lecture hours
and would provide student first hand knowledge on varios local environmental aspects. Field
experience is one of the most effective learning tools for environmental concerns. This moves
out of the scope of the text book mode of teaching into the realm of real learning in the field,
where the teacher merely acts as a catalyst to interpret what the student observes or discovers
in his/her own environment. Field studies are as essential as class work and form an
irreplaceable synergistic tool in the entire learning process.
Course material provided by UGC for class room teaching and field activities be utilized.
The universities/colleges can also draw upon expertise of outside resource persons for
teaching purpose.
Environmental Core Module shall be integrated into the teaching programmes of all
undergraduate courses.
Annual System : The duration of the course will be 50 lectures. The exam will be conducted
along with the Annual Examination.
VIII
Semester System : The Environment course of 50 lectures will be conducted in the second
semester and the examination shall be conducted at the end of the second semester.
Credt System : The course will be awarded 4 credits.
Exam Pattern : In case of awarding the marks, the question paper should carry 100 marks.
The structure of the question paper being :
Part-A, Short answer pattern - 25 marks
Part-B, Essay type with inbuilt choice - 50 marks
Part-C, Field Work - 25 marks

IX
REFERENCE
a) Agarwal, K.C. 2001 Environmental Biology, Nidi Publ. Ltd. Bikaner. b) Bharucha Erach,
The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad – 380 013, India,
Email:[email protected] (R)
c) Brunner R.C., 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc. 480p d) Clark R.S.,
Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press Oxford (TB) e) Cunningham, W.P. Cooper, T.H. Gorhani,
E & Hepworth, M.T. 2001,
Environmental Encyclopedia, Jaico Publ. House, Mumabai, 1196p f) De A.K., Environmental
Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
g) Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment (R)
h) Gleick, H.P. 1993. Water in crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Dev., Environment &
Security. Stockholm Env. Institute Oxford Univ. Press. 473p i) Hawkins R.E., Encyclopedia of
Indian Natural History, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay (R)
j) Heywood, V.H & Waston, R.T. 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge Univ.
Press 1140p.
k) Jadhav, H & Bhosale, V.M. 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws. Himalaya Pub.
House, Delhi 284 p.
l) Mckinney, M.L. & School, R.M. 1996. Environmental Science systems & Solutions, Web
enhanced edition. 639p.
m) Mhaskar A.K., Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publication (TB) n) Miller T.G. Jr.
Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co. (TB) o) Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals
of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Co. USA, 574p p) Rao M N. & Datta, A.K. 1987. Waste Water
treatment. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd. 345p.
q) Sharma B.K., 2001. Environmental Chemistry. Geol Publ. House, Meerut r) Survey of the
Environment, The Hindu (M)
s) Townsend C., Harper J, and Michael Begon, Essentials of Ecology, Blackwell Science (TB)
X
t) Trivedi R.K., Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules Guidelines, Compliances and
Stadards, Vol I and II, Enviro Media (R)
u) Trivedi R. K. and P.K. Goel, Introduction to air pollution, Techno-Science Publication (TB)
v) Wanger K.D., 1998 Environmental Management. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, USA
499p
(M) Magazine
(R) Reference
(TB) Textbook
XI
Mmbers of the Expert Committee on Environmental Studies
1. Prof. Erach Bharucha

Director
Bharati Vidyapeeth
Institute of Environment Education &
Research, Pune
2. Prof. C. Manoharachary
Department of Botany
Osmania University
Hyderabad
3. Prof. S. Thayumanavan
Director
Centre for Environmental Studies
Anna University, Chennai
4. Prof. D.C. Goswami

Head, Deptt. Of Environment Science
Gauhati University
Guwahati-781 014
5. Shri R. Mehta
Director EE Division
Ministry of Environment & Forest
Prayavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex
Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003
UGC OFFICIALS
6. Dr. N. K. Jain
Joint Secretary
UGC, New Delhi
XII
Textbook for
Environmental Studies
For Undergraduate Courses
of all Branches of Higher Education
Erach Bharucha
for
University Grants Commission
Natural Resources i Preliminary Pages.p65 1 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Credits
Principal author and editor – Erach Bharucha
Unit 1 – Erach Bharucha

Unit 2 – Erach Bharucha, Behafrid Patel
Unit 5 – Shamita Kumar

Unit 6 – Erach Bharucha, Shalini Nair, Behafrid Patel
Unit 7 – Erach Bharucha, Shalini Nair, Behafrid Patel

Unit 8 – Erach Bharucha, Shambhvi Joshi
Case Studies – Prasanna Kolte

Co-ordination and compilation – Behafrid Patel
Textbook Design – Narendra Kulkarni (Mudra), Sushma Durve
Manuscript review and editing – Chinmaya Dunster, Behafrid Patel
Artists – Sushma Durve and Anagha Deshpande

CD ROM – Jaya Rai and Prasanna Kolte
© Copyright
Text – Erach Bharucha/ UGC, 2004.
Photographs – Erach Bharucha
Drawings – Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research
All rights reserved.
Distributed by
University Grants Commission, New Delhi. 2004.
ii Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 2 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Vision
The importance of Environmental Studies cannot be disputed. The need for sustainable
develop ment is a key to the future of mankind. The degradation of our environment is linked
to continuing problems of pollution, loss of forest, solid waste disposal, issues related to
economic productivity and national as well as ecological security. The increasing levels of
global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer and a serious loss of biodiversity have also
made everyone aware of growing envi ronmental concerns. The United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development held in Rio De Janero in 1992, and the World Summit on
Sustainable Development at Zoharbex in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the
globe to the developing condition of our environment. It is clear that no citizen of the earth
can afford to be ignorant of environmental issues. Environmental management has become a
part of the health care sector. Managing environmental hazards and preventing possible
disasters has become an urgent need.
Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization. Even our
ancient scriptures have included practices and values related with environmental
conservation. It is now even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a
clear understanding of environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development
practices.
India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people. It is also the basis for
bio technological development. Only about 1.8 million living organisms have been described
and named globally. Still many more remain to be identified and described. Attempts are
made to conserve them in ex-situ and in-situ situation. Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
have become important in a biodiversity rich country like India to protect microbes, plants and
animals that have useful genetic properties. Destruction of habitats, over use of energy
resources and environmental pollution have been found to be responsible for the loss of a
large number of life forms. It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth may get wiped
out in the near future.
In spite of the developing status of the environment, the formal study of environment has so
far not received adequate attention in our academic performances. Recognisation thus the
Hon’ble Su preme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment for
every student. Accordingly the matter was considered by the UGC and it was decided that a
six months compul sory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and
compulsorily implemented in all the Universities/ Colleges in India.
The Expert Committee appointed by the UGC has looked into all the pertinent questions,
issues and other relevant matters. This was followed by framing of the Core Module Syllabus
for Environmen tal Studies for undergraduate courses of all branches of Higher Education.
The Committee is deeply conscious that there are bound to be gaps between what is
considered ideal and the present syllabus. The Committee has attempted to minimize the
gaps by intellectual and material inputs. The success of this course will however depend on
the initiative and drive of the teachers and their students.
Members of the Curriculum Development Committee
Natural Resources iii Preliminary Pages.p65 3 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Members of the Expert Committee on Environmental Studies
1. Prof. Erach Bharucha

Director,
Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research,
Pune
2. Prof. C Manoharachary
Department of Botany,
Osmania University, Hyderabad
3. Prof. S Thayumanavan
Director
Center for Environmental Studies,
Anna University, Chennai
4. Prof. D C Goswami
Head, Department of Environment Science,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati – 781 014
5. Shri R Mehta
Director EE Division
Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
UGC Officials
6. Dr. NK Jain
Joint Secretary,
UGC, New Delhi
iv Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 4 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Six Months Compulsory Core Module Course

in Environmental Studies: for Undergraduate Students
Teaching Methodologies
The Core Module Syllabus for Environmental Studies includes classroom teaching and
fieldwork. The syllabus is divided into eight units covering 50 lectures. The first seven units
which will cover 45 lectures are classroom teaching based to enhance knowledge skilled and
attitude to environment. Unit eight is based on field activities and would be covered over five
lecture hours and would provide students with first hand knowledge on various local
environmental aspects. Field experi ence is one of the most effective learning tools for
environmental concerns. This moves out of the scope of the textbook mode of teaching, into
the realm of real learning in the field, where the teacher acts as a catalyst to interpret what
the student observes or discovers in his/her own environ ment. Field studies area as
essential as class work and form an irreplaceable synergistic tool in the entire learning
process.
The course material provided by UGC for class room teaching and field activities should be utilised.
The Universities/ colleges can draw upon expertise of outside resource persons for teaching
pur poses.
The Environmental Core Module shall be integrated into the teaching programs of all
undergradu ate courses.
Annual System: The duration of the course will be 50 lectures. The exam will be conducted
along with the Annual Examination.
Semester System: the Environment course of 50 lectures will be conducted in the second
semester and the examinations shall be conducted at the end of the second semester.
Credit System: The core course will be awarded 4 credits
Exam Pattern: In case of awarding the marks the question paper should carry 100 marks.
The structure of the question paper being:
Part A, Short answer pattern - 25 marks
Part B, Essay type built choice - 50 marks
Part C, Field Work - 25 marks
Natural Resources v Preliminary Pages.p65 5 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Further Readings
1. Agarwal KC, 2001. Environmental Biology, Nidi Publishers Ltd. Bikaner.
2. Bharucha Erach, 2003. The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd, Ahmedabad –
380013, India. Email: [email protected]
3. Brunner RC, 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc. 480pgs.
4. Clark RS, Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press, Oxofrd (TB).
5. Cunningham WP, Cooper TH, Gorhani E & Hepworth MT, 2001. Environmental
Encyclopaedia, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, 1196pgs.
6. De AK, Environmental Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
7. Down to Earth, Center for Science and Environment (R)
8. Gleick HP, 1993. Water in Crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment
and Security. Stockholm Environmental Institute, Oxford University Press, 473pgs.
9. Hawkins RE, Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay (R)
10. Heywood VH, and Watson RT, 1995. global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge
University Press 1140pgs.
11. Jadhav H and Bhosale VM, 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws. Himalaya
Publishing House, Delhi 284pgs.
12. Mckinney ML and Schoch RM, 1996. Environmental Science Systems and Solutions.
Web en hanced edition, 639pgs.
13. Mhaskar AK, Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publications (TB)
14. Miller TG, Jr. Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing CO. (TB)
15. Odum EP, 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. WB Saunders Co. USA, 574pgs.
16. Rao MN and Datta AK, 1987. Waste Water Treatment. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd. 345pgs.
vi Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 6 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Contents
PREFACE xiii FOREWORD xv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xvi
UNIT 1: THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES
1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 3 1.1.1 Definition 3 1.1.2 Scope 3 1.1.3
Importance 5
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 8 1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 9 1.2.2 People in
Environment 12
UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES
2.1 INTRODUCTION 16
2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES 20 2.2.1 Natural resources and

associated problems 20 2.2.2 Non-renewable resources 22 2.2.3 Renewable resources 22 a.
Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. 23 Timber
extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people
b. Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water, 26 floods,
drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems.
c. Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting 30 and
using mineral resources, case studies.
d. Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and 32
grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems,
Water logging and salinity
e. Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable, 35 Use of
Alternate energy sources, Case studies
f. Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides, 48
soil erosion and desertification.
Natural Resources vii Preliminary Pages.p65 7 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 50 2.4
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES 51
UNIT 3: ECOSYSTEMS
3.1 Concept of an ecosystem 54 3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems 55 3.1.2 Ecosystem
degradation 55 3.1.3 Resource utilisation 56
3.2 Structure and functions of an ecosystem 56 3.3 Producers, consumers and
decomposers 57
3.4 Energy flow in the ecosystem 58 3.4.1 The water cycle 58 3.4.2 The Carbon cycle 59
3.4.3 The Oxygen cycle 60 3.4.4 The Nitrogen cycle 60 3.4.5 The energy cycle 61 3.4.6
Integration of cycles in nature 62
3.5 Ecological succession 62
3.6 Food chains, Food webs and Ecological pyramids 62 3.6.1 The food chains 62 3.6.2
The food webs 63 3.6.3 The ecological pyramids 63
3.7 Introduction, Types, Characteristic features, Structure and functions 63 3.7.1 Forest
ecosystem 65 3.7.2 Grassland ecosystem 70 3.7.3 Desert ecosystem 74 3.7.4 Aquatic
ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, oceans) 75
UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION – DEFINITION: GENETIC, SPECIES, ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY 82

4.1.1 Genetic diversity 82 4.1.2 Species diversity 82 4.1.3 Ecosystem diversity 83
4.2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA 84 viii Environmental Studies for
Undergraduate Courses
Preliminary Pages.p65 8 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM

4.3 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, ETHICAL,
AESTHETIC AND OPTION VALUES 84 4.3.1Consumptive value 85 4.3.2 Productive
value 86 4.3.3 Social value 86 4.3.4 Ethical value 88 4.3.5 Aesthetic value 88 4.3.6
Option value 88
4.4 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS 88 4.5 INDIA AS A
MEGA DIVERSITY NATION 89 4.6 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 90
4.7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE,

MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 91
4.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA 94 4.8.1 Common Plant species 94
4.8.2 Common Animal species 99
4.9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND EX-SITU 104 4.9.1 In-situ

conservation 104 4.9.2 Ex-situ conservation 108
UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
5.1 DEFINITION 112

5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF: 113 5.2.1 Air Pollution 113 5.2.2
Water Pollution 123 5.2.3 Soil Pollution 131 5.2.4 Marine Pollution 135 5.2.5 Noise
Pollution 140 5.2.6 Thermal Pollution 142 5.2.7 Nuclear hazards 143
5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF

URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 145
5.4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION 150 Natural Resources ix

5.5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES 153 5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS,
EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES 156
UNIT 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 165 6.2 URBAN
PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY 167
6.3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT 168 6.3.1 Water conservation 168 6.3.2 Rain water harvesting 170 6.3.3
Watershed management 171
6.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS

AND CONCERNS. CASE STUDIES 172
6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 173 6.5.1

Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation 173 6.5.2
Equity – Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries 175 6.5.3 Urban – rural
equity issues 175 6.5.4 The need for Gender Equity 175 6.5.5 Preserving resources
for future generations 176 6.5.6 The rights of animals 177 6.5.7 The ethical basis of
environment education and awareness 178 6.5.8 The conservation ethic and
traditional value systems of India 181
6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION,
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST. CASE STUDIES 182 6.6.1 Climate
change 182 6.6.2 Global warming 183 6.6.3 Acid rain 184 6.6.4 Ozone layer depletion 185
6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 186
6.7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION 187 6.8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS 189
6.9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 193 6.10 AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POLLUTION) ACT 194 6.11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)
ACT 196
x Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 10 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
6.12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 197 6.13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 199
6.14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 201
6.14.1Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 201 6.14.2 Citizens actions and action
groups 202
6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS 204 6.15.1 Using an Environmental Calendar of Activities 204
6.15.2 What can I do? 205
UNIT 7: HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
7.1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS 214 7.1.1 Global population
growth 214
7.2 POPULATION EXPLOSION – FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAM 215 7.2.1 Methods of

sterilization 217 7.1.2 Urbanization 217
7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH 220 7.3.1 Environmental health 221 7.3.2
Climate and health 223 7.3.3 Infectious diseases 224 7.3.4 Water-related diseases 227
7.3.5 Risks due to chemicals in food 231 7.3.6 Cancer and environment 232
7.4 HUMAN RIGHTS 233 7.4.1 Equity 233 7.4.2 Nutrition, health and human rights 234 7.4.3
Intellectual Property Rights and Community Biodiversity Registers 235
7.5 VALUE EDUCATION 236 7.5.1 Environmental Values 237 7.5.2 Valuing Nature 240 7.5.3
Valuing cultures 241 7.5.4 Social justice 241 7.5.5 Human heritage 242 7.5.6 Equitable
use of Resources 242 7.5.7 Common Property Resources 242 7.5.8 Ecological
degradation 242
7.6 HIV/AIDS 243 Natural Resources xi

7.7 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE 244 7.8 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 247
UNIT 8: FIELD WORK
8.1 VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS,

RIVER/FOREST/GRASSLANDS/HILL/MOUNTAIN 250 8.2 VISIT TO A LOCAL
POLLUTED SITE 262 8.3 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS 268 8.4
STUDY OF SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS 270

xii Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 12 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Preface
Perhaps no other country has moved so rapidly from a position of complacency in creating
environ mental awareness into infusing these newer pro environmental concepts into formal
curricular processes as has happened in India over the last few years. This has undoubtedly
been accelerated by the judgement of the Honorable Supreme Court of India that
Environmental Education must form a compulsory core issue at every stage in our education
processes.
For one who has fought to implement a variety of environment education programs for
schools and colleges and for the public at large, this is indeed a welcome change. The author
is currently con stantly asked to provide inputs to ‘environmentalise’ textbooks and provide
inputs at NCERT, SCERTs and at the UGC level to further the cause of formal environment
education.
This textbook has been rapidly produced as an outcome of a UGC Committee that included
the author and was set up to develop a common core module syllabus for environmental
studies at the undergraduate level, to be used by every University in the country. This rush
job invites comments from just about everyone who wishes to contribute towards its
improvement in the coming years.
Environment Education can never remain static. It must change with the changing times
which inevitably changes our environment.
Each of us creates waves around us in our environment that spread outwards like the ripples
gen erated by dropping a stone in a quiet pond. Every one of us is constantly doing
something to our environment and it is frequently a result of an act that we can hardly ever
reverse. Just as once the stone has hit the water one cannot stop the ripple effect from
disturbing the pond.
This textbook is written to bring about an awareness of a variety of environmental concerns. It

attempts to create a pro-environmental attitude and a behavioral pattern in society that is
based on creating sustainable lifestyles. But a textbook can hardly be expected to achieve a
total behavioral change in society. Conservation is best brought about through creating a love
for nature. If every college student is exposed to the wonders of the Indian wilderness, a new
ethic towards conserva tion will emerge.
Erach Bharucha,
Pune, 2004.
Natural Resources xiii Preliminary Pages.p65 13 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
xiv Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 14 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Foreword
Natural Resources xv Preliminary Pages.p65 15 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Acknowledgements
I would like at the very outset to thank the residual wilderness of our country that has, since
my childhood, excited in my consciousness a desire to protect nature. For me the wilderness
is a throb bing, living place – the home of the goddess of nature, which is none other than
Mother Earth. One can only bow to her and apologize for what humankind has done during a
short span of time.
This textbook came about from my having been included in a Committee selected by the
UGC to develop a practical and ‘do-able’ syllabus as a Core Module for Environmental
Studies for all under graduate courses. The Committee met several times and had
enthusiastic rounds of discussion as to what should be included and what was unsuitable for
a unique course of this nature. While hoping only to sensitize young people to our
environment, it has also to be as comprehensive as feasible.
I wish to thank Prof. C Manoharachary, Prof. S Thayumanavan, Prof. DC Goswami, Shri R

Mehta and Dr. NK Jain, who were the esteemed members of this Committee. All the inputs
the Commit tee made during these deliberations have found a place in the current textbook. I
thus take plea sure in thanking the Committee Members for their wholehearted participatory
role in evolving the curriculum, which I have tried to translate into a textbook to uphold the
spirit in which the curricu lum was framed.
I have no words to thank the Chairman of the UGC, Dr. Arun Nighvekar, who has whole
heartedly supported the Committee and gave freely of his valuable time to deliberate the
nature of the course. He has always been as inspiration for me. Dr. (Mrs.) HK Chauhan
began co-ordinating the work of the Committee during the early part of its tenure. This was
further carried out due to the enthusiasm and constant support of Dr. NK Jain, Joint Secretary
of the UGC. I cannot thank them enough for their cooperation and many kind gestures.
All my faculty at the BVIEER have helped in producing this output. Shamita Kumar wrote the
chap ter on pollution, which she has painstakingly developed to suit the needs of
undergraduate stu dents from different faculties. Her expertise as a highly innovative teacher
in environment has given her the background that is necessary to draft a suitable Unit for this
book. Shambhavi Joshi helped me to frame the final chapter on fieldwork. Prasanna Kolte
and Jaya Rai did all the work to develop a CD ROM based on the text to make a more
presentable version of the book. Prasanna also dug up several case studies included in the
book. I must thank our artists Sushma Durve and Anagha Deshpande who have painstakingly
made a large number of drawings. Without them the textbook would have been yet another
drab textbook. One person who has done an excellent job of editing the English, rearranging
bits of the book and removing redundant material is Chinmaya Dunster, a musician by
profession, an editor by calling and an environmentalist at heart. He has spent many painful
hours going over the text with a fine tooth English comb. I cannot thank him enough for his
enormous contribution towards the completion of this book. Finally, for the one person who
has put all her heart and soul into this book, working long hours, and cheerfully making the
constant changes I demanded. I have no words to thank Ms. Behafrid Patel. She has been
the patient, all round support system in this complex task. Without her it could not have been
produced in this brief span of time.
xvi Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages.p65 16 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
UNIT 1:
The Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 3 1.1.1 Definition 3 1.1.2 Scope 3 1.1.3
Importance 5
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 8 1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 9 1.2.2 People in
Environment 12
This course on the environment is unlike any other. It is not only a

collection of facts or information about the environment. It is about the
way we all should live. It is expected to give you information about the
environment that will lead to a concern for your own environment.
When you develop this concern, you will begin to act at your own level
to protect the environment we all live in. This is the objective of the
course and the syllabus is a framework on which we must all realign
our lives.
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 1 Chapter1.p65 1 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
This textbook deals with major environmental concerns that have been
identified as important areas where background information is essential for a
better understanding of our environment. It stresses on a balanced view of
issues that affect our daily lives. These issues are related to the conflict between
existing ‘development’ strategies and the need for ‘environmental
conservation’. Unlike most other textbooks, it not only makes the reader better
informed on these concerns, but is expected to lead him or her towards positive
action to improve the environment.
There are three reasons for studying the state of the environment. Firstly is the
need for information that clarifies modern environmental concepts such as
the need to conserve biodiversity, the need to lead more sustainable lifestyles
and the need to use resources more equitably. Secondly, there is a need to
change the way in which we view our own environment by a practical approach
based on observation and self learning. Thirdly there is the need to create a
concern for our environment that will trigger pro-environmental action,
including activities we can do in our daily life to protect it.
2 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 2 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND resources such as water for agriculture, fuel
wood, fodder, and fish. Thus our daily lives
IMPORTANCE 1.1.1 Definition are linked with our surroundings and
inevitably affects them. We use water to
Environmental studies deals with every drink and for other day-to-day activities. We
issue that affects an organism. It is breathe air, we use resources from which
essentially a multidisciplinary approach that food is made and we depend on the
brings about an appreciation of our natural community of living plants and animals
world and human impacts on its integrity. It which form a web of life, of which we are
is an applied science as its seeks practical also a part. Everything around us forms our
answers to making human civilization environment and our lives depend on
sustainable on the earth’s finite re sources. keeping its vital systems as intact as
possible.
Its components include biology, geology,
chem istry, physics, engineering, sociology, Our dependence on nature is so great that
health, anthropology, economics, statistics, we cannot continue to live without protecting
computers and philosophy. the
1.1.2 Scope
As we look around at the area in which we

live, we see that our surroundings were
originally a natural landscape such as a
forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a
combination of these elements. Most of us
live in landscapes that have been heavily
modified by human beings, in vil lages, earth’s environmental resources. Thus most
towns or cities. But even those of us who tra ditions refer to our environment as
live in cities get our food supply from ‘Mother Nature’ and most traditional
surround ing villages and these in turn are societies have learned that respecting
dependent on natural landscapes such as nature is vital for their livelihoods. This has
forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for led to many cultural prac tices that helped
traditional societies protect and preserve gating farmland through mega dams and
their natural resources. Respect for nature developing industry, led to rapid economic
and all living creatures is not new to In dia. growth, the ill effects of this type of develop
All our traditions are based on these values. ment, led to environmental degradation.
Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that all
forms of life are important for our well being The industrial development and intensive
in Fourth Century BC. agri culture that provides the goods for our
increas ingly consumer oriented society
Over the past 200 years however, modern uses up large amounts of natural
soci eties began to believe that easy resources such as water, minerals,
answers to the question of producing more petroleum products, wood, etc. Non
resources could be provided by means of renewable resources, such as minerals
technological innovations. For example, and oil are those which will be exhausted in
though growing more food by using the future if we continue to extract these
fertilizers and pesticides, developing bet ter without a thought for subsequent
strains of domestic animals and crops, irri generations. Renew
able resources, such as timber and water,

are those which can be used but can be Take any article that you use in daily life
regener ated by natural processes such as – a bucket full of water, or an item of
regrowth or rainfall. But these too will be food, a table, or a book. Trace its
depleted if we con tinue to use them faster components jour ney backwards from
than nature can re place them. For example, your home to their ori gins as natural
if the removal of timber and firewood from a resources in our environment. How many
forest is faster than the regrowth and of these compo nents are renewable
regeneration of trees, it can not replenish resources and how many
the supply. And loss of forest cover not only non-renewable?
depletes the forest of its resources, such as
timber and other non-wood products, but Understanding and making ourselves more
affect our water resources because an intact aware of our environmental assets and prob
natural forest acts like a sponge which holds lems is not enough. We, each one of us,
water and releases it slowly. Deforestation must become increasingly concerned about
leads to floods in the monsoon and dry our envi
rivers once the rains are over.
Such multiple effects on the environment re

sulting from routine human activities must
be appreciated by each one of us, if it is to
provide us with the resources we need in
the long-term.
Our natural resources can be compared with

money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the
ronment and change the way in which we
capital will be reduced to zero. On the other
use every resource. Unsustainable
hand, if we use only the interest, it can
utilization can result from overuse of
sustain us over the longer term. This is
resources, because of population increase,
called sustainable utilisation or
and because many of us are using more
development.
resources than we really need. Most of us
indulge in wasteful behaviour pat terns
without ever thinking about their environ
Activity 1:
mental impacts. Thus, for all our actions to
be environmentally positive we need to look
from a new perspective at how we use the end user?
resources. For every resource we use we
must ask ourselves the following questions: • How can we help to conserve it and pre
vent its unsustainable use?
• What is the rarity of the resource and
where does it originate?
Activity 2:
• Who uses it most intensively and how?
Try to answer the questions above for
• How is it being overused or misused? one of the components in the article you
chose in Activity 1. Then answer the
• Who is responsible for its improper use – following questions:
the resource collector, the middleman,
aspects of nearly every major discipline.
We live in a world in which natural resources

are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the
products we get from forests, grasslands,
oceans and from agriculture and livestock,
are all a part of our life support systems.
Without them, life itself would be impossible.
As we keep increas ing in numbers and the
• Are you using that resource quantity of resources
unsustainably? each of us uses also increases, the earth’s
re source base must inevitably shrink. The
• In what ways could you reduce, reuse earth cannot be expected to sustain this
and recycle that resource? expanding level of utilization of resources.
Added to this is misuse of resources. We
• Is there an unequal distribution of this waste or pollute large amounts of nature’s
resource so that you are more clean water; we create more and more
fortunate than many others who have material like plastic that we dis card after a
less access to it? single use; and we waste colossal amounts
of food, which is discarded as garbage.
Once we begin to ask these questions of Manufacturing processes create solid waste
our selves, we will begin to live lifestyles that byproducts that are discarded, as well as
are more sustainable and will support our chemi cals that flow out as liquid waste and
environ ment. pollute water, and gases that pollute the air.
Increasing amounts of waste cannot be
managed by natu ral processes. These
1.1.3 Importance accumulate in our environ ment, leading to a
variety of diseases and other adverse
Environment is not a single subject. It is an environmental impacts now seriously af
inte gration of several subjects that include fecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to
both Science and Social Studies. To respi ratory diseases, water pollution to
understand all the different aspects of our gastro-intestinal diseases, and many
environment we need to understand biology, pollutants are known to cause cancer.
chemistry, physics, geography, resource
management, economics and population
issues. Thus the scope of envi ronmental
studies is extremely wide and covers some
safeguarding of the environment, nor can
we expect other people to prevent
environmental damage. We need to do it our
selves. It is a responsibility that each of us
must take on as ones own.
Improving this situation will only happen if

each of us begins to take actions in our daily
lives that will help preserve our
environmental re sources. We cannot
expect Governments alone to manage the
Activity 3:
How can you reduce the amount of plastic
• Think of all the things that you do in a you use?
day. List these activities and identify
the main resources used during What effects does plastic have on our
these ac tivities. What can you do to environ ment?
prevent waste, reuse articles that you
normally throw away, what recycled Where did the plastic come from/ how is it
materials can you use? made?
What happens to it when you throw it away/
• Think of the various energy sources where does it go?
you use everyday. How could you
reduce their use?
Example – Fossil fuels:
Activity 4: Exercises in self learning How much do you use? Can you reduce
about the environment your consumption?
Attempt to assess the level of damage to What effect does it have on the air we
the environment due to your actions that breathe?
have occurred during your last working
day, the last week, the last year. Then When we leave a motorbike or car running
estimate the damage you are likely to do dur ing a traffic stop, we do not usually
in your life time if you continue in your remember that the fuel we are wasting is a
present ways. part of a non renewable resource that the
earth cannot re form. Once all the fossil
Use the following examples for the above fuels are burnt off, it will mean the end of oil
exer cise: as a source of energy. Only if each of us
contributes our part in con serving fossil
Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball based energy can we make it last longer on
pens earth.
Think about all the articles you use daily that

are made from plastic. Plastic plays an Example – Water:
impor tant part in our modern lives.
How much do you really need to use, as
Make a list of the plastic articles you usually against how much you waste when you:
use.
(a) Brush your teeth? (b) Have a bath? (c)
Wash clothes? (d) Wash the scooter or car? it is more sustainable?
Where did the water come from? What is its

actual source? How has it reached you? Example – Food:
Where will the waste water go? Where has it come from? How is it grown?
What chemicals are used in its production?
Do you feel you should change the way you How does it reach you?
use water? How can you change this so that
How is it cooked? used, a product that comes from an illegally

killed wild species, if we do not inform the
How much is wasted? How is the waste dis authorities, we become party to its
posed off? extinction. Once they are lost, man can not
bring them back. When we permit the de
struction of a forest, wetland or other natural
Example – Paper: area and do not protest about it, future gen
erations are being denied the use of these
What is it made from? valu able resources and will blame us for
these rash and negligent actions towards
Where does it come from and what happens the environment.
during manufacture?
Thus the urgent need to protect all living spe
How much do you use and how much do cies is a concept that we need to understand
you waste? How can you prevent it from and act upon. While individually, we perhaps
being wasted? cannot directly prevent the extinction of a
spe cies, creating a strong public opinion to
protect the National Parks and Wildlife
Example – Electrical Energy: Sanctuaries in which wild species live is an
importance aspect of sustainable living.
How much do you use everyday? Where There is a close link be tween agriculture
does it come from? and the forest, which illus trates its
productive value. For crops to be successful,
How do you waste it? How can you the flowers of fruit trees and veg etables
conserve energy? must be pollinated by insects, bats and
birds. Their life cycles however frequently
require intact forests.
Productive value of nature: As scientists
make new advances in fields such as
biotechnology we begin to understand that Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature:
the world’s spe cies contain an incredible The aesthetic and recreational values that
and uncountable num ber of complex nature possesses enlivens our existence on
chemicals. These are the raw materials that earth. This is created by developing National
are used for developing new medicines and Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively
industrial products and are a storehouse undisturbed areas. A true wilderness
from which to develop thousands of new experience has not only recreational value
products in the future. The flowering plants but is an incredible learning experience. It
and insects that form the most species rich brings about an understanding of the
groups of living organisms are thus vital for oneness of nature and the fact that we are
the future development of man. If we entirely dependent upon the intricate
degrade their habitat these species will function ing of ecosystems.
become extinct. If one sees being sold or
incredible diversity of plant and animal life
The beauty of nature encompasses every that has led to the devel opment of several
aspect of the living and non-living part of our philosophies of life. It has also inspired
earth. One can appreciate the magnificence artists to develop visual arts and writ ers and
of a moun tain, the power of the sea, the poets to create their works that vitalize our
beauty of a for est, and the vast expanse of lives.
the desert. It is these natural vistas and their
A wilderness experience has exceptional

recre ational value. This has been described
as nature tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is
also one as pect of adventure tourism.
These recreational facilities not only provide
a pleasurable experi ence but are intended
to create a deep respect and love for nature.
They are also key tools in educating people
about the fragility of the en vironment and
the need for sustainable lifestyles.
be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of
In an urban setting, green spaces and grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated
gardens are vital to the pschycological and along an undisturbed river or coastal area.
physical health of city dwellers. It provides This would bring home to the visitor the
not only an aesthetic and visual appeal but importance of protecting our dwindling
the ability to ensure that each individual is wilderness areas.
able to access a certain amount of peace
and tranquility. Thus urban environ mental
planners must ensure that these facili ties The option values of nature: While we
are created in growing urban complexes. utilise several goods and services of nature
Another important conservation education fa and enjoy its benefits, we
cility in urban settings includes the need to must recognize
set up well designed and properly managed
that every
zoo logical parks and aquariums. These activity
have got great value in sensitizing school that we do in
students to wild life. Many young people our
who frequented zoos as young children daily lives has
grow up to love wildlife and become an
conservationists. adverse impact
on nature’s integ
In the absence of access to a Protected rity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill
Area, a botanical garden or a zoo, one off and let species of plants and animals
concept that can be developed is to create become extinct on earth, pollute our air and
small nature aware ness areas with water, de grade land, and create enormous
interpretation facilities at dis trict and taluka quantities of waste, we as a generation will
levels. These areas can be developed to leave nothing for future generations. Our
mimic natural ecosystems even though they present generation has developed its
could be relatively small in size. Such nature economies and lifestyles on unsustainable
trails are invaluable assets for creating patterns of life. however, nature provides us
conservation education and awareness. with various options on how we utilize its
They can goods and services. This is its option value.
We can use up goods and services greedily
and destroy its integrity and long term
values, or we can use its resources
sustainably and re duce our impacts on the dwindling and our environment is
environment. The op tion value allows us to being increasingly degraded by
use its resources sustainably and preserve human activities, it is evident that
its goods and services for the future. something needs to be done. We
often feel that managing all this is
something that the Government
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS should do. But if we go on endan
gering our environment, there is no
As the earth’s natural resources are
way in which the Government can perform maga zine, etc. that will tell you more
all these clean-up functions. It is the about our environment. There are also
prevention of environment degradation in several envi ronmental websites.
which we must all take part that must
become a part of all our lives. Just as for • Lobby for conserving resources by taking
any disease, prevention is bet ter than cure. up the cause of environmental issues
To prevent ill-effects on our envi ronment by dur ing discussions with friends and
our actions, is economically more viable relatives.
than cleaning up the environment once it is Practice and promote issues such as
damaged. Individually we can play a major saving paper, saving water, reducing
role in environment management. We can re use of plas tics, practicing the 3Rs
duce wasting natural resources and we can principle of reduce, reuse, recycle, and
act as watchdogs that inform the proper waste disposal.
Government about sources that lead to
pollution and degra dation of our • Join local movements that support activi
environment. ties such as saving trees in your area,
go on nature treks, recycle waste, buy
This can only be made possible through environ mentally friendly products.
mass public awareness. Mass media such
as newspa pers, radio, television, strongly • Practice and promote good civic sense
influence public opinion. However, someone such as no spitting or tobacco chewing,
has to bring this about. If each of us feels no throwing garbage on the road, no
strongly about the environment, the press smoking in public places, no urinating or
and media will add to our efforts. Politicians defecating in public places.
in a democracy always respond positively to
a strong publicly supported movement. Thus • Take part in events organised on World
if you join an NGO that sup ports Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc.
conservation, politicians will make green
policies. We are living on spaceship earth • Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or
with a limited supply of resources. Each of spend time in whatever nature you have
us is respon sible for spreading this near your home.
message to as many people as possible.
Suggested further activities for concerned 1.2.1 Institutions in Environment

stu dents:
There have been several Government and
• Join a group to study nature, such as Non government organizations that have led
WWF I or BNHS, or another to en vironmental protection in our country.
environmental group. They have led to a growing interest in
environmental pro tection and conservation
• Begin reading newspaper articles and peri of nature and natural resources. The
odicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I traditional conservation practices that were
newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary part of ancient India’s culture have however
gradually disappeared. Public aware ness is NGOs such as BNHS, WWF-I, etc.
thus a critical need to further environ mental
protection. Among the large number of
institutions that deal with environmental pro Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),
tection and conservation, a few well-known Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small
organizations include government society of six members in 1883. It grew from
organisations such as the BSI and ZSI, and a group of
shikaris and people from all walks of life into environment related publications. It
a major research organisation that published a major document on the ‘State of
substantially influenced conservation policy India’s Environment’, the first of its kind to
in the country. The influence on wildlife be produced as a Citizen’s Report on the
policy building, re search, popular Environment. The CSE also publishes a
publications and peoples action have been popu lar magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is
unique features of the multi faceted society. a Sci
Undoubtedly its major contri bution has been ence and Environment fortnightly. It is
in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s involved in the publication of material in the
oldest conservation research based NGO form of books, posters, video films and also
and one that has acted at the forefront of the conducts workshops and seminars on
battle for species and ecosystems. The biodiversity related issues.
BNHS publishes a popular magazine called
Hornbill and also an internationally
well-known Journal on Natural History. Its CPR Environmental Education Centre,
other publications include the Salim Ali Ma dras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988.
Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book of It con ducts a variety of programs to spread
Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian environmental awareness and creates an
Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian inter est in conservation among the general
Trees. One of its greatest scientists was Dr. public. It focussed attention on NGOs,
Salim Ali whose ornithological work on the teachers, women, youth and children to
birds of the Indian subcontinent is world generally promote con servation of nature
famous. The BNHS has over the years and natural resources. Its programs include
helped Government to frame wildlife related components on wildlife and biodiversity
laws and has taken up battles such as the issues. CPR EEC also produces a large
‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign. number of publications.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), Centre for Environment Education (CEE),
New Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment
in Mumbai after which the headquarters Edu cation, Ahmedabad was initiated in
were shifted to Delhi with several branch 1989. It has a wide range of programs on
offices all over India. The early years the environment and produces a variety of
focused attention on wildlife education and educational material. CEE’s Training in
awareness. It runs sev eral programs Environment Education {TEE} program has
including the Nature Clubs of In dia program trained many environment educa tors.
for school children and works as a think tank
and lobby force for environment and
development issues. Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ
ment Education and Research (BVIEER),
Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth
Center for Science and Environment Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD,
(CSE), New Delhi: Activities of this Center a Masters and Bachelors program in
include organising campaigns, holding Environmen tal Sciences. It also offers an
workshops and conferences, and producing innovative Diploma in Environment
Education for in-service teach ers. It of its research initiatives. It develops low
implements a large outreach programme cost Interpretation Centres for Natural and
that has covered over 135 schools in which Architectural sites that are highly locale
it trains teachers and conducts fortnightly specific as well as a large amount of
Envi ronment Education Programs. innovative environment educational
Biodiversity Con servation is a major focus
material for a variety of target groups. Its Action Plan in 2003.

unique feature is that it conducts Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and
environment educa tion from primary school Natu ral History (SACON), Coimbatore:
level to the postgradu ate level. The BVIEER This insti tution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream
has produced several EE aids. It has that became a reality only after his demise.
developed a teacher’s handbook linked to He wished to sup port a group of committed
school curriculum, a textbook for UGC for its conservation scien tists on a permanent
undergraduate course on environment. Its basis. Initially conceived as being a wing of
Director has developed a CD ROM on the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
India’s biodiversity published by Mapin it later evolved as an indepen dent
Publishers, Ahmedabad. organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990. It
has instituted a variety of field programs that
have added to the country’s information on
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: our threatened biodiversity.
The Organisation is a Nodal Agency which
supports NGOs in need of funds for their
environment related activities. Its major Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun:
program is organising and training school This Institution was established in 1982, as
teachers to use its locale specific a major training establishment for Forest
Environment Education Workbook Pro gram. Officials and Research in Wildlife
The main targets are linked with sustain able Management. Its most significant publication
resource use at the village level through has been ‘Planning A Wildlife Protected
training school children. Its environment edu Area Network for India’ (Rodgers and
cation program covers about 500 schools. Panwar, 1988). The organisation has over
the years added an enormous amount of
information on India’s biological wealth. It
Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially has trained a large number of Forest Depart
Delhi based, is now working from Pune and ment Officials and Staff as Wildlife
is active in several other parts of India. Managers. Its M.Sc. Program has trained
Kalpavriksh works on a variety of fronts: excellent wildlife scientists. It also has an
education and awareness; investigation and Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) cell.
research; direct action and lobbying; and It trains personnel in ecodevelopment,
litigation with regard to environ ment and wildlife biology, habitat man agement and
development issues. Its activities in clude Nature interpretation.
talks and audio-visuals in schools and
colleges, nature walks and outstation
camps, organising student participation in Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The
ongoing cam paigns including street Botani cal Survey of India (BSI) was
demonstrations, push ing for consumer established in 1890 at the Royal Botanic
awareness regarding organic food, press Gardens, Calcutta. How ever it closed down
statements, handling green alerts, and for several years after 1939 and was
meetings with the city’s administrators. It is reopened in 1954. In 1952 plans were made
involved with the preparation of site-specific, to reorganise the BSI and formulate its
environmental manuals for schoolteachers. objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its
Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing headquar ters in Calcutta with Circle Offices
India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and at Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra
Dun. Between 1962 and 1979, offices were has nine regional centres. It carries out
estab lished in Allahbad, Jodhpur, Port Blair, surveys of plant resources in different
Itanagar and Gangtok. The BSI currently regions.
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI Leopald was a forest official
was established in1916. Its mandate was to in the US in the 1920s. He designed the
do a systematic survey of fauna in India. It early policies on wilderness conservation
has over the years collected ‘type and wildlife management. In the 1960s
specimens’ on the bases of which our Rachel Carson pub lished several articles
animal life has been studied over the years. that caused immediate worldwide concern
Its origins were collections based at the on the effects of pesticides on nature and
Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was es mankind. She wrote a well known book
tablished in 1875. Older collections of the called ‘Silent Spring’ which even tually led to
Asi atic Society of Bengal, which were made a change in Government policy and public
between 1814 and 1875, as well as those of awareness. EO Wilson is an entomolo gist
the Indian Museum made between 1875 and who envisioned that biological diversity was
1916 were then transferred to the ZSI. a key to human survival on earth. He wrote
Today it has over a million specimens! This ‘Di versity of Life’ in 1993, which was
makes it one of the largest collections in awarded a prize for the best book published
Asia. It has done an enormous amount of on environ mental issues. His writings
work on taxonomy and ecology. It currently brought home to the world the risks to
operates from 16 regional centers. mankind due to man made disturbances in
natural ecosystems that are lead ing to the
rapid extinction of species at the glo bal
1.2.2 People in Environment level.
There are several internationally known There have been a number of individuals
environ mental thinkers. Among those who who have been instrumental in shaping the
have made landmarks, the names that are environ mental history in our country. Some
usually men tioned are Charles Darwin, of the well known names in the last century
Ralph Emerson, Henry Thoreau, John Muir, include environmentalists, scientists,
Aldo Leopald, Rachel Carson and EO administrators, le gal experts, educationists
Wilson. Each of these thinkers looked at the and journalists. Salim Ali’s name is
environment from a completely different synonymous with ornithology in India and
perspective. Charles Darwin wrote the with the Bombay Natural History So ciety
‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light the (BNHS). He also wrote several great books
close relationship between habitats and spe including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’.
cies. It brought about a new thinking of His autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should
man’s relationship with other species that be read by every nature enthusiast. He was
was based on evolution. Alfred Wallace our country’s leading conservation scientist
came to the same conclusions during his and in fluenced environmental policies in our
work. Ralph Emerson spoke of the dangers country for over 50 years. Indira Gandhi as
of commerce to our envi ronment way back PM has played a highly significant role in the
in the 1840s. Henry Thoreau in the 1860s preserva tion of India’s wildlife. It was during
wrote that the wilder ness should be her period as PM, that the network of PAs
preserved after he lived in the wild for a grew from 65 to 298! The Wildlife Protection
year. He felt that most people did not care Act was formu lated during the period when
for nature and would sell it off for a small she was PM and the Indian Board for
sum of money. John Muir is remembered Wildlife was extremely ac tive as she
as having saved the great ancient sequoia personally chaired all its meetings. India
trees in California’a forests. In the 1890s he gained a name for itself by being a major
formed the Sierra club, which is a major player in CITES and other International
conservation NGO in the USA. Aldo Environ mental Treaties and Accords during
her tenure. BNHS frequently used her good the Government.
will to get con servation action initiated by
S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest drawn battles supported by the Su preme
support ers of wildlife conservation and Court include protecting the Taj Mahal,
nature aware ness programs. Between 1975 cleaning up the Ganges River, banning inten
and 1999, SP Godrej received 10 awards for sive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating
his conservation activities. He was awarded Gov ernment to implement environmental
the Padma Bhushan in 1999. His friendship education in schools and colleges, and a
with people in power combined with his variety of other conservation issues. Anil
deep commitment for con servation led to Agarwal was a jour nalist who wrote the first
his playing a major advocacy role for wildlife report on the ‘State of India’s Environment’
in India. M S Swaminathan is one of India’s in 1982. He founded the Center for Science
foremost agricultural scientists and has also and Environment which is an active NGO
been concerned with various aspects of that supports various environ mental issues.
biodiversity conservation both of cultivars Medha Patkar is known as one of India’s
and wild biodiversity. He has founded the champions who has supported the cause of
MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in downtrodden tribal people whose en
Chennai, which does work on the vironment is being affected by the dams on
conservation of bio logical diversity. Madhav the Narmada river. Sunderlal Bahugna’s
Gadgil is a well known ecologist in India. Chipko Movement has become an
His interests range from broad ecological internationally well known example of a
issues such as develop ing Community highly successful conser vation action
Biodiversity Registers and con serving program through the efforts of
sacred groves to studies on the behaviour of local people for guarding their forest
mammals, birds and insects. He has written resources. His fight to prevent the
several articles, published papers in journals construction of the Tehri Dam in a fragile
and is the author of 6 books. M C Mehta is earthquake prone setting is a battle that he
un doubtedly India’s most famous continues to wage. The Garhwal Hills will
environmental lawyer. Since 1984, he has always remember his dedication to the
filed several Public Interest Litigations for cause for which he has walked over 20 thou
supporting the cause of environmental sand kilometers.
conservation. His most famous and long
UNIT 2:
Natural Resources
2.1 INTRODUCTION 16
2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES 20 2.2.1 Natural resources and
associated problems 20 2.2.2 Non-renewable resources 22 2.2.3 Renewable resources
22
a. Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. 23 Timber
extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people
b. Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water, 26 floods,
drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems.
c. Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting 30 and
using mineral resources, case studies.
d. Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and 32
grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems,
Water logging and salinity
e. Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable, 35 Use of
Alternate energy sources, Case studies
f. Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides, 48
soil erosion and desertification.
2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 50 2.4
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES 51
Natural Resources 15 Chapter2.p65 15 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
2.1 INTRODUCTION material so that micro-organisms can act on

the detritus to re form soil nutrients.
Our environment provides us with a variety
of goods and services necessary for our day
to day lives. These natural resources
include, air, wa ter, soil, minerals, along with
the climate and solar energy, which form the
non-living or ‘abi otic’ part of nature. The
‘biotic’ or living parts of nature consists of
plants and animals, includ ing microbes.
Plants and animals can only sur vive as
communities of different organisms, all
closely linked to each in their own habitat,
and requiring specific abiotic conditions.
Thus, for ests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains, rivers, lakes and the marine
environment all form habitats for specialised
communities of plants and ani mals to live
in. Interactions between the abiotic aspects
History of our global environment: About
of nature and specific living organisms
ten thousand years ago, when mankind
together form ecosystems of various types.
changed from a hunter-gatherer, living in
Many of these living organisms are used as
wilderness ar eas such as forests and
our food resources. Others are linked to our
grasslands, into an agri culturalist and
food less directly, such as pollinators and
pastoralist, we began to change the
dispersers of plants, soil animals like worms,
environment to suit our own requirements.
which recycle nutrients for plant growth, and
As our ability to grow food and use domestic
fungi and ter mites that break up dead plant
animals grew, these ‘natural’ ecosystems great quantities of solid waste. Pol lution of
were developed into agricultural land. Most air, water and soil have begun to seri ously
traditional agriculturists depended affect human health.
extensively on rain, streams and rivers for
water. Later they began to use wells to tap
underground water sources and to impound Changes in land and resource
water and created irrigated land by building use: During the last 100 years, a
dams. Recently we began to use fer tilizers better health care delivery system
and pesticides to further boost the pro and an
duction of food from the same amount of improved nutritional status has led
land. However we now realize that all this to rapid population
has led to several undesirable changes in growth,
our environment. Mankind has been especially in the develop
overusing and depleting natural resources. ing countries. This phe
The over-intensive use of land has been nomenal rise in human
found to exhaust the capability of the numbers has, in the recent
ecosystem to support the growing demands past, placed great de
of more and more people, all requiring more mands on the earth’s natural resources.
in tensive use of resources. Industrial Large stretches of land such as forests,
growth, urbanisation, population growth and grasslands and wetlands have been
the enor mous increase in the use of converted into intensive ag riculture. Land
consumer goods, have all put further has been taken for industry and
stresses on the environment. They create
the urban sectors. These changes have agricultural areas, domestic animals from
brought about dramatic alterations in pasture lands and timber, fuel wood,
land-use patterns and rapid disappearance construction material and other resources
of valuable natural eco systems. The need from forests. Rural agricultural systems are
for more water, more food, more energy, de pendent on forests, wetlands,
more consumer goods, is not only the result grasslands, rivers and lakes. The result is a
of a greater population, but also the result of movement of natural resources from the
over-utilization of resources by people from wilderness ecosystems and agricultural
the more affluent societies, and the afflu ent sector to the urban user. The mag nitude of
sections of our own. the shift of resources has been increas ing
in parallel with the growth of industry and
Industrial development is aimed at meeting urbanisation, and has changed natural land
growing demands for all consumer items. scapes all over the world. In many cases,
How ever, these consumer goods also this has led to the rapid development of the
generate waste in ever larger quantities. The urban economy, but to a far slower
growth of indus trial complexes has led to a economic devel opment for rural people and
shift of people from their traditional, serious impover ishment of the lives of
sustainable, rural way of life to urban wilderness dwellers. The result is a serious
centers that developed around industry. inequality in the distribution of resources
During the last few decades, several small among human beings, which is both unfair
ur ban centers have become large cities, and unsustainable.
some have even become giant mega-cities. Earth’s Resources and Man: The
This has in creased the disparity between resources on which mankind is dependent
what the sur rounding land can produce and are provided by various sources or
what the large number of increasingly ‘spheres’.
consumer-oriented people in these areas of
high population den sity consume. Urban 1) Atmosphere
centers cannot exist with out resources such • Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic
as water from rivers and lakes, food from re quirements).
• Oxygen for wild fauna in natural complex dynamic sys tem. If its nature is
ecosystems and domestic animals used disrupted it affects all man kind. Most air
by man as food. pollutants have both global and regional
effects.
• Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used
for the growth of plants (in turn are used
Living creatures cannot survive without air
by man).
even for a span of a few minutes. To
continue to sup port life, air must be kept
The atmosphere forms a protective shell
clean. Major pollut ants of air are created by
over the earth. The lowest layer, the
industrial units that release various gases
troposphere, the only part warm enough for
such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
us to survive in, is only 12 kilometers thick.
and toxic fumes into the air. Air is also
The stratosphere is 50 kilometers thick and
polluted by burning fossil fuels. The buildup
contains a layer of sulphates which is
of carbon dioxide which is known as
important for the formation of rain. It also
‘greenhouse effect’ in the atmosphere is
contains a layer of ozone, which absorbs
lead ing to current global warming. The
ultra-violet light known to cause can cer and
growing number of scooters, motorcycles,
without which, no life could exist on earth.
cars, buses and trucks which run on fossil
The atmosphere is not uniformly warmed by
fuel (petrol and die sel) is a major cause of
the sun. This leads to air flows and
air pollution in cities and along highways.
variations in climate, temperature and
rainfall in different parts of the earth. It is a
Air pollution leads to acute and chronic hydrosphere. Once land is denuded of
respira tory diseases such as various lung vegetation, the rain erodes the soil which is
infections, asthma and even cancer. washed into the sea.
2) Hydrosphere
• Clean water for drinking (a metabolic re
quirement for living processes).
• Water for washing and cooking. • Water
used in agriculture and industry.
• Food resources from the sea, including
fish, crustacea, sea weed, etc.
• Food from fresh water sources, including
fish, crustacea and aquatic plants.
• Water flowing down from mountain ranges
harnessed to generate electricity in
hydro electric projects.
The hydrosphere covers three quarters of

the earth’s surface. A major part of the Chemicals from industry and sewage find
hydrosphere is the marine ecosystem in the their way into rivers and into the sea. Water
ocean, while only a small part occurs in pollu tion thus threatens the health of
fresh water. Fresh water in rivers, lakes and communities as all our lives depend on the
glaciers, is perpetually being renewed by a availability of clean water. This once plentiful
process of evaporation and rain fall. Some resource is now be coming rare and
of this fresh water lies in underground expensive due to pollution.
aquifers. Human activities such as
deforestation create serious changes in the
3) Lithosphere
• Soil, the basis for agriculture to provide us matter which formed the earth about 4.6
with food. billion years ago. About 3.2 billion years
ago, the earth cooled down considerably
• Stone, sand and gravel, used for construc and a very special event took place - life
tion. began on our planet. The crust of the earth
• Micronutrients in soil, essential for plant is 6 or 7 kilometers thick and lies under the
growth. continents. Of the 92 elements in the
• Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and lithosphere only eight are common constitu
fungi in soil, important living organisms ents of crustal rocks. Of these constituents,
of the lithosphere, which break down 47% is oxygen, 28% is silicon, 8% is
plant litter as well as animal wastes to aluminium, 5% is iron, while sodium,
provide nutri ents for plants. magnesium, potassium and calcium
constitute 4% each. Together, these
• A large number of minerals on which our
elements form about 200 common min eral
industries are based.
compounds. Rocks, when broken down,
• Oil, coal and gas, extracted from under form soil on which man is dependent for his
ground sources. It provides power for ve agriculture. Their minerals are also the raw
hicles, agricultural machinery, industry, ma terial used in various industries.
and for our homes.
The lithosphere began as a hot ball of
4) Biosphere give a distinctive character to a landscape or

• Food, from crops and domestic animals, waterscape. Their easily vis ible and
providing human metabolic identifiable characteristics can be de scribed
requirements. at different scales such as those of a
country, a state, a district or even an
• Food, for all forms of life which live as in
individual valley, hill range, river or lake.
terdependent species in a community
and form food chains in nature on which
The simplest of these ecosystems to
man is dependent.
understand is a pond. It can be used as a
• Energy needs: Biomass fuel wood model to under stand the nature of any other
collected from forests and plantations, ecosystem and to appreciate the changes
along with other forms of organic matter, over time that are seen in any ecosystem.
used as a source of energy. The structural features of a pond include its
• Timber and other construction materials. size, depth and the quality of its water. The
periphery, the shallow part and the deep part
This is the relatively thin layer on the earth in of the pond, each provide spe cific
which life can exist. Within it the air, water, conditions for different plant and animal
rocks and soil and the living creatures, form communities. Functionally, a variety of
structural and functional ecological units, cycles
which together can be considered as one such as the amount of water within the pond
giant global living sys tem, that of our Earth at different times of the year, the quantity of
itself. Within this frame work, those nu trients flowing into the pond from the
characterised by broadly similar geography surround ing terrestrial ecosystem, all affect
and climate, as well as communities of plant the ‘nature’ of the pond.
and animal life can be divided for con
venience into different biogeographical Natural cycles between the spheres: All
realms. These occur on different continents. four spheres are closely inter-linked systems
Within these, smaller biogeographical units and are dependent on the integrity of each
can be iden tified on the basis of structural other. Dis turbing one of these spheres in
differences and functional aspects into our environment affects all the others.
distinctive recognizable ecosystems, which
between the atmosphere, the hydrosphere
The linkages between them are mainly in and the lithosphere on the one hand, with
the form of cycles. For instance, the the millions of living organisms in the
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere biosphere on the other. All living organisms
are all connected through the hydrological which exist on earth live only in the relatively
cycle. Water evapo rated from the thin layer of the lithosphere and hydrosphere
hydrosphere (the seas and fresh water that is present on the surface of land and in
ecosystems), forms clouds in the atmo the water. The biosphere which they form
sphere. This becomes rain, which provides has countless associations with different
mois ture for the lithosphere, on which life parts of the three other ‘spheres’.
depends. The rain also acts on rocks as an
agent of ero sion and over millions of years It is therefore essential to understand the
has created soil, on which plant life grows. inter relationships of the separate entities
Atmospheric move ments in the form of soil, wa ter, air and living organisms, and to
wind, break down rocks into soil. The most appreciate the value of preserving intact
sensitive and complex link ages are those ecosystems as a whole.
Activity 1: continuously returning its dead material,

leaves, branches, etc. to the soil.
Observe a nearby pond in different Grasslands recycle material much faster
sea sons and document the seasonal than forests as the grass dries up after the
changes in it. One can also observe rains are over every year. All the aquatic
changes in a river or the seasonal ecosystems are also solar energy
changes in a forest or grassland. dependent and have cycles of growth when
plant life spreads and aquatic animals
breed. The sun also drives the water cycle.
Activity 2:
Our food comes from both natural and
Take a simple object in daily use and agricul tural ecosystems. Traditional
track its components back to each of agricultural ecosys tems that depended on
its spheres. rainfall have been modi fied in recent times
to produce more and more food by the
Eg: this textbook: paper from wood – addition of extra chemicals and
biosphere water from irrigation systems but are still de
Water for pulping – hydrosphere pendent on solar energy for the growth of
crops. Moreover modern agriculture creates
Bleach to whiten paper – a
a variety of environmental problems, which
mineral from lithosphere
ultimately lead to the formation of
unproductive land. These include irrigation,
which leads to the development of saline
2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE
soil, and the use of artifi cial fertilizers
RE SOURCES
eventually ruin soil quality, and pesticides,
which are a health hazard for humans as
Ecosystems act as resource producers and
well as destroying components vital to the
pro cessors. Solar energy is the main driving
long-term health of agricultural ecosys tems.
force of ecological systems, providing
energy for the growth of plants in forests,
To manufacture consumer products, industry
grasslands and aquatic ecosystems. A
requires raw materials from nature, including
forest recycles its plant material slowly by
water, minerals and power. During the manu their greater human popu lation. However,
facturing process, the gases, chemicals and the consumption of resources per capita
waste products pollute our environment, (per individual) of the developed coun tries
unless the industry is carefully managed to is up to 50 times greater than in most de
clean up this mess. veloping countries. Advanced countries
produce over 75% of global industrial waste
and green house gases.
2.2.1 Natural resources and associated
prob lems Energy from fossil fuels is consumed in
relatively much greater quantities in
The unequal consumption of natural re developed countries. Their per capita
sources: A major part of natural resources consumption of food too is much greater as
are today consumed in the technologically well as their waste of enor mous quantities
advanced or ‘developed’ world, usually of food and other products, such as
termed ‘the North’. The ‘developing nations’ packaging material, used in the food
of ‘the South’, includ ing India and China, industry. The USA for example with just 4%
also over use many re sources because of of
the world’s population consumes about 25% of protecting nature and natural resources.
of the world’s resources. Land as a resource is now under serious
pres sure due to an increasing ‘land hunger’
Producing animal food for human - to pro duce sufficient quantities of food for
consumption requires more land than an explod ing human population. It is also
growing crops. Thus countries that are affected by deg radation due to misuse.
highly dependent on non-veg etarian diets Land and water re sources are polluted by
need much larger areas for pastureland industrial waste and ru ral and urban
than those where the people are mainly sewage. They are increasingly being
vegetarian. diverted for short-term economic gains to
agriculture and industry. Natural wetlands of
great value are being drained for agriculture
Planning Landuse: Land itself is a major re and other purposes. Semi-arid land is being
source, needed for food production, animal irrigated and overused.
husbandry, industry, and for our growing hu
man settlements. These forms of intensive The most damaging change in landuse is
land use are frequently extended at the cost dem onstrated by the rapidity with which
of ‘wild lands’, our remaining forests, forests have vanished during recent times,
grasslands, wet lands and deserts. Thus it is both in India and in the rest of the world.
essential to evolve a rational land-use policy Forests provide us with a variety of services.
that examines how much land must be These include processes such as
made available for different pur poses and maintaining oxygen levels in the atmo
where it must be situated. For in stance, sphere, removal of carbon dioxide, control
there are usually alternate sites at which over water regimes, and slowing down
industrial complexes or dams can be built, erosion and also produce products such as
but a natural wilderness cannot be food, fuel, tim ber, fodder, medicinal plants,
recreated artifi cially. Scientists today etc. In the long term, the loss of these is far
believe that at least 10 percent of land and greater than the short-term gains produced
water bodies of each eco system must be by converting for ested lands to other uses.
kept as wilderness for the long term needs
Natural Resources 21
Chapter2.p65 21 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM

The need for sustainable lifestyles: The
qual ity of human life and the quality of These are minerals that have been formed
ecosystems on earth are indicators of the in the lithosphere over millions of years and
sustainable use of resources. There are con stitute a closed system. These
clear indicators of sustain able lifestyles in non-renewable resources, once used,
human life. remain on earth in a dif ferent form and,
unless recycled, become waste material.
• Increased longevity
Non-renewable resources include fossil
• An increase in knowledge fuels such as oil and coal, which if extracted
at the present rate, will soon be totally used
• An enhancement of income. up. The end products of fossil fuels are in
the form of heat and mechanical energy and
These three together are known as the chemical com pounds, which cannot be
‘Human development index’. reconstituted as a re source.
2.2.3 Renewable resources
The quality of the ecosystems have
indicators that are more difficult to assess. Though water and biological living
resources are considered renewable. They
• A stabilized population. are in fact renew able only within certain
limits. They are linked to natural cycles such
• The long term conservation of biodiversity. as the water cycle.
• The careful long-term use of natural re • Fresh water (even after being used) is
sources. evapo rated by the sun’s energy, forms
water vapour and is reformed in clouds
• The prevention of degradation and pollu and falls to earth as rain. However,
tion of the environment. water sources can be overused or
wasted to such an ex tent that they
locally run dry. Water sources can be so
2.2.2 Non-renewable resources heavily polluted by sewage and toxic
substances that it becomes impossible
to use the water.
• The output of agricultural land if misman
• Forests, once destroyed take thousands of aged drops drastically.
years to regrow into fully developed natu
ral ecosystems with their full • When the population of a species of plant
complement of species. Forests thus or animal is reduced by human
can be said to be have like activities, until it cannot reproduce fast
non-renewable resources if over used. enough to maintain a viable number, the
species be comes extinct.
• Fish are today being over-harvested until
the catch has become a fraction of the • Many species are probably becoming
original resource and the fish are extinct without us even knowing, and
incapable of breed ing successfully to other linked species are affected by their
replenish the population. loss.
this step to move the resource you

The Dodo of Madagascar and the chose to the next?
Cheetah in India are well known
examples of extinct species. What is • What waste products are generated at
however not generally rec ognized is that that step?
thousands of extinctions of small plants
and animals are occurring every year • How are they likely to be disposed off?
due to loss of their habitat. Over har
vesting and poaching threaten the • What pollutants are generated in the
existence of many others. process?
a) Forest Resources
Use and overexploitation: Scientists

Activity 3: Utilisation of resources estimate that India should ideally have 33
percent of its land under forests. Today we
The use of a resource begins with its have only about 12 percent. Thus we need
collec tion, its processing into a useable not only to protect existing forests but also to
product, and transport through a delivery increase our forest cover.
system, to the consumer who uses it. It
also involves disposal of the waste People who live in or near forests know the
products produced at each step. Each value of forest resources first hand because
step in resource use can af fect the their lives and livelihoods depend directly on
environment for better or worse. The these re sources. However, the rest of us
control of these steps is known as en also derive great benefits from the forests
vironmental management. which we are rarely aware of. The water we
use depends on the existence of forests on
Think of a resource you use and track it the watersheds around river valleys. Our
through these steps. homes, furniture and paper are made from
wood from the forest. We use many
Eg. The cotton in the clothes you are medicines that are based on forest produce.
wear ing. At each step note: And we depend on the oxygen that plants
give out and the removal of carbon dioxide
• What other resources are needed at we breathe out from the air.
and Protected Forests which curtailed
Forests once extended over large tracts of access to the resources. This led to a loss of
our country. People have used forests in our stake in the conservation of the for ests
coun try for thousands of years. As which led to a gradual degradation and
agriculture spread the forests were left in fragmentation of forests across the length
patches which were con trolled mostly by and breadth of the country.
tribal people. They hunted ani mals and
gathered plants and lived entirely on forest Another period of overutilisation and forest
resources. Deforestation became a major deg radation occurred in the early period
concern in British times when a large following independence as people felt that
amount of timber was extracted for building now that the British had gone they had a
their ships. This led the British to develop right to using our forests in any way we
scientific forestry in India. They however pleased. The following
alienated local people by creating Reserved
FOREST FUNCTIONS
Watershed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water.
• Prevent flash floods and soil erosion.
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought.
Atmospheric regulation:
• Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration.
• Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth.
• Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
Erosion control:
• Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away).
Land bank:
• Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.
Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for
subsistence – (Consumptive use)
• Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest.
(In the past when wildlife was plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for
food. Now that populations of most wildlife species have diminished,
continued hunting would lead to extinction.)
• Fodder - for cattle.
• Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating.
• Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas.
• Timber – household articles and construction.
• Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc.
• Sericulture – for silk.
• Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops.
• Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential
source for new modern drugs.
Market use - (Productive use)

• Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as a
source of income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people.
• Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuelwood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc.
which are collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest
dwellers.
• Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber
extraction is done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging
continues in many of the forests of India and the world.
years saw India’s residual forest wealth

dwindle sharply. Timber extraction continued The States have tried a variety of
to remain the Forest Department’s main approaches to JFM. The share for village
concern up to the 1970s. The fact that forest forest committees
degradation and deforestation was creating
a serious loss of the important functions of CASE STUDY
the forest began to over ride its utilisation as
a source of revenue from timber. Joint Forest Management
The need to include local communities in

Deforestation: Where civilizations have Forest Management has become a
looked after forests by using forest growing concern. Local people will only
resources cautiously, they have prospered, support greening an area if they can see
where forests were de stroyed, the people some eco nomic benefit from
were gradually impover ished. Today logging conservation. An infor mal arrangement
and mining are serious causes of loss of between local communi ties and the
forests in our country and all over the world. Forest Department began in 1972, in
Dams built for hydroelectric power or Midnapore District of West Bengal. JFM
irrigation have submerged forests and have has now evolved into a formal agree
displaced tribal people whose lives are ment which identifies and respects the
closely knit to the forest. This has become a local community’s rights and benefits that
se rious cause of concern in India. they need from forest resources. Under
JFM schemes, Forest Protection
One of India’s serious environmental Committees from local community
problems is forest degradation due to timber members are formed. They participate in
extraction and our dependence on fuelwood. restoring green cover and pro tect the
A large num ber of poor rural people are still area from being over exploited.
highly depen dent on wood to cook their
meals and heat their homes. We have not
been able to plant enough trees to support
the need for timber and fuelwood. ranges from 25 per cent in Kerala to 100 per
cent in Andhra Pradesh, 50 per cent in
The National Forest Policy of 1988 now Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tripura. In
gives an added importance to JFM. Another many States 25 per cent of the revenue is
resolution in 1990 provided a formal used for village development. In many
structure for com munity participation though States non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
the formation of Village Forest Committees. are available for people free of cost.
Based on these ex periences, new JFM
guidelines were issued in 2000. This Some States have stopped grazing
stipulates that at least 25 per cent of the completely; some have rotational grazing
income from the area must go to the com schemes which have helped in forest
munity. From the initiation of the program, regeneration.
un til 2002, there were 63,618 JFM
Committees managing over 140,953 sq. km
of forest under JFM in 27 States in India. Timber extraction, mining and dams are
in variably parts of the needs of a resources. Forests also cover the steep
developing coun try. If timber is embankments of river valleys, which are
overharvested the ecological func tions of ideally suited to develop hydel and irrigation
the forest are lost. Unfortunately for ests are projects. Thus there is a constant conflict of
located in areas where there are rich mineral interests be
tween the conservation interests of young people in develop ing countries, this
environmen tal scientists and the Mining and will continue to increase sig nificantly during
Irrigation De partments. What needs to be the next few decades. This
understood is that long-term ecological places enormous demands on the world’s
gains cannot be sacrificed for short-term lim ited freshwater supply. The total annual
economic gains that unfortu nately lead to fresh water withdrawals today are estimated
deforestation. These forests where at 3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as
development projects are planned, can just 50 years ago (World Commission on
displace thousands of tribal people who lose Dams, 2000). Stud ies indicate that a person
their homes when these plans are executed. needs a minimum of 20 to 40 liters of water
This leads to high levels of suffering for per day for drinking and sanitation. More
which there is rarely a satisfactory answer. than one billion people world wide have no
access to clean water, and to many more,
supplies are unreliable.
b) Water resources
Local conflicts are already spreading to
The water cycle, through evaporation and states. Eg. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over
pre cipitation, maintains hydrological the waters of the Krishna.
systems which form rivers and lakes and
support in a variety of aquatic ecosystems. India is expected to face critical levels of
Wetlands are intermediate forms between water stress by 2025. At the global level 31
terrestrial and aquatic ecosys tems and countries are already short of water and by
contain species of plants and animals that 2025 there will be 48 countries facing
are highly moisture dependent. All aquatic serious water short ages. The UN has
ecosystems are used by a large number of estimated that by the year 2050, 4 billion
people for their daily needs such as drinking people will be seriously affected by water
water, washing, cooking, watering animals, shortages. This will lead to multiple conflicts
and irri gating fields. The world depends on between countries over the sharing of water.
a limited quantity of fresh water. Water Around 20 major cities in India face chronic
covers 70% of the earth’s surface but only or interrupted water shortages. There are
3% of this is fresh water. Of this, 2% is in 100 countries that share the waters of 13
polar ice caps and only 1% is usable water large rivers and lakes. The upstream
in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers. Only a countries could starve the downstream
fraction of this can be actually used. At a nations leading to political unstable areas
global level 70% of water is used for across the world. Ex amples are Ethopia,
agriculture about 25% for industry and only which is upstream on the Nile and Egypt,
5% for domestic use. However this varies in which is downstream and highly dependent
differ ent countries and industrialized on the Nile. International accords that will
countries use a greater percentage for look at a fair distribution of water in such
industry. India uses 90% for agriculture, 7% areas will become critical to world peace.
for industry and 3% for domestic use. India and Bangladesh already have a
negotiated agreement on the water use of
One of the greatest challenges facing the the Ganges.
world in this century is the need to rethink
the overall management of water resources.
The world population has passed the 6 Overutilization and pollution of surface
billion mark. Based on the proportion of and groundwater: With the growth of
human population there is an increasing Overutilization of water occurs at various
need for larger amounts of water to fulfill a levels. Most people use more water than
variety of basic needs. Today in many areas they really need. Most of us waste water
this requirement cannot be met.
during a bath by using a shower or during crocodiles and other flora and fauna of
wash ing of clothes. Many agriculturists use the region.
more water than necessary to grow crops. Global climate change: Changes in climate
There are many ways in which farmers can at a global level caused by increasing air
use less water without reducing yields such pollution have now begun to affect our
as the use of drip irrigation systems. climate. In some regions global warming and
the El Nino winds have created
Agriculture also pollutes surface water and unprecedented storms. In other areas, they
un derground water stores by the excessive lead to long droughts. Everywhere the
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. ‘greenhouse effect’ due to atmospheric
Methods such as the use of biomass as pollution is leading to increasingly erratic
fertilizer and non toxic pesticides such as and unpredictable climatic effects. This has
neem products and using in tegrated pest seriously affected regional hydrological
management systems reduces the conditions.
agricultural pollution of surface and ground
water.
Floods: Floods have been a serious
Industry tends to maximise short-term environmen tal hazard for centuries.
economic gains by not bothering about its However, the havoc raised by rivers
liquid waste and releasing it into streams, overflowing their banks has be come
rivers and the sea. In the longer term, as progressively more damaging, as people
people become more con scious of using have deforested catchments and intensified
‘green products’ made by ecosensitive use of river flood plains that once acted as
industries, the polluter’s products may not safety valves. Wetlands in flood plains are
be used. The polluting industry that does not nature’s flood control systems into which
care for the environment and pays off bribes overfilled riv ers could spill and act like a
to get away from the cost needed to use temporary sponge holding the water, and
effluent treatment plants may eventually be preventing fast flowing water from damaging
caught, punished and even closed down. surrounding land.
Public awareness may increasingly put
pressures on industry to produce only Deforestation in the Himalayas causes
eco-friendly products which are already floods that year after year kill people,
gaining in popularity. damage crops and destroy homes in the
Ganges and its tribu taries and the
As people begin to learn about the serious Bramhaputra. Rivers change their course
health hazards caused by pesticides in their during floods and tons of valuable soil is lost
food, pub lic awareness can begin putting to the sea. As the forests are degraded, rain
pressures on farmers to reduce the use of water no longer percolates slowly into the
chemicals that are injurious to health. sub soil but runs off down the mountainside
bear ing large amounts of topsoil. This
blocks rivers temporarily but gives way as
CASE STUDY
the pressure mounts allowing enormous
quantities of water to wash suddenly down
Water pollution - Nepal
into the plains below. There, rivers swell,
burst their banks and flood waters spread to
The Narayani River of Nepal has been
engulf peoples’ farms and homes.
pol luted by factories located on its bank.
This has endangered fish, dolphins,
periods when there is a serious scarcity of
water to drink, use in farms, or provide for
Drought: In most arid regions of the world urban and industrial use. Drought prone
the rains are unpredictable. This leads to areas are thus faced with
irregular periods of famine. Agriculturists years if the stores have been filled during a
have no income in these bad years, and as good monsoon. If water from the
they have no steady income, they have a underground stores is overused, the
constant fear of droughts. India has ‘Drought water table drops and vegetation suffers.
Prone Areas De velopment Programs’, This soil and water management and
which are used in such areas to buffer the afforestation are long-term measures that
effects of droughts. Under these schemes, reduce the impact of droughts.
people are given wages in bad years to build
roads, minor irrigation works and plantation
programs. Water for Agriculture and Power Genera
tion: India’s increasing demand for water for
Drought has been a major problem in our intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating
coun try especially in arid regions. It is an electricity, and for consumption in urban and
unpredict able climatic condition and occurs industrial centers, has been met by creating
due to the failure of one or more monsoons. large dams. Irrigated areas increased from
It varies in frequency in different parts of our 40 million ha. in 1900 to 100 million ha. in
country. 1950 and to 271 million ha. by 1998. Dams
support 30 to 40% of this area.
While it is not feasible to prevent the failure
of the monsoon, good environmental Although dams ensure a year round supply
manage ment can reduce its ill effects. The of water for domestic use, provide extra
scarcity of water during drought years water for agriculture, industry, hydropower
affects homes, ag riculture and industry. It generation, they have several serious
also leads to food short ages and environmental prob lems. They alter river
malnutrition which especially affects flows, change nature’s flood control
children. mechanisms such as wetlands and flood
plains, and destroy the lives of local people
Several measures can be taken to minimise and the habitats of wild plant and animal spe
the serious impacts of a drought. However cies.
this must be done as a preventive measure
so that if the monsoons fail its impact on Irrigation to support cash crops like
local people’s lives is minimised. sugarcane produces an unequal distribution
of water. Large landholders on the canals
In years when the monsoon is adequate, we get the lion’s share of water, while poor,
use up the good supply of water without small farmers get less and are seriously
trying to conserve it and use the water affected.
judiciously. Thus during a year when the
rains are poor, there is no water even for
drinking in the drought area. Sustainable water management: ‘Save wa
ter’ campaigns are essential to make people
One of the factors that worsens the effect of everywhere aware of the dangers of water
drought is deforestation. Once hill slopes are scar city. A number of measures need to be
denuded of forest cover the rainwater taken for the better management of the
rushes down the rivers and is lost. Forest world’s wa ter resources. These include
cover permits water to be held in the area measures such as:
permitting it to seep into the ground. This
charges the under ground stores of water in • Building several small reservoirs instead of
natural aquifers. This can be used in drought few mega projects.
protect wetlands.
• Develop small catchment dams and
• Soil management, micro catchment devel have built around 57% of the world’s large
opment and afforestation permits dams.
recharg ing of underground aquifers
thus reducing the need for large dams.
Dams problems
• Treating and recycling municipal waste
water for agricultural use. • Fragmentation and physical transformation
of rivers.
• Preventing leakages from dams and
• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
canals. • Preventing loss in Municipal pipes.
• Social consequences of large dams due to
• Effective rain water harvesting in urban displacement of people.
environments.
• Water logging and salinisation of surround
• Water conservation measures in ing lands.
agriculture such as using drip irrigation.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging
• Pricing water at its real value makes their habitat and cutting off their
people use it more responsibly and migration routes.
efficiently and reduces water wasting.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
• In deforested areas where land has been
degraded, soil management by bunding • The emission of green house gases from
along the hill slopes and making ‘nala’ reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and
plugs, can help retain moisture and carbon inflows from the catchment is a
make it pos sible to re-vegetate re cently identified impact.
degraded areas.
Large dams have had serious impacts on
Managing a river system is best done by the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual
leaving its course as undisturbed as existence of indigenous and tribal peoples.
possible. Dams and canals lead to major They have suf fered disproportionately from
floods in the monsoon and the drainage of the negative im pacts of dams and often
wetlands seriously affects areas that get been excluded from sharing the benefits. In
flooded when there is high rainfall. India, of the 16 to 18 million people
displaced by dams, 40 to 50% were tribal
people, who account for only 8% of our
Dams: Today there are more than 45,000 nation’s one billion people.
large dams around the world, which play an
impor tant role in communities and Conflicts over dams have heightened in the
economies that harness these water last two decades because of their social and
resources for their economic development. envi ronmental impacts and failure to
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of achieve tar gets for sticking to their costs as
irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. well as achiev ing promised benefits. Recent
Hydropower, another contender for the use examples show how failure to provide a
of stored water, currently supplies 19% of transparent process that includes effective
the world’s total electric power supply and is participation of local people has prevented
used in over 150 countries. The world’s two affected people from playing an
most populous countries – China and India –
active role in debating the pros and cons of person? Several international agencies
the project and its alternatives. The loss of and experts have proposed that 50 liters
tradi tional, local controls over equitable per person per day covers basic human
distribution remains a major source of water requirements for drinking,
conflict. sanitation, bathing and food preparation.
Estimate your average daily
consumption.
In India, a national assessment of dam
projects cleared in the 1980s and 90s
shows that in 90% of cases the project c) Mineral Resources
authorities have not fulfilled the
environmental condi tions under which A mineral is a naturally occurring substance
environmental clearance was given by of definite chemical composition and
the GOI under the EPA of 1986. identifiable physical properties. An ore is a
mineral or com bination of minerals from
which a useful sub stance, such as a metal,
can be extracted and used to manufacture a
useful product.
CASE STUDY
Minerals are formed over a period of millions
of years in the earth’s crust. Iron, aluminum,
Sardar Sarovar Project zinc, manganese and copper are important
raw ma terials for industrial use. Important
The World Bank’s withdrawal from the non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay,
Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 cement and silica. Stone used for building
was a result of the demands of local material, such as granite, marble, limestone,
people threatened with the loss of their constitute another category of minerals.
livelihoods and homes in the Minerals with special prop erties that
submergence area. humans value for their aesthetic and
ornamental value are gems such as
This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of
dis placed thousands of tribal folk, whose gold, silver and platinum is used for
lives and livelihoods were linked to the ornaments. Minerals in the form of oil, gas
river, the forests and their agricultural and coal were formed when ancient plants
lands. While they and the fishermen at and animals were converted into
the estuary, have lost their homeland, underground fossil fuels.
rich farmers down stream will get water
for agriculture. The question is why Minerals and their ores need to be extracted
should the local tribals be made from the earth’s interior so that they can be
homeless, displaced and relocated to used. This process is known as mining.
benefit other people? Why should the Mining operations generally progress
less fortunate be made to bear the costs through four stages:
of de velopment for better off farmers? It
is a ques tion of social and economic (1) Prospecting: Searching for minerals.
equity as well as the enormous
environmental losses, includ ing loss of (2) Exploration: Assessing the size, shape,
the biological diversity of the in undated lo cation, and economic value of the
forests in the Narmada valley. deposit.
Activity 4:
How much water is needed by one

(3) Development: Work of preparing access

CASE STUDY
to the deposit so that the minerals can
be ex tracted from it.
Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
(4) Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from
The Forest Department has leased land
the mines.
for mining in the Sariska Tiger Reserve
area by denotifying forest areas. The
In the past, mineral deposits were
local people have fought against the
discovered by prospectors in areas where
mining lobby, and have filed a Public
mineral deposits in the form of veins were
Interest Litigation in the Supreme Court
exposed on the sur face. Today, however,
in 1991. Rajendra Singh, sec retary of
prospecting and explo ration is done by
TBS, points out that as many as 70
teams of geologists, mining engineers,
mines operate in close proximity to the
geophysicists, and geochemists who work
for est.
together to discover new deposits. Mod ern
prospecting methods include the use of so
phisticated instruments like GIS to survey
and study the geology of the area.
equate ventilation are the greatest hazards.
The method of mining has to be determined Large explosions have occured in coal
depending on whether the ore or mineral de mines, killing many miners. More miners
posit is nearer the surface or deep within the have suffered from disasters due to the use
earth. The topography of the region and the of explosives in metal mines.
physical nature of the ore deposit is studied.
Mining poses several long-term
Mines are of two types – surface (open cut occupational hazards to the miners. Dust
or strip mines) or deep or shaft mines. Coal, produced during mining operations is
met als and non-metalliferous minerals are injurious to health and causes a lung
all mined differently depending on the above disease known as black lung, or
criteria. The method chosen for mining will pneumoconiosis. Fumes generated by
ultimately de pend on how maximum yield incom plete dynamite explosions are
may be obtained under existing conditions at extremely poison ous. Methane gas,
a minimum cost, with the least danger to the emanating from coal strata, is hazardous to
mining personnel. health although not poisonous in the
concentrations usually encountered in mine
Most minerals need to be processed before air. Radiation is a hazard in uranium mines.
they become usable. Thus ‘technology’ is
dependent on both the presence of
resources and the en ergy necessary to Environmental problems: Mining
make them ‘usable’. operations are considered one of the main
sources of envi ronmental degradation. The
extraction of all these products from the
Mine safety: Mining is a hazardous occupa lithosphere has a vari ety of side effects.
tion, and the safety of mine workers is an im Depletion of available land due to mining,
portant environmental consideration of the waste from industries, conver sion of land to
in dustry. Surface mining is less hazardous industry and pollution of land, water and air
than underground mining. Metal mining is by industrial wastes, are environ mental side
less haz ardous than coal mining. In all effects of the use of these non-re newable
underground mines, rock and roof falls, resources. Public awareness of this
flooding, and inad
problem is of a global nature and re duced starvation in the country. However

government actions to stem the damage to many of the technologies we have used to
the natural envi ronment have led to achieve this are now being questioned.
numerous international agreements and
laws directed toward the pre vention of • Our fertile soils are being exploited faster
activities and events that may ad versely than they can recuperate.
affect the environment.
• Forests, grasslands and wetlands have
been converted to agricultural use,
d) Food resources which has led to serious ecological
questions.
Today our food comes almost entirely from
ag riculture, animal husbandry and fishing. • Our fish resources, both marine and
Al though India is self-sufficient in food inland, show evidence of exhaustion.
produc tion, it is only because of modern
patterns of agriculture that are unsustainable • There are great disparities in the
and which pollute our environment with availability of nutritious food. Some
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. communities such as tribal people still
face serious food prob lems leading to
The FAO defines sustainable agriculture as malnutrition especially among women
that which conserves land, water and plant and children.
and ani mal genetic resources, does not
degrade the environment and is These issues bring in new questions as to
economically viable and so cially how demands will be met in future even with
acceptable. Most of our large farms grow a slow ing of population growth. Today the
single crops (monoculture). If this crop is hit world is seeing a changing trend in dietary
by a pest, the entire crop can be devastated, habits. As living standards are improving,
leav ing the farmer with no income during people are eat ing more non-vegetarian
the year. On the other hand, if the farmer food. As people change from eating grain to
uses traditional varieties and grows several meat, the world’s demand for feed for
different crops, the chance of complete livestock based on agricul ture increases as
failure is lowered consider ably. Many well. This uses more land per unit of food
studies have shown that one can use produced and the result is that the world’s
alternatives to inorganic fertilizers and pes poor do not get enough to eat.
ticides. This is known as Integrated Crop
Man agement. Women play an extremely vital role in food
pro duction as well as cooking the meal and
feed ing children. In most rural communities
World food problems: In many developing they have the least exposure to technical
countries where populations are expanding training and to health workers trained in
rap idly, the production of food is unable to teaching/learning on issues related to
keep pace with the growing demand. Food nutritional aspects. Women and girls
produc tion in 64 of the 105 developing frequently receive less food than the men.
countries is lagging behind their population These disparities need to be corrected.
growth levels. These countries are unable to
produce more food, or do not have the In India there is a shortage of cultivable
financial means to im port it. India is one of produc tive land. Thus farm sizes are too
the countries that have been able to small to sup port a family on farm produce
produce enough food by cultivat ing a large alone. With each generation, farms are
proportion of its arable land through being subdivided further.
irrigation. The Green Revolution of the 60’s
Poor environmental agricultural practices to an improved flow of food across national

such as slash and burn, shifting cultivation, borders from those who have surplus to
or ‘rab’ (woodash) cultivation degrade those who have a deficit in the developing
forests. world is another issue that is a concern for
planners who deal with International trade
Globally 5 to 7 million hectares of farmland concerns. ‘Dump ing’ of underpriced
is degraded each year. Loss of nutrients and foodstuffs produced in the developed world,
over use of agricultural chemicals are major onto markets in undeveloped countries
factors in land degradation. Water scarcity is undermines prices and forces farmers there
an impor tant aspect of poor agricultural to adopt unsustainable practices to com
outputs. Salin ization and water logging has pete.
affected a large amount of agricultural land
worldwide.
Fisheries: Fish is an important protein food
Loss of genetic diversity in crop plants is in many parts of the world. This includes
another issue that is leading to a fall in marine and fresh water fish. While the
agricultural pro duce. Rice, wheat and corn supply of food from fisheries increased
are the staple foods of two thirds of the phenomenally between 1950 and 1990, in
world’s people. As wild rela tives of crop several parts of the world fish catch has
plants in the world’s grasslands, wetlands since dropped due to overfishing. In 1995
and other natural habitats are being lost, the FAO reported that 44% of the world’s
ability to enhance traits that are resis tant to fisheries are fully or heavily exploited, 16%
diseases, salinity, etc. is lost. Genetic are already overexploited, 6% are depleted,
engineering is an untried and risky and only 3% are gradually recovering.
alternative to traditional cross breeding. Canada had to virtually close down cod
fishing in the 1990s due to depletion of fish
reserves.
Food Security: It is estimated that 18
million people worldwide, most of whom are Modern fishing technologies using
children, die each year due to starvation or mechanized trawlers and small meshed nets
malnutrition, and many others suffer a lead directly to overexploitation, which is not
variety of dietary defi ciencies. sustainable. It is evident that fish have to
breed successfully and need to have time to
The earth can only supply a limited amount grow if the yield has to be used sustainably.
of food. If the world’s carrying capacity to The worst hit are the small tra ditional
produce food cannot meet the needs of a fishermen who are no match for orga nized
growing popu lation, anarchy and conflict will trawlers.
follow. Thus food security is closely linked
with population control through the family
welfare program. It is also linked to the Loss of Genetic diversity: There are
availability of water for farming. Food 50,000 known edible plants documented
security is only possible if food is equitably worldwide. Of these only 15 varieties
distributed to all. Many of us waste a large produce 90% of the world’s food. Modern
amount of food carelessly. This eventually agricultural practices have resulted in a
places great stress on our environmental serious loss of genetic variability of crops.
resources. India’s distinctive traditional varieties of rice
alone are said to have numbered between
A major concern is the support needed for 30 and 50 thousand. Most of these have
small farmers so that they remain farmers been lost to the farmer during the last few
rather than shifting to urban centers as decades as multinational seed companies
unskilled industrial workers. International push a few commercial types.
trade policies in regard
This creates a risk to our food security, as techniques, especially on hill slopes,
farm ers can loose all their produce due to a enhancing the soil with organic matter,
rapidly spreading disease. A cereal that has rotating crops and managing watersheds at
multiple varieties growing in different the micro level are a key to agricultural
locations does not permit the rapid spread of production to meet future needs. Most
a disease. importantly food supply is closely linked to
the effectiveness of population con trol
The most effective method to introduce desir programs worldwide. The world needs bet
able traits into crops is by using ter and sustainable methods of food produc
characteristics found in the wild relatives of tion which is an important aspect of landuse
crop plants. As the wilderness shrinks, these management.
varieties are rapidly disappearing. Once they
are lost, their desirable characteristics
cannot be introduced when found necessary Alternate food sources: Food can be
in future. Ensuring long-term food security innovatively produced if we break out of the
may depend on conserving wild relatives of current agricultural patterns. This includes
crop plants in National Parks and Wildlife work ing on new avenues to produce food,
Sanctuaries. such as using forests for their multiple
non-wood forest products, which can be
If plant genetic losses worldwide are not used for food if har vested sustainably. This
slowed down, some estimates show that as includes fruit, mush rooms, sap, gum, etc.
many as 60,000 plant species, which This takes time, as people must develop a
accounts for 25% of the world’s total, will be taste for these new foods.
lost by the year 2025. The most economical
way to prevent this is by expanding the
network and coverage of our Protected CASE STUDY
Areas. Collections in germplasm, seed
banks and tissue culture facilities, are other Israel began using drip irrigation systems
pos sible ways to prevent extinction but are as it is short of water. With this
ex tremely expensive. technique, farm ers have been able to
improve the efficiency of irrigation by
Scientists now believe that the world will 95%. Over a 20-year period, Israel’s food
soon need a second green revolution to production doubled without an increase
meet our future demands of food based on a in the use of water for agriculture.
new ethic of land and water management
that must be based on values which include In India, some traditional communities in
environmental sensitivity, equity, biodiversity urban and semi urban towns used to
conservation of cultivars and insitu grow their own vegetables in backyards
preservation of wild relatives of crop plants. on waste water from their own homes.
This must not only provide food for all, but Calcutta re leases its waste water into
also work out more equitable distri bution of surrounding la goons in which fish are
both food and water, reduce agricul tural reared and the wa ter is used for growing
dependence on the use of fertilizers and vegetables.
pesticides (which have long term ill effects
on human wellbeing) and provide an
increasing support for preserving wild
relatives of crop plants in Protected Areas. Medicines, both traditional and modern, can
Pollution of water sources, land degradation be harvested sustainably from forests.
and desertification must be rapidly reversed. Madagaskar’s Rosy Periwinkle used for
Adopting soil conser vation measures, using child hood leukemia’s and Taxol from
appropriate farming Western Yew
from the American Northwest as an and shelter. The

anticancer drug are examples of forest sun’s rays power
products used ex tensively in modern the growth of
medicine. Without care, commercial plants, which form
exploitation can lead to early extinc tion of our food material,
such plants. give off oxygen
which we breathe in and take up carbon
Using unfamiliar crops such as Nagli, which diox ide that we breathe out. Energy from
are grown on poor soil on hill slopes is the sun evaporates water from oceans,
another op tion. This crop grown in the rivers and lakes, to form clouds that turn into
Western Ghats now has no market and is rain. Today’s fossil fuels were once the
thus rarely grown. Only local people use this forests that grew in prehis toric times due to
nutritious crop themselves. It is thus not as the energy of the sun.
extensively cultivated as in the past.
Popularising this crop could add to food Chemical energy, contained in chemical
availability from marginal lands. Several com pounds is released when they are
crops can be grown in urban settings, broken down by animals in the presence of
including veg etables and fruit which can be oxygen. In India, manual labour is still
grown on waste household water and extensively used to get work done in
fertilizers from vermicomposting pits. agricultural systems, and domestic ani mals
used to pull carts and ploughs. Electrical
Several foods can be popularized from yet energy produced in several ways, powers
un used seafood products such as seaweed trans port, artificial lighting, agriculture and
as long as this is done at sustainable levels. industry. This comes from hydel power
Educating women about nutrition, who are based on the water cycle that is powered by
more closely involved with feeding the the sun’s energy that supports evaporation,
family, is an impor tant aspect of supporting or from thermal power stations powered by
the food needs of many developing fossil fuels. Nuclear energy is held in the
countries. nucleus of an atom and is now harnessed to
develop electrical energy.
Integrated Pest Management includes
preserv ing pest predators, using pest We use energy for household use,
resistant seed varieties and reducing the agriculture, production of industrial goods
use of chemical fer tilizers. and for running transport. Modern
e) Energy resources
Energy is defined by physicists as the

ca pacity to do work. Energy is found
on our planet in a variety of forms, some agriculture uses chemical fertilizers, which
of which are immediately useful to do require large amounts of en ergy dur
work, while oth ers require a process of ing their
transformation.
manufac
ture. In
dustry
The sun is the primary energy source in our
uses en
lives. We use it directly for its warmth and
ergy to
through various natural processes that
power
provide us with
manufacturing units and the urban
food, water, fuel
complexes that support it. place and to reach raw materials in mines
Energy-demanding roads and railway lines and forests.
are built to transport products from place to
No energy related technology is completely take into account the long-term ill ef fects on
‘risk free’ and unlimited demands on energy society of excessive energy utilisation.
increase this risk factor many fold. All
energy use creates heat and contributes to In 1998, the World Resources Institute
atmospheric tempera ture. Many forms of found that the average American uses 24
energy release carbon di oxide and lead to times the energy used by an Indian.
global warming. Nuclear en ergy plants have
caused enormous losses to the environment
due to the leakage of nuclear ma terial. The Between 1950 and 1990, the world’s energy
inability to effectively manage and safely needs increased four fold. The world’s
dispose of nuclear waste is a serious global demand for electricity has doubled over the
concern. last 22 years! The world’s total primary
energy consumption in 2000 was 9096
At present almost 2 billion people worldwide million tons of oil. A global average per
have no access to electricity at all. While capita that works out to be 1.5 tons of oil.
more people will require electrical energy, Electricity is at present the fastest grow ing
those who do have access to it continue to form of end-use energy worldwide. By 2005
increase their individual requirements. In the Asia-Pacific region is expected to
addition, a large pro portion of energy from surpass North America in energy
electricity is wasted dur ing transmission as consumption and by 2020 is expected to
well as at the user level. It is broadly consume some 40% more energy than
accepted that long-term trends in en ergy North America.
use should be towards a cleaner global
energy system that is less carbon intensive For almost 200 years, coal was the primary
and less reliant on finite non-renewable en ergy source fuelling the industrial
energy sources. It is estimated that the revolution in the 19th century. At the close of
currently used methods of using renewable the 20th cen tury, oil accounted for 39% of
energy and non renewable fossil fuel the world’s com mercial energy
sources together will be insufficient to meet consumption, followed by coal (24%) and
foreseeable global demands for power natural gas (24%), while nuclear (7%) and
generation beyond the next 50 to 100 years. hydro/renewables (6%) accounted for the
rest.
Thus when we use energy wastefully, we
are contributing to a major environmental Among the commercial energy sources
disaster for our earth. We all need to used in India, coal is a predominant source
become respon sible energy users. An accounting for 55% of energy consumption
electrical light that is burn ing unnecessarily estimated in 2001, followed by oil (31%),
is a contributor to environmen tal natural gas (8%), hydro (5%) and nuclear
degradation. (1%).
In India, biomass (mainly wood and dung)

Growing energy needs: Energy has always ac counts for almost 40% of primary energy
been closely linked to man’s economic sup ply. While coal continues to remain the
growth and development. Present strategies domi nant fuel for electricity generation,
for devel opment that have focused on rapid nuclear power has been increasingly used
economic growth have used energy since the 1970s and 1980s and the use of
utilization as an index of economic natural gas has increased rapidly in the 80s
development. This index however, does not and 90s.
Types of energy: There are three main increased drought in some areas, floods in
types of energy; those classified as other regions, the melting of icecaps, and a
non-renewable; those that are said to be rise in sea levels, which is slowly
renewable; and nuclear energy, which submerging coastal belts all over the world.
uses such small quanti ties of raw material Warming the seas also leads to the death of
(uranium) that supplies are to all effect, sensitive organisms such as coral.
limitless. However, this classifica tion is
inaccurate because several of the renew
able sources, if not used ‘sustainably’, can Oil and its environmental impacts: India’s
be depleted more quickly than they can be oil reserves which are being used at present
re newed. lie off the coast of Mumbai and in Assam.
Most of our natural gas is linked to oil and,
because there is no distribution system, it is
Non renewable energy just burnt off. This wastes nearly 40% of
available gas. The pro cesses of oil and
To produce electricity from non-renewable re natural gas drilling, process ing, transport
sources the material must be ignited. The and utilisation have serious envi ronmental
fuel is placed in a well contained area and consequences, such as leaks in which air
set on fire. The heat generated turns water and water are polluted and accidental fires
to steam, which moves through pipes, to that may go on burning for days or weeks be
turn the blades of a turbine. This converts fore the fire can be controlled. During
magnetism into electric ity, which we use in refining oil, solid waste such as salts and
various appliances. grease are pro duced which also damage
the environment. Oil slicks are caused at
Non-Renewable Energy Sources: These sea from offshore oil wells, cleaning of oil
consist of the mineral based hydrocarbon tankers and due to shipwrecks. The most
fuels coal, oil and natural gas, that were well-known disaster occurred when the
formed from ancient prehistoric forests. Exxon
These are called ‘fossil fuels’ because they Valdez
are formed after plant life is fos silized. At sank
the present rate of extraction there is in 1989
enough coal for a long time to come. Oil and and
gas resources however are likely to be used birds, sea
up within the next 50 years. When these ot
fuels are burnt, they produce waste products ters, seals,
that are released into the atmosphere as fish and
gases such as carbon dioxide, oxides of other ma
sulphur, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide, all rine life
causes of air pollution. These have led to along the
lung problems in an enor mous number of coast of
people all over the world, and have also Alaska was
affected buildings like the Taj Mahal and seriously af
killed many forests and lakes due to acid fected.
rain. Many of these gases also act like a
green house letting sunlight in and trapping Oil powered vehicles emit carbon dioxide,
the heat inside. This is leading to global sul phur dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon
warming, a raise in global temperature, monoxide and particulate matter which is a
major cause of air pollution especially in catalytic converters on all the new cars, but
cities with heavy traf fic density. Leaded unleaded fuel contains benzene and
petrol, leads to neuro dam age and reduces butadene which are known to be
attention spans. Running petrol vehicles with carcinogenic compounds. Delhi, which used
unleaded fuel has been achieved by adding to have serious
smog problems due to traffic, has been able

to reduce this health hazard by changing a The Exxon Valdez was wrecked in Prince
large number of its vehicles to CNG, which Wil liam Sound in Alaska in 1989 and
contains methane. polluted large parts of the surrounding
seas.
Dependence on dwindling fossil fuel
CASE STUDY
resources, especially oil, results in political
tension, insta bility and war. At present 65
Oil related disasters
percent of the world’s oil reserves are
located in the Middle East.
During the Gulf War, oil installations
burned for weeks polluting the air with
poisonous gasses. The fires wasted 5
Coal and its environmental impacts: Coal
million barrels of oil and produced over a
is the world’s single largest contributor of
million tons of air borne pollutants,
green house gases and is one of the most
including sulphur dioxide, a major cause
important causes of global warming.
of acid rain. The gases moved to a
height of 3km and spread as far as In
Many coal-based power generation plants
dia. Oil also polluted coastlines, killing
are not fitted with devices such as
birds and fish.
electrostatic pre cipitators to reduce
emissions of suspended par ticulate matter
(SPM) which is a major contribu tor to air
pollution. Burning coal also produces oxides Renewable energy
of sulphur and nitrogen which, combined
with water vapour, lead to ‘acid rain’. This Renewable energy systems use resources
kills forest vegetation, and damages that are constantly replaced and are usually
architectural heritage sites, pollutes water less pol luting. Examples include
and affects human health. hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal
(energy from the heat inside the earth). We
Thermal power stations that use coal also get renewable en ergy from burning
produce waste in the form of ‘fly ash’. Large trees and even garbage as fuel and
dumps are required to dispose off this waste processing other plants into biofuels.
material, while efforts have been made to
use it for making bricks. The transport of One day, all our homes may get their energy
large quantities of fly ash and its eventual from the sun or the wind. Your car’s gas tank
dumping are costs that have to be included will use biofuel. Your garbage might
in calculating the cost-benefits of thermal contribute to your city’s energy supply.
power. Renewable energy technologies will improve
the efficiency and cost of energy systems.
We may reach the point when we may no
longer rely mostly on fossil fuel energy.
CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Nearly 50% of the world’s population is

de pendent on fuel wood as a source of
en ergy. This is obvious in our own
country, which has lost a large proportion
of its for est cover as our population
expands and burns enormous amounts
of wood. Rural women, and even women
from the lower economic strata in towns,
still have to spend a large part of their
lives collecting fuel wood. To overcome
this, various types of fuel-effi cient stoves
(‘chulas’) can burn wood ex tremely
slowly and do not waste the heat, and
also produce less smoke and ash than
normal ‘chulas’. There have also been CASE STUDY
sev eral efforts to grow fuelwood by
involving local people in these efforts. In 1882, the first Hydroelectric power
Examples in clude Social Forestry, Farm dam was built in Appleton, Wisconsin. In
Forestry and Joint Forestry India the first hydroelectric power dams
Management. were built in the late 1800s and early
1900s by the Tatas in the Western Ghats
of Maharashtra. Jamshedjee Tata, a
great visionary who de veloped industry
Hydroelectric Power in India in the 1800s, wished to have a
clean source of energy to run cot ton and
This uses water flowing down a natural gradi textile mills in Bombay as he found
ent to turn turbines to generate electricity people were getting respiratory infections
known as ‘hydroelectric power’ by due to coal driven mills. He thus asked
constructing dams across rivers. Between the British Government to permit him to
1950 and 1970, Hydropower generation develop dams in the Western Ghats to
worldwide increased generate elec tricity. The four dams are
the Andhra, Shirowata, Valvan and
Mulshi hydel dams. An important feature
of the Tata power projects is that they
use the high rainfall in the hills as
storage areas. While the rivers flowing
eastwards from the Western Ghats are
dammed in the foothills near the Deccan
plateau, the water is tunneled through plants, the renew
the crest of the Ghats to drop several able nature of the
hundred meters to the coastal belt. Large energy source, very
turbines in the power plants generate low operating and
electricity for Mumbai and its giant maintenance costs,
industrial belt. and absence of infla
tionary pressures as
in fossil fuels, are
some of its advan
seven times. The long tages.
life of hydropower
Drawbacks: Although hydroelectric power the Hi malayan foothills. Shri Sunderlal

has led to economic progress around the Bahuguna, the initiator of the Chipko
world, it has created serious ecological Movement has fought against the Tehri
problems. Dam for several years.
• To produce hydroelectric power, large ar CASE STUDY

eas of forest and agricultural lands are
sub merged. These lands traditionally Narmada Project
provided a livelihood for local tribal
people and farm ers. Conflicts over land The Narmada Bachao Andolan in India is
use are inevitable. an example of a movement against large
dams. The gigantic Narmada River
• Silting of the reservoirs (especially as a re Project has af fected the livelihoods of
sult of deforestation) reduces the life of hundreds of ex tremely poor forest
the hydroelectric power installations. dwellers. The rich landholders
downstream from the Sardar Sarovar
• Water is required for many other purposes dam will derive the maximum eco nomic
besides power generation. These benefit, whereas the poor tribal people
include domestic requirements, growing have lost their homes and traditional way
agricultural crops and for industry. This of life. The dam will also destroy the
gives rise to conflicts. livelihood of fishermen at the estuary.
The disastrous impact that this project
• The use of rivers for navigation and fisher has on the lives of the poor, and the way
ies becomes difficult once the water is in which they are being exploited, need
dammed for generation of electricity. to be clearly un derstood.
• Resettlement of displaced persons is a

prob lem for which there is no ready With large dams causing social problems,
solution. The opposition to many large there has been a trend to develop small
hydroelectric schemes is growing as hydroelectric generation units. Multiple small
most dam projects have been unable to dams have less impact on the environment.
resettle people that were affected and China has the larg est number of these -
displaced. 60,000, generating 13,250 megawatts, i.e.
30% of China’s electricity. Swe den, the US,
• In certain regions large dams can induce Italy and France also have devel oped small
seismic activity which will result in earth dams for electrical power genera tion. The
quakes. There is a great possibility of development of small hydroelectric power
this occurring around the Tehri dam in units could become a very important re
source in India, which has steeply falling whole year. If it were possible to harness
rivers and the economic capability and this colossal quantum of energy, humanity
technical re sources to exploit them. would need no other source of energy.
Today we have devel oped several methods
of collecting this energy for heating water
Solar energy: In one hour, the sun pours as and generating electricity.
much energy onto the earth as we use in a
Solar heating for homes: Modern housing

that uses air conditioning and/ or heating are A common type of collector is the flat-plate
ex tremely energy dependant. A passive col lector, a rectangular box with a
solar home or building is designed to collect transparent cover that faces the sun, usually
the sun’s heat through large, south-facing mounted on the roof. Small tubes run
glass windows. In solar heated buildings, through the box, car rying the water or other
sunspaces are built on the south side of the fluid, such as antifreeze, to be heated. The
structure which act as large heat absorbers. tubes are mounted on a metal absorber
The floors of sunspaces are usu ally made plate, which is painted black to ab
of tiles or bricks that absorb heat throughout sorb the sun’s heat. The back and sides of
the day, then release heat at night when its the box are insulated to hold in the heat.
cold. Heat builds up in the collector, and as the
fluid passes through the tubes, it too heats
In energy efficient architecture the sun, up.
water and wind are used to heat a building
when the weather is cold and to cool it in Solar water-heating systems cannot heat
summer. This is based on design and water when the sun is not shining. Thus
building material. Thick walls of stone or homes must also have a conventional
mud were used in traditional architecture as backup system. About 80% of homes in
an insulator. Small doors and windows kept Israel have solar hot water heaters.
direct sunlight and heat out. Deeply set
glass windows in colonial homes, on which Solar cookers: The heat produced by the
direct sunlight could not reach, permit ted sun can be directly used for cooking using
the glass from creating a green house ef solar cook ers. A solar cooker is a metal box
fect. Verandahs also served a similar which is black on the inside to absorb and
purpose. retain heat. The lid has a reflective surface
to reflect the heat from the sun into the box.
Traditional bungalows had high roofs and The box contains black vessels in which the
ven tilators that permitted hot air to rise and food to be cooked is placed.
leave the room. Cross ventilation where
wind can drive the air in and out of a room India has the world’s largest solar cooker
keeps it cool. Large overhangs over pro gram and an estimated 2 lakh families
windows prevent the glass from heating the that use solar cookers. Although solar
room inside. Double walls are used to cookers reduce the need for fuel wood and
prevent heating. Shady trees around the pollution from smoky wood fires, they have
house help reduce temperature. not caught on well in ru ral areas as they are
not suitable to traditional cooking practices.
Solar water heating: Most solar However, they have great potential if
water-heating systems have two main parts: marketed well.
the solar collec tor and the storage tank. The
solar energy col lector heats the water, Other Solar-Powered Devices: Solar
which then flows to a well insulated storage desalination systems (for converting saline
tank. or brackish water into pure distilled water)
have been developed. In future, they should voltaic cells which directly produce electricity
become important alter natives for man’s from sunlight using photovoltaic (PV) (also
future economic growth in areas where fresh called solar) cells.
water is not available.
Solar cells use the sun’s light, not its heat, to
make electricity. PV cells require little mainte
Photovoltaic energy: The solar technology nance, have no moving parts, and
which has the greatest potential for use essentially no environmental impact. They
through out the world is that of solar photo work cleanly,
Photovoltaic Cells
CASE STUDIES
• In 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Chal

lenger’ flew from Paris to England in 5
hours, 20 minutes. It had 16,000 solar
cells glued to the wings and tail of the
plane and they produced enough power
to drive a small electric motor and pro
peller. Since 1987, every three years
material to the air or water, there is no
safely and silently. They can be installed
radioactive substance, and no catastrophic
quickly in small modules, anywhere there is
accidents. Some PV cells, however, do
sunlight. Solar cells are made up of two
contain small quantities of toxic substances
separate layers of silicon, each of which
such as cadmium and these can be
contains an electric charge. When light hits
released to the environment in the event of
the cells, the charges begin to move
a fire. Solar cells are made of silicon which,
between the two layers and elec tricity is
al
produced. PV cells are wired together to
there is a World Solar challenge for
form a module. A module of about 40 cells is
so lar operated vehicles in Australia
enough to power a light bulb. For more
where the vehicles cover 3000 kms.
power, PV modules are wired together into
an array. PV arrays can produce enough
• The world’s first solar-powered hospital
power to meet the electrical needs of a
is in Mali in Africa. Being situated at
home. Over the past few years, extensive
the edge of the Sahara desert, Mali
work has been done in decreasing PV
receives a large amount of sunlight.
technology costs, increasing effi ciency, and
Panels of solar cells supply the
extending cell lifetimes. Many new materials,
power needed to run vital equipment
such as amorphous silicon, are being tested
and keep medical supplies cool in
to reduce costs and automate manufac
refrigerators.
turing.
• Space technology required solar energy
PV cells are commonly used today in
and the space race spurred the
calculators and watches. They also provide
devel opment of solar cells. Only
power to satel lites, electric lights, and small
sunlight can provide power for long
electrical appli ances such as radios and for
periods of time for a space station or
water pumping, highway lighting, weather
long distance spaceship.
stations, and other electrical systems
located away from power lines. Some
• Japanese farmers are substituting PV
electric utility companies are building PV
op erated insect killers for toxic
systems into their power supply networks.
pesticides.
PV cells are environmentally benign, ie.
• In recent years, the popularity of build
they do not release pollutants or toxic
ing integrated photovoltaics (BIPV’s) replacing the costs of normal con
has grown considerably. In this struction materials. There are more
application, PV devices are designed than 3,000 BIPV systems in
as part of build ing materials (i.e. Germany and Ja pan has a program
roofs and siding) both to produce that will build 70,000 BIPV buildings.
electricity and reduce costs by
though the second most abundant element Biomass energy: When a log is burned we
in the earth’s crust, has to be mined. Mining are using biomass energy. Because plants
cre ates environmental problems. PV and trees depend on sunlight to grow,
systems also of course only work when the biomass energy is a form of stored solar
sun is shining, and thus need batteries to energy. Although wood is the largest source
store the electricity. of biomass energy, we also use agricultural
waste, sugarcane wastes, and other farm
byproducts to make energy.
Solar thermal electric power: Solar
radiation can produce high temperatures, There are three ways to use biomass. It can
which can gen erate electricity. Areas with be burned to produce heat and electricity,
low cloud levels of cover with little scattered changed to a gas-like fuel such as methane,
radiation as in the desert are considered or changed to a liquid fuel. Liquid fuels, also
most suitable sites. Ac cording to a UNDP called biofuels, include two forms of alcohol:
assessment, STE is about 20 years behind ethanol and methanol. Because biomass
the wind energy market exploita tion, but is can be changed directly into liquid fuel, it
expected to grow rapidly in the near future. could someday supply much of our
transportation fuel needs for cars, trucks,
Mirror energy: During the 1980s, a major buses, airplanes and trains with diesel fuel
solar thermal electrical generation unit was replaced by ‘biodiesel’ made from vegetable
built in California, containing 700 parabolic oils. In the United States, this fuel is now
mirrors, each with 24 reflectors, 1.5 meters being produced from soybean oil.
in diameter, which focused the sun’s energy Researchers are also developing algae that
to produce steam to generate electricity. produce oils, which can be converted to
biodiesel and new ways have been found to
produce ethanol from grasses, trees, bark,
sawdust, paper, and farming wastes.
Organic municipal solid waste includes

paper, food wastes, and other organic
non-fossil-fuel derived materials such as
textiles, natural rub ber, and leather that are
found in the waste of urban areas. Currently,
in the US, approximately 31% of organic
waste is recovered from mu nicipal solid
waste via recycling and composting
programs, 62% is deposited in landfills, and
7% is incinerated. Waste material can be
converted into electricity by combustion
Mirror Energy boilers or steam turbines.
Solar thermal systems change sunlight into
elec tricity, by focusing sunlight to boil water Note that like any fuel, biomass creates
to make steam. some pollutants, including carbon dioxide,
when burned or converted into energy. In emissions. However, if burned in the open
terms of air pollutants, biomass generate air, some biomass feedstocks would emit
less relative to fossil fuels. Biomass is relatively high levels of nitrous oxides (given
naturally low in sulphur and therefore, when the
burned, generates low sulphur dioxide
high nitrogen content of plan material), already 2.18 million fami lies in India that
carbon monoxide, and particulates. used biogas. However China has 20 million
households using biogas!
Activity 5:
Biogas: Biogas is produced from plant
material and animal waste, garbage, waste What you may throw out in your garbage
from house holds and some types of today could be used as fuel for someone
industrial wastes, such as fish processing, else. Municipal solid waste has the poten
dairies, and sewage treatment plants. It is a tial to be a large energy source. Garbage
mixture of gases which includes methane, is an inexpensive energy resource.
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and Unlike most other energy resources,
water vapour. In this mixture, methane burns someone will collect garbage, deliver it to
easily. With a ton of food waste, one can the power plant, and even pay to get rid
produce 85 Cu. M of biogas. Once used, the of it. This helps cover the cost of turning
residue is used as an agricultural fertilizer. garbage into energy. Garbage is also a
unique resource because we all
Denmark produces a large quantity of contribute to it.
biogas from waste and produces 15,000
megawatts of electricity from 15 farmers’ Keep a record of all the garbage that you
cooperatives. Lon don has a plant which and our family produce in a day. What
makes 30 megawatts of electricity a year pro portion of it is in the form of
from 420,000 tons of munici pal waste which biomass? Weigh this.
gives power to 50,000 fami lies. In Germany,
25% of landfills for garbage produce power How long would it take you to gather
from biogas. Japan uses 85% of its waste enough waste biomass to make a tankful
and France about 50%. (0.85 cu.m.) of biogas? (Remember one
ton of biomass produces 85 cu.m. of
Biogas plants have become increasingly biogas)
popu lar in India in the rural sector. The
biogas plants use cowdung, which is
converted into a gas which is used as a fuel. Wind Power: Wind was the earliest energy
It is also used for run ning dual fuel engines. source used for transportation by sailing
The reduction in kitchen smoke by using ships. Some 2000 years ago, windmills were
biogas has reduced lung condi tions in developed
thousands of homes.
The fibrous waste of the sugar industry is

the world’s largest potential source of
biomass en ergy. Ethanol produced from
sugarcane molas ses is a good automobile
fuel and is now used in a third of the
vehicles in Brazil. in China, Afghanistan and Persia to draw
water for irrigation and grinding grain. Most
The National Project on Biogas of the early work on generating electricity
Development (NPBD), and Community/ from wind was carried out in Denmark, at
Institutional Biogas Plant Program promote the end of the last century. Today, Denmark
various biogas projects. By 1996 there were and California have large wind turbine
cooperatives which sell electricity to the of electricity. At present, India is the third
government grid. In Tamil Nadu, there are largest wind energy producer in the world.
large wind farms producing 850 mega watts
The power in wind is a function of the wind or stand-by electricity source.

speed and therefore the average wind
speed of an area is an important
determinant of economi cally feasible power. Tidal and Wave Power: The earth’s surface
Wind speed increases with height. At a is 70% water. By warming the water, the
given turbine site, the power avail able 30 sun, creates ocean currents and wind that
meters above ground is typically 60 per cent produces waves. It is estimated that the
greater than at 10 meters. solar energy ab sorbed by the tropical
oceans in a week could equal the entire oil
Over the past two decades, a great deal of reserves of the world – 1 trillion barrels of
tech nical progress has been made in the oil. The energy of waves in the sea that
design, sit ing, installation, operation, and crash on the land of all the continents is
maintenance of power-producing wind mills estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts of en
(turbines). These im provements have led to ergy. From the 1970s several countries have
higher wind conversion efficiencies and been experimenting with technology to
lower electricity production costs. harness the kinetic energy of the ocean to
generate elec tricity.
Environmental Impacts: Wind power has few
en vironmental impacts, as there are Tidal power is tapped by placing a barrage
virtually no air or water emissions, or across an estuary and forcing the tidal flow
radiation, or solid waste production. The to pass through turbines. In a one-way
principal problems are bird kills, noise, effect system the in coming tide is allowed to fill
on TV reception, and aes thetic objections to the basin through a sluice, and the water so
the sheer number of wind turbines that are collected is used to produce electricity
required to meet electricity needs. during the low tide. In a two way system
power is generated from both the incoming
Although large areas of land are required for as well as the outgoing tide.
setting up wind farms, the
amount used by the turbine
bases, the foundations and
the access roads is less than
1% of the total area covered
by the wind farm. The rest
of the area can also be used
for agricultural purposes or
for grazing.
Siting windmills offshore re

duces their demand for land
and visual impact.
Wind is an intermittent
source and the intermittency
of wind depends on the geo
graphic distribution of wind.
Wind therefore cannot be
used as the sole resource for
electricity, and requires some other backup
Tidal power stations bring about major

ecologi cal changes in the sensitive
ecosystem of coastal regions and can
destroy the habitats and nest ing places of
water birds and interfere with fish eries. A
tidal power station at the mouth of a river
blocks the flow of polluted water into the
sea, thereby creating health and pollution
haz ards in the estuary. Other drawbacks Geo-Thermal
include offshore energy devices posing Energy
navigational hazards. Residual drift current
could affect spawning of some fish, whose
larvae would be carried away from spawning
grounds. They may also affect the migration
patterns of surface swimming fish.
Wave power converts the motion of waves

into electrical or mechanical energy. For
this, an en ergy extraction device is used to deep below the surface of the earth to tap
drive turbo generators. Electricity can be into geothermal reservoirs. This is called
generated at sea and transmitted by cable direct use of geothermal energy, and it
to land. This energy source has yet to be provides a steady stream of hot water that is
fully explored. The largest concentration of pumped to the earth’s surface.
potential wave energy on earth is located
between latitudes 40 to 60 degrees in both In the 20th century geothermal energy has
the northern and southern hemispheres, been harnessed on a large scale for space
where the winds blow most strongly. heating, industrial use and electricity
production, espe cially in Iceland, Japan and
Another developing concept harnesses New Zealand.
energy due to the differences in temperature
between the warm upper layers of the Geothermal energy is nearly as cheap as
ocean and the cold deep sea water. These hydro power and will thus be increasingly
plants are known as Ocean Thermal Energy utilised in future. However, water from
Conversion (OTEC). This is a high tech geothermal reser voirs often contains
installation which may prove to be highly minerals that are corrosive and polluting.
valuable in the future. Geothermal fluids are a problem which must
be treated before disposal.
Geothermal energy: is the energy stored

within the earth (“geo” for earth and “ther Nuclear Power
mal” for heat). Geothermal energy starts
with hot, molten rock (called magma) deep In 1938 two German scientists Otto Hahn
inside the earth which surfaces at some and Fritz Strassman demonstrated nuclear
parts of the earth’s crust. The heat rising fission. They found they could split the
from the magma warms underground pools nucleus of a ura nium atom by bombarding
of water known as geother mal reservoirs. If it with neutrons. As the nucleus split, some
there is an opening, hot un derground water mass was converted to energy. The nuclear
comes to the surface and forms hot springs, power industry however was born in the late
or it may boil to form gey sers. With modern 1950s. The first large-scale nuclear power
technology, wells are drilled plant in the world became op erational in
1957 in Pennsylvania, US.
Dr. Homi Bhabha was the father of Nuclear

Power development in India. The Bhabha Atomic
Research Center in Mumbai studies and make many others seriously ill,
devel ops modern nuclear technology. India and destroy an area for decades by its
has 10 nuclear reactors at 5 nuclear power radioac tivity which leads to death, cancer
stations that produce 2% of India’s and genetic deformities. Land, water,
electricity. These are lo cated in vegetation are de stroyed for long periods of
Maharashtra (Tarapur), Rajasthan, Tamil time. Management, storage and disposal of
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat. India has radioactive wastes re sulting from nuclear
ura nium from mines in Bihar. There are power generation are the biggest expenses
deposits of thorium in Kerala and Tamil of the nuclear power indus try. There have
Nadu. been nuclear accidents at Chernobyl in
USSR and at the Three Mile Island in USA.
The nuclear reactors use Uranium 235 to The radioactivity unleashed by such an
pro duce electricity. Energy released from accident can affect mankind for generations.
1kg of Uranium 235 is equivalent to that
produced by burning 3,000 tons of coal.
U235 is made into rods which are fitted into Energy Conservation: Conventional
a nuclear reactor. The control rods absorb energy sources have a variety of impacts on
neutrons and thus adjust the fission which nature and human society.
releases energy due to the chain reaction in
a reactor unit. The heat en ergy produced in India needs to rapidly move into a policy to
the reaction is used to heat water and re duce energy needs and use cleaner
produce steam, which drives turbines that energy pro duction technologies. A shift to
produce electricity. The drawback is that the alternate en ergy use and renewable energy
rods need to be changed periodically. This sources that are used judiciously and
has impacts on the environment due to equitably would bring about environmentally
disposal of nuclear waste. The reaction friendly and sustainable lifestyles. India must
releases very hot waste water that damages reduce its dependency on imported oil. At
aquatic ecosystems, even though it is present we are under-utilizing our natural
cooled by a water system be fore it is gas resources. We could develop thousands
released. of mini dams to generate electricity. India
wastes great amounts of electricity during
The disposal of nuclear waste is becoming transmission. Fuel wood plantations need to
an increasingly serious issue. The cost of be enhanced and management through
Nuclear Power generation must include the Joint For estry Management (JFM) has a
high cost of disposal of its waste and the great promise for the future.
decommissioning of old plants. These have
high economic as well as ecological costs Energy efficient cooking stoves or ‘chulas’
that are not taken into ac count when help the movement of air through it so that
developing new nuclear installa tions. For the wood is burnt more efficiently. They also
environmental reasons, Sweden has have a chim ney to prevent air pollution and
decided to become a Nuclear Free Country thus reduce res piratory problems. While
by 2010. over 2 lakh improved chulas have been
introduced throughout the country, the
Although the conventional environmental im number in active use is unknown as most
pacts from nuclear power are negligible, rural people find it to be unusable for several
what overshadows all the other types of reasons. TERI in 1995 estimated that in
energy sources is that an accident can be India 95% of rural people and 60% of urban
devastating and the effects last for long poor still depend on firewood, cattle dung
periods of time. While it does not pollute air and crop residue for cooking and other
or water routinely like oil or biomass, a domestic purposes. Biomass can be
single accident can kill thou sands of people, converted into biogas
or liquid fuels ie. ethanol and methanol.

Biogas digesters convert animal waste or Steel and energy: To produce one tonne
agricultural residues into gas. This is 60% of steel, India spends 9.5 million
methane and 40% CO2 generated by kilocalories. In Italy it is 4.3 million
fermentation. The commonly used agri kilocalories and for Ja pan it is only 4.1
waste is dung of domestic animals and rice million kilocalories.
husk, coconut shells, straw or weeds. The
material left after the gas is used acts as a
Cement industry: Over 2 million
fertil izer.
kilocalories are used to produce one
tonne of cement in India. In Germany it is
Small hydrogeneration units are
0.82 million kilocalo ries, in USA, 0.92
environment friendly. They do not displace
million kilocalories.
people, destroy forests or wildlife habitats or
kill aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity. They
Vehicles: Lighter materials should be
can be placed in several hill streams, on
used for cars. Instead of steel we should
canals or rivers. The gen eration depends
use alu minum, fiber glass or plastics.
on flowing water due to grav ity. However,
These lighter materials can reduce the
this fails if the flow is seasonal.
weight by 15 % and increase the fuel
economy by 6 to 8%.
It is easy to waste energy but cheaper to
save it than generate it. We can conserve
Refrigerators: Better technologies
energy by preventing or reducing waste of
reduced the annual energy needed by a
energy and by using resources more
typical Dan ish 200 liter refrigerator (with
efficiently. People waste energy because
no freezer) from 350 kilo Watt hour
government subsidises it. If the real cost
(kWh) to 90 kWh.
was levied, people would not be able to
afford to waste it carelessly.
Lighting: An 18-watt modern, compact
fluo rescent lamp, can replace a
standard 75-watt incandescent lamp.
Industry and transport are the main grow
ing users of energy in India. Industries
that are known for generating pollution
also waste the most energy. These
include chemi cal industries, especially f) Land resources:
petrochemical units, iron and steel,
textiles, paper, etc. Unplanned and Land as a resource: Landforms such as
inefficient public transport systems, es hills, valleys, plains, river basins and
pecially in cities, waste large amount of wetlands include different resource
en ergy. Using bicycles is an excellent generating areas that the people living in
method to reduce the use of energy. In them depend on. Many tradi tional farming
agriculture, irrigation pumps to lift water societies had ways of preserving areas from
are the most energy intensive agricultural which they used resources. Eg. In the
use. These are either electrical or run on ‘sacred groves’ of the Western Ghats, re
fossil fuels. quests to the spirit of the Grove for
permission to cut a tree, or extract a
CASE STUDIES
resource, were ac companied by simple
rituals. The outcome of a chance fall on one
Indian industries use more energy than
side or the other of a stone
nec essary.
balanced on a rock gave

or withheld permission.
The request could not be
repeated for a specified
period.
If land is utilized carefully

it can be considered a
renewable resource.
The roots of trees and

grasses bind the soil. If
forests are depleted, or
grasslands overgrazed,
the land becomes un Changes in land use
productive and wasteland is formed.
Intensive irrigation leads to water logging
and salination, on which crops cannot grow.
Land is also con verted into a
non-renewable resource when highly toxic
industrial and nuclear wastes are dumped
on it.
Land on earth is as finite as any of our other

natural resources. While mankind has learnt
to adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems
world over, he cannot live comfortably for
instance on polar ice caps, on under the
sea, or in space in the foreseeable future.
Man needs land for building homes,

cultivating food, maintaining pastures for
domestic animals, developing industries to Land Degradation: Farmland is under
provide goods, and sup porting the industry threat due to more and more intense
by creating towns and cit ies. Equally utilisation. Every year, between 5 to 7 million
importantly, man needs to protect hectares of land worldwide is added to the
wilderness area in forests, grasslands, existing degraded farmland. When soil is
wetlands, mountains, coasts, etc. to protect used more intensively by farming, it is
our vitally valuable biodiversity. eroded more rapidly by wind and rain. Over
irrigating farmland leads to salinisation, as
Thus a rational use of land needs careful evaporation of water brings the salts to the
plan ning. One can develop most of these surface of the soil on which crops cannot
different types of land uses almost grow. Over irrigation also creates water
anywhere, but Pro tected Areas (National logging of the topsoil so that crop roots are
Park’s and Wildlife Sanc tuaries) can only af fected and the crop deteriorates. The use
be situated where some of the natural of more and more chemical fertilizers
ecosystems are still undisturbed. These poisons the soil so that eventually the land
Protected Areas are important aspects of becomes unpro ductive.
good landuse planning.
As urban centers grow and industrial
expansion occurs, the agricultural land and
forests shrink. This is a serious loss and has
long term ill effects on human civilisation. types sup port a wide variety of crops. The
misuse of an ecosystem leads to loss of
valuable soil through erosion by the
Soil erosion: The characteristics of natural monsoon rains and, to a smaller extent, by
eco systems such as forests and grasslands wind. The roots of the trees in the forest
depend on the type of soil. Soils of various hold the soil. Deforestation thus leads to
rapid soil erosion. Soil is washed into and in sects, which help to recycle nutrients
streams and is transported into rivers and in the sys tem. Further losses of our soil
finally lost to the sea. The process is more wealth will im poverish our country and
evident in areas where deforestation has led reduce its capacity to grow enough food in
to erosion on steep hill slopes as in the future.
Himalayas and in the West ern Ghats. 2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN
These areas are called ‘ecologically CONSERVA TION OF NATURAL
sensitive areas’ or ESAs. To prevent the loss RESOURCES
of millions of tons of valuable soil every year,
it is essential to preserve what remains of Until fairly recently mankind acted as if he
our natu ral forest cover. It is equally could go on for ever exploiting the
important to refor est denuded areas. The ecosystems and natural resources such as
linkage between the existence of forests and soil, water, forests and grasslands on the
the presence of soil is greater than the Earth’s surface and extract ing minerals and
forest’s physical soil binding fossil fuels from underground. But, in the last
few decades, it has become in creasingly
evident that the global ecosystem has the
capacity to sustain only a limited level of
CASE STUDY utilization. Biological systems cannot go on
re plenishing resources if they are overused
Selenium – Punjab
or mis used. At a critical point, increasing
pressure de stabilizes their natural balance.
In 1981-82, farmers from Hoshirapur and
Even biological resources traditionally
Nawanshehar Districts approached
classified as ‘renewable’ - such as those
scientists of the Punjab Agricultural
from our oceans, forests, grass lands and
University (PAU), Ludhiana, as wheat
wetlands, are being degraded by over use
crops had turned white. Soil analysis
and may be permanently destroyed. And no
indicated selenium (Se) levels in the area
natural resource is limitless.
were above toxic limits. Se is a natu rally
‘Non-renewable’ resources will be rapidly
occurring trace element, essential for
exhausted if we con tinue to use them as
animal and human health, but the gap be
intensively as at present.
tween requirement and excess is narrow.
Soils containing 0.5 microgrammes (ug)
The two most damaging factors leading to
of Se per kg or more are injurious to
the current rapid depletion of all forms of
health. In some areas of Punjab, Se
natural resources are increasing
levels ranges from 0.31 ug/kg to
‘consumerism’ on the part of the affluent
4.55ug/kg. Rice cultivation requires the
sections of society, and rapid population
presence of standing water. Being highly
growth. Both factors are the results of
soluble, Se dissolves and comes to the
choices we make as individuals. As individu
surface. The water then evaporates
als we need to decide;
leaving the Se behind.
• What will we leave to our children? (Are
we thinking of short-term or long-term
function alone. The soil is enriched by the gain?)
leaf litter of the forest. This detritus is broken
down by soil micro-organisms, fungi, worms • Is my material gain someone else’s loss?
countries. In nations such as ours, which are
Greed for material goods has become a way both developing rap idly, and suffering from
of life for a majority of people in the a population explosion, both factors are
developed world. Population growth and the responsible for environmental degradation.
resulting shortage of resources most We must ask ourselves if we have
severely affects people in the developing
perhaps reached a critical flash point, at necessary for our day-to-day lives, but the
which economic ‘development’ affects the soil, water, climate and solar energy which
lives of people more adversely than the form the ‘abiotic’ support that we derive from
benefits it pro vides. nature, are in themselves not distributed
evenly throughout the world or within
countries. A new economic order at the
What can you do to save electricity? global and at na
tional levels must be based on the ability to
• Turn off lights and fans as soon as you dis tribute benefits of natural resources by
leave the room. sharing them more equally among the
countries as well as among communities
• Use tube lights and energy efficient bulbs within countries such as our own. It is at the
that save energy rather than bulbs. A local level where people subsist by the sale
40- watt tube light gives as much light of locally collected resources, that the
as a 100 watt bulb. disparity is greatest. ‘Development’ has not
reached them and they are often unjustly
• Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on accused of ‘exploiting’ natural resources.
tubes and bulbs decreases lighting They must be adequately compensated for
levels by 20 to 30 percent. the re moval of the sources to distant
regions and thus develop a greater stake in
• Switch off the television or radio as soon protecting natural resources.
as the program of interest is over.
There are several principles that each of us
• A pressure cooker can save up to 75 per can adopt to bring about sustainable
cent of energy required for cooking. It is lifestyles. This primarily comes from caring
also faster. for our Mother Earth in all respects. A love
and respect for Na ture is the greatest
• Keeping the vessel covered with a lid dur sentiment that helps bring about a feeling for
ing cooking, helps to cook faster, thus looking at how we use natu ral resources in
sav ing energy. a new and sensitive way. Think of the
beauty of a wilderness, a natural forest in all
its magnificence, the expanse of a green
2.4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES grassland, the clean water of a lake that sup
FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES ports so much life, the crystal clear water of
a hill stream, or the magnificent power of the
Reduction of the unsustainable and unequal oceans, and we cannot help but support the
use of resources, and control of our conservation of nature’s wealth. If we
population growth are essential for the respect this we cannot commit acts that will
survival of our na tion and indeed of human deplete our life supporting systems.
kind everywhere. Our environment provides
us with a variety of goods and services
UNIT 3:
Ecosystems
3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM 54 3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems 55 3.1.2

Ecosystem degradation 55 3.1.3 Resource utilisation 56
3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 56 3.3 PRODUCERS,
CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS 57
3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM 58 3.4.1 The water cycle 58 3.4.2 The Carbon
cycle 59 3.4.3 The Oxygen cycle 60 3.4.4 The Nitrogen cycle 60 3.4.5 The energy cycle
61 3.4.6 Integration of cycles in nature 62
3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 62
3.6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS 62 3.6.1 The food chains
62 3.6.2 The food webs 63 3.6.3 The ecological pyramids 63
3.7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES, STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTIONS 63 3.7.1 Forest ecosystem 65 3.7.2 Grassland ecosystem 70 3.7.3 Desert
ecosystem 74 3.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries,
oceans) 75
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Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses Erach

Unit 1 : Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Definition, scope and importance

Need for public awareness.

Renewable and non-renewable resources :

• Equitable use of resoureces for sustainable lifestyles.

• Producers, consumers and decomposers.

• Energy flow in the ecosystem.

• Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids.

• Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the

d. Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) (6 lectures)

Unit 4 : Biodiversity and its conservation

• Introduction – Definition : genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. • Biogeographical

• Biodiversity at global, National and local levels.

• Inida as a mega-diversity nation

• Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts. •

Endangered and endemic species of India

• Conservation of biodiversity : In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (8 lectures)

Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution

• Role of an individual in prevention of pollution.

• Pollution case studies.

• Diaster management : floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides. (8 lectures)

• From Unsustainable to Sustainable development

• Urban problems related to energy

• Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management

• Environmental ethics : Issues and possible solutions.

• Environment Protection Act.

• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.

• Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act

• Wildlife Protection Act

• Forest Conservation Act

• Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation.

Unit 7 : Human Population and the Environment

• Population growth, variation among nations.

• Population explosion – Family Welfare Programme.

• Women and Child Welfare.

• Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health.

Unit 8 : Field work

• Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural • Study of common plants,

STUDIES : FOR UNDERGRADUATES

Credt System : The course will be awarded 4 credits.

Part-A, Short answer pattern - 25 marks

Part-B, Essay type with inbuilt choice - 50 marks

Part-C, Field Work - 25 marks

1. Prof. Erach Bharucha

4. Prof. D.C. Goswami

Natural Resources i Preliminary Pages.p65 1 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM

Principal author and editor – Erach Bharucha

Unit 1 – Erach Bharucha

Unit 5 – Shamita Kumar

Unit 7 – Erach Bharucha, Shalini Nair, Behafrid Patel

Case Studies – Prasanna Kolte

Artists – Sushma Durve and Anagha Deshpande

Natural Resources iii Preliminary Pages.p65 3 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM

Members of the Expert Committee on Environmental Studies

1. Prof. Erach Bharucha

Six Months Compulsory Core Module Course

Credit System: The core course will be awarded 4 credits

Natural Resources v Preliminary Pages.p65 5 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM