Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy

ISSN: 0092-623X (Print) 1521-0715 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/usmt20

Evaluation and Treatment of Sex Addiction

Kenneth Paul Rosenberg , Patrick Carnes & Suzanne O'Connor

To cite this article: Kenneth Paul Rosenberg , Patrick Carnes & Suzanne O'Connor (2014)
Evaluation and Treatment of Sex Addiction, Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 40:2, 77-91, DOI:
10.1080/0092623X.2012.701268

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2012.701268

Accepted author version posted online: 10

Sep 2012.
Published online: 21 Jun 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 7265

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 20 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=usmt20

Download by: [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] Date: 22 December 2017, At: 09:32
 JOURNAL OF SEX & MARITAL THERAPY, 40(2), 77–91, 2014
Copyright 
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0092-623X print / 1521-0715 online
DOI: 10.1080/0092623X.2012.701268

Evaluation and Treatment of Sex Addiction

Kenneth Paul Rosenberg
Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

Patrick Carnes
Pine Grove Behavioral Health, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, USA

Suzanne O’Connor
Arizona Schools of Professional Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix, Arizona, USA

There have been several diagnostic labels for persistent, excessive sexual behaviors, often referred in
the popular media as sex addiction. Two related diagnoses, Internet addictive disorder and hypersexual
disorder, were considered for, but not included in the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders. However, most clinicians, even those trained in sexual disorders or
addiction medicine, have little to no training in treating sexual compulsivity and cybersex addiction.
The authors present the historical context, proposed diagnostic criteria, evaluation protocols, comorbid
disorders, speculations about the neuroscience, and treatment recommendations.

DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM

In his 1812 book, Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind, Benjamin
Rush recounted a case of a man whose “excessive” sexual appetite caused him psychological
distress to the point of requesting that he be medically rendered impotent (Rush, 1812, p. 347).
In 1886, German psychiatrist Dr. Richard von Krafft-Ebing argued that pathological sexuality is
a bona fide psychiatric illness (Krafft-Ebing, 1886/1965). Nearly a century later, British psychol-
ogist Dr. Jim Orford argued that hypersexuality should be included in the spectrum of addictive
disorders (Orford, 1978).
Caution in diagnosing sex addiction or related disorders is justified. The majority of those who
have multiple affairs, who are promiscuous, or who take part in novel expressions of sexuality
are not sexually addicted. Levine (2010) performed a retrospective chart review to analyze the
sexual patterns of 30 men who had been referred for problems with sexual addiction. He reported
that only 25% of his case studies met the criteria of an addictive pattern.

Address correspondence to Kenneth Paul Rosenberg, MD, Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry,
Weill Cornell Medical College/New York Presbyterian Hospital, 49 East 78th St., 2-A, New York, NY 10075, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
 78 ROSENBERG ET AL.

The occurrence rates of excessive sexuality vary in the literature depending on character-
istics examined such as gender, sexual orientation, age, and, of course, the diagnostic criteria
implemented in the study. In Kinsey’s 1948 convenience sample of the American population,
male hypersexuality, defined as seven or more orgasms per week, was found in 7.6% of male
participants. Træen, Spitznogle, and Beverfjord (2004) narrowed their research to pornography
dependence in the adult Norwegian male population and found that 1% of the sample masturbated
to ejaculation twice or more per day while viewing pornography. A Swedish study of men and
women in the general population found that 5–10% of most sexually active respondents reported
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

higher levels of co-occurring addictions, risk-taking behaviors, distress and psychiatric symp-
toms, suggesting a subgroup of the most sexually active who may have psychosocial impairments
(Langstrom & Hanson, 2006).
In psychiatry, there have been many efforts to formulate a diagnosis related to sex addiction
for clinical work and research. Psychiatrist Ariel Goodman (1998) proposed criteria for sex
addiction on the basis of the prevailing diagnostic criteria for substance abuse disorders such
as tolerance, withdrawal, and interference with social and occupational functions (Table 1).
Psychologist Patrick Carnes (1991, 2005b) proposed 10 diagnostic criteria for sex addiction
(Table 2) and accumulated data on more than 1,600 cases (Carnes, 1991). Carnes and colleagues
(2011) developed several self-report screening measures such as a 25-item Sexual Addiction
Screening Test and a brief screening test called the PATHOS (Table 3), which was similar to the
CAGE questionnaire (Ewing, 1984).
The terms impulsive and compulsive have been applied to out-of-control sexual behaviors. In
2006, Mick and Hollander suggested the term impulsive-compulsive sexual behavior for patients
who demonstrated an impulsive component in initiating the cycle and a compulsive component
in the persistence of the dysfunctional behavior. In Miner, Coleman, Center, Ross, and Simon

TABLE 1
Sexual Addiction Proposed Diagnostic Criteria

A maladaptive pattern of sexual behavior, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested
by three (or more) of the following, occurring at any time in the same 12-month period:
1. Tolerance, as defined by either of the following:
a. a need for markedly increased amount or intensity of the sexual behavior to achieve the desired effect.
b. markedly diminished effect with continued involvement in the sexual behavior at the same level of
intensity.
2. Withdrawal, as manifested by either of the following:
a. characteristic psychophysiological withdrawal syndrome of physiologically described changes and/or
psychologically described changes upon discontinuation of the sexual behavior.
b. the same (or a closely related) sexual behavior is engaged in to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms.
3. The sexual behavior is often engaged in over a longer period, in greater quantity, or at a higher level of
intensity than was intended.
4. There is a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control the sexual behavior.
5. A great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to prepare for the sexual behavior, to engage in the
behavior, or to recover from its effects.
6. Important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of the sexual behavior.
7. The sexual behavior continues despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological
problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the behavior.

Note. Data proposed by A. Goodman (1998, p. 233).

 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 79

TABLE 2
Sexual Addiction Diagnostic Criteria

A. A minimum of three criteria met during a 12-month period:

1. Recurrent failure to resist impulses to engage in specific sexual behavior
2. Frequent engaging in these behaviors to a greater extent or longer duration than intended
3. Persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to stop, to reduce, or to control behaviors
4. Inordinate amount of time spent in obtaining sex, being sexual, or recovering from sexual experiences
5. Preoccupation with the behavior or preparatory activities
6. Frequent engaging in the behavior when expected to fulfill occupational, academic, domestic, or social
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

obligations
7. Continuation of the behavior despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent social, financial,
psychological, or physical problem that is caused or exacerbated by the behavior
8. Need to increase intensity, frequency, number, or risk of behaviors to achieve the desired effect or diminished
effect with continued behaviors at the same level of intensity, frequency, number, or risk
9. Giving up or limiting social, occupational, or recreational activities because of behavior
10. Distress, anxiety, restlessness, or irritability if unable to engage in the behaviors

B. Has significant personal and social consequences (such as loss of partner, occupation, or legal implications)

Note. Data proposed by Carnes (1991, 2005b).

Rosser’s (2007) study, a psychometric inventory that assessed compulsive sexual behavior was
validated with more than 1,000 patients.
In 2010 and 2011, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.)
work groups considered two diagnoses related to sex addiction. The Sexual and Gender Identity
Disorder Work Group considered hypersexual disorder, and the Addiction and Related Disorders
Work Group considered Internet addictive disorder.
Kafka (2010), writing on behalf of the Sexual and Gender Identify Disorder Work Group,
proposed the diagnosis of hypersexual disorder for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (5th ed.). The diagnosis did not require dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal,
but it incorporated other key aspects of addiction such as unsuccessful efforts to cut down, greater
use than intended, and serious social and occupational consequences (Table 4). Hypersexuality
can occur with a wide range of sexual behaviors, including cybersex addiction— the excessive
use of Internet pornography, chat rooms, and paid online sex—which is often regarded as the
crack cocaine of sexual compulsivity (Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, & Boies, 1999). Reid, Garos,
and Carpenter (2011) developed the Hypersexuality Behavior Inventory to assess and study the
diagnosis of hypersexuality.

TABLE 3
PATHOS Items

1. Do you often find yourself preoccupied with sexual thoughts? (Preoccupied)

2. Do you hide some of your sexual behavior from others? (Ashamed)
3. Have you ever sought help for sexual behavior you did not like? (Treatment)
4. Has anyone been hurt emotionally because of your sexual behavior? (Hurt)
5. Do you feel controlled by you sexual desire? (Out of control)
6. When you have sex, do you feel depressed afterwards? (Sad)
 80 ROSENBERG ET AL.

TABLE 4
Hypersexual Disorder Diagnostic Criteria

A) Over a period of at least six consecutive months, recurrent and intense sexual fantasies, sexual urges, or sexual
behaviors in association with four or more of the following five criteria:
A1) Excessive time consumed by sexual fantasies and urges, and by planning for and engaging in sexual
behavior.
A2) Repetitively engaging in these sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior in response to dysphoric mood
states (e.g., anxiety, depression, boredom, irritability).
A3) Repetitively engaging in sexual fantasies, urges or behaviors in response to stressful life events.
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

A4) Repetitive but unsuccessful efforts to control or significantly reduce these sexual fantasies, urges, and
behavior.
A5) Repetitively engaging in sexual behaviors while disregarding the risk for physical or emotional harm to
self or others.
B) There is clinically significant personal distress or impairment in social occupational or other important areas of
functioning associated with the frequency and intensity of the sexual fantasies, urges, and behaviors.
C) These sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior are not due to direct physiological effects of exogenous substances
(e.g., drugs of abuse or medications) or to manic episodes.
D) The person is at least 18 years of age.
Specify if: masturbation, pornography, sexual behavior with consenting adults, cybersex, telephone sex, strip
clubs
Specify if in remission: no distress, impairment, or recurring behavior and in an uncontrolled environment and
state duration of remission in months in a controlled environment.

Note. Proposed by Kafka (2010).

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) Addiction and Related
Disorders Work Group proposed a second diagnosis pertaining solely to the Internet. Internet
addiction disorder (Table 5) has classic addiction criteria such as tolerance, withdrawal, and
relapse, and may occur with any kind of compulsive Internet use, and is not limited to cybersex.
Hypersexuality and Internet addiction disorder were not accepted for inclusion in the main text
of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) and were considered for,
but not included in, the Appendix.

COMORBID FEATURES

Disorders related to sex addiction have been associated with affect dysregulation (Samenow,
2010), depression and anxiety (Bancroft, 2009; Kaplan & Krueger, 2010), impulsivity (Miner,
Raymond, Mueller, Lloyd, & Lim, 2009; Raymond, Coleman, & Miner, 2003), loneliness (Yoder,
Virden, & Amin, 2005), low self-worth and insecure attachment styles (Earle & Earle, 1995; Zapf,
Greiner, & Carroll, 2008); personal distress (Kafka & Hennen, 1999; Kingston & Firestone, 2008),
risk-taking behaviors such as substance abuse (Kaplan & Krueger, 2010; Sussman, 2007), and
self-hatred and shame (Kaplan & Krueger, 2010; Kort, 2004; Reid, Harper, & Anderson, 2009).
However, psychological distress is not always present with sex addiction.
Using the Mood and Sexuality Questionnaire in studies of 919 heterosexual men (Bancroft,
Janssen, Strong, Carnes, et al., 2003) and 662 gay men. Bancroft, Janssen, Strong, and Vukadi-
novic (2003) found that only a minority of the sample reported greater interest in sexual thoughts
or activities when depressed or feeling anxiety (Bancroft & Vukadinovic, 2004).
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 81

TABLE 5
Internet Addiction Diagnostic Criteria

A. Symptom criterion

All the following must be present:

Preoccupation with the Internet (thinks about previous online activity or anticipates next online session)

Withdrawal, as manifested by a dysphoric mood, anxiety, irritability, and boredom after several days without Internet
activity
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

At least one (or more) of the following:

Tolerance, marked increase in internet use required to achieve satisfaction

Persistent desire and/or unsuccessful attempts to control, cut back or discontinue Internet use

Continued excessive use of Internet despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological
problem likely to have been caused or exacerbated by Internet use

Loss of interests, previous hobbies, entertainment as a direct result of, and with the exception of, Internet use

Uses the Internet to escape or relieve a dysphoric mood (e.g. feelings of helplessness, guilt, anxiety)

B. Exclusion criterion

Excessive Internet use is not better accounted for by psychotic disorders or bipolar I disorder

C. Clinically significant impairment criterion

Functional impairments (reduced social, academic, working ability), including loss of a significant relationship, job,
educational or career opportunities

D. Course criterion

Duration of Internet addiction must have lasted for an excess of 3 months, with at least 6 hours of Internet usage
(nonbusiness/nonacademic) per day

Note. Proposed by Tao et al. (2010).

Using the Sexual Addiction Screening Test and the Experiences in Close Relationships-
Revised, Zapf, Greiner, and Carroll (2008) examined attachment styles in sexually addicted adult
men. Of the 52 participants examined, 32 were identified as sex addicts and 20 who were defined
as nonaddicts. Of the nonaddict population 40% reported a secure attachment style, whereas only
8% of the addict population reported a secure attachment style.
Reid and Carpenter (2009) investigated the differences between male hypersexual patients
(N = 152) and normative group responses to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2.
There were no significant deviations associated with hypersexuality.
In a small clinical sample that included sexual offenders, comorbidity was studied in 88 men
with paraphilias (i.e., socially deviant and aggressive forms of sexual impulsivity) and 32 men
with paraphilia-related disorder (i.e., normophilic hypersexuality). There were no differences in
the morbidity between paraphilic and normophilic groups in the categories of mood disorders
(71.6%), dysthymic disorder (55%), anxiety disorders (38.3%), social phobia disorder (21.6%),
psychoactive substance abuse (40.8%), alcohol abuse (30.0%), and impulse disorder not oth-
erwise specified (25%), and reckless driving (16.7%). However, attention deficit disorder was
 82 ROSENBERG ET AL.

significantly higher in paraphilia disorder (50%) than in paraphilia-related disorder (16.7%; Kafka
& Hennen, 2002).
Multiple addictions are common. Among a sample of 1,603 sex addicts, 69% of heterosexual
men, 79% of heterosexual women, and 80% of homosexual men have a lifetime prevalence
of other addictive and abusive behaviors, ranging from minor to serious. In addition, 40% of
heterosexual men, 40% of heterosexual women, and 60% of homosexual men engage in sexual
acting out while simultaneously involved in other addictive or abusive behaviors such as substance
abuse, gambling, or eating disorders (Carnes, Murray, & Charpentier, 2005).
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

In a study of pathological gamblers, Grant and Steinburg (2005) found that 19.6% of their
subjects also met the criteria for compulsive sexual behavior. Of the subjects meeting the criteria
for both disorders, 70% reported that compulsive sexual behavior had preceded their gambling
problems.

SPECULATIVE NEUROSCIENCE

There are at least three overlapping theories of chemical addiction, each emphasizing different
aspects of brain function:
1. The reward/executive function theory posits that alterations in the mesolimbic system
and medial frontal cortex perpetuate the addictive cycle. Activation of dopaminergic
neurons in ventral tegmental area projecting to the nucleus accumbens creates the drug
high and initiates addiction. Repeated exposure to drugs of abuse enhances glutaminergic
projections to the prefrontal cortex and alters neuroanatomy, gene expression, synaptic
transmissions, and forges neural pathways, which lead to addictive responses. This neu-
roplasticity found in the prefrontal cortex in rodents and correlative brain scans in humans
explains the addict’s relentless and self-destructive yearning, long after the initial rewards
are experienced, when the intellect and reasoning of the prefrontal cortex should clearly
recognize that the costs far outweigh the benefits (O’Brien, Volkow, & Li, 2006).
2. The neuropsychological literature has provided us with models in which addiction results
from vulnerabilities in the organism’s decision-making process. Redish, Jensen, and
Johnson (2008) developed an extensive computational model in which addictions develop
when fast, reward-based networks replace slower, more discriminating networks. Another
psychological theory comes from Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) work on optimal flow—a
mental state of full immersion and energized focus commonly experienced by professional
athletes when engaged in their sport. When the addict is immersed in the preparations,
quest, ruminations, and subsequent euphoria related to their drug of choice, he or she can
be viewed as living in a perverse and destructive form of optimal flow.
3. A third set of contemporary neurobiological theories involves cellular memory. Protein
kinase M zeta is a molecule that is necessary and sufficient for the maintenance of long-
term potentiation and long-term memory storage (Sacktor, 2011). Protein kinase M zeta
activity in the accumbens core is a critical cellular substrate for the maintenance of memo-
ries of reward cues. Interfering with this memory molecule causes rats to forget long-term
addiction-related cues. Environmental cues previously paired with morphine, cocaine or
high-fat food (but not opiate withdrawal symptoms) were abolished by inhibition of the
protein kinase C isoform protein kinase M zeta in the nucleus accumbens core of rats
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 83

(Li et al., 2011). A memory-extinction procedure that decreases drug craving is associated
with alternations in protein kinase M zeta cellular activity (Xue et al., 2012).
The neuroscience of addiction is not without its detractors. Psychiatrist Sally Satel eloquently
argued that the brain science is far from scientific (Satel & Lilienfeld, 2010). However, most
addiction specialists believe that the neurocircuitry theories explain and validate chemical addic-
tions. Proponents of behavioral addictions propose that these contemporary models of chemical
addiction apply to addictive behaviors.
Potenza (2006) and Tao and colleagues (2010) proposed similar neurobiological models for
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

problem gambling and Internet addictive disorder, respectively. In chromosomal linkage studies
of problem gambling—the only behavioral addiction that is accepted in the addiction category
of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), Potenza (2006) found
evidence for a reward deficiency model of lower normal activation of this mesolimbic structures
among pathological gamblers, noted by abnormalities in the D2A1 allele of the D2 dopamine
receptor gene.
Gearhardt, Grilo, DiLeone, Brownell, and Potenza (2010) and Wang, Volkow, Thanos, and
Fowler (2004) proposed a biological argument for food addiction. They argued that hyperpalat-
able, hedonic, and reinforcing foods can result in addictive eating by hijacking reward and
reasoning centers of the brain in vulnerable individuals. Gearhardt and colleagues (2010) cited
that animals given intermittent access to sugar exhibit behavioral and neurobiological indicators
of withdrawal and tolerance and rats consuming high-sugar and high-fat diets demonstrate re-
ward dysfunction associated with drug addiction, downregulation of striatal dopamine receptors
and compulsive eating despite shocks (Johnson & Kenny, 2010). In humans, diminished striatal
dopamine receptor availability and striatal dysfunction have been associated with obesity (Wang
et al., 2010) and weight gain (Stice, Spoor, Bohon, & Small, 2008).
It is conceivable that disorders related to sex addiction develop through similar neurobiological
mechanisms. Grant and Steinberg (2005) found compulsive sexual behavior occurred in 19.6% of
225 patients with problem gambling, suggesting similar biological and psychological processes
are associated with both addictive behaviors. In 70.5% of those with co-occurring disorders,
compulsive sexual behavior predated pathological gambling, suggesting that the sex addiction
and problem gambling may share similar fundamental brain dysfunctions. A unitary hypothesis is
supported by the fact that patients treated with dopaminergic agents for idiopathic Parkinsonism
commonly developed new onset pathological gambling and sexual compulsivity (Bostwick,
Hecksel, Stevens, Bower, & Ahlskog, 2009).
Genetic data may ultimately help explain abnormalities in sexual desire. In humans, the
heritability of sexually promiscuous behavior in both genders is proposed to be 33% on the basis
of monozygotic and dyzygotic twin studies (Zietsch, Verweij, Bailey, Wright, & Martin, 2010).
The effects of oxytocin and vasopressin may help explain fidelity and pair bonding (Aragona
et al., 2006; Carter, 1998; Depue & Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005; Fisher, Aron, Mashek, Li, &
Brown, 2002; Insel & Young, 2001; Melis & Argiolas, 1995). Vasopressin 1a gene (AVPRIA)
has been associated with marital satisfaction and pair-bonding in one study (Walum et al., 2008)
but not another (Cherkas, Oelsner, Mak, Valdes, & Spector, 2004). Irregularities of the dopamine
system may help explain excessive sexual behaviors. Genes mediating dopamine transmission,
specifically the D4DR receptor, are thought to be associated with seeking novel stimulation,
particularly when there are seven or more repeats in the allele (Chen, Burton, Greenberger, &
 84 ROSENBERG ET AL.

Dmitrieva, 1999; Ding et al., 2002; Harpending & Cochran, 2002; G. J. Wang et al., 2004).
Long alleles may predispose for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Li, Sham, Owen, & He,
2006), alcoholism (MacKillop, Menges, McGeary, & Lisman, 2007; Ray et al., 2008), financial
risk taking (Dreber et al., 2009), disinhibition and impulsivity (Congdon, Lesch, & Canli, 2008),
and initiating sexual activity (Eisenberg, 2007). Using self-reports of sexual behavior history and
buccal wash genotyping in 181 young adults, Garcia and colleagues (2010) found subjects with
at least one 7-repeat allele (7R+) in D4DR were more likely to have had a one-night stand and
found no significant differences in overall sexual infidelity.
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

The few brain imaging studies of normal human subjects during sexual arousal suggest a
posteroanterior organization in which the anterior lateral orbitofrontal cortex—a phylogenetically
recent structure—processes abstract reasoning, while the posterior lateral orbitofrontal cortex—a
phylogenetically older area—processes more basic erotic stimuli (Georgiadis, 2012; Sescousse,
Redoute, & Dreher, 2010). Positron emission tomography scan studies of sexual dimorphism
demonstrate that male arousal is more often associated with activation of the visual cortices of
the brain, even when the subjects’ eyes are closed (Georgiadis et al., 2010), while female arousal
is associated with stronger activity in left dorsal frontoparietal regions, including premotor areas
and posterior parietal areas (Georgiadis et al., 2009). During orgasm, male and female brain
functioning appears similar with activation in the anterior lobe of the cerebellar vermis and deep
cerebellar nuclei, and deactivations in the left ventromedial and orbitofrontal cortex. Although
and promising and intriguing, today’s positron emission tomography and functional magnetic
resonance imaging studies do not yet provide any clinical guidance in treating sexual compulsivity
but may help to understand the neurobiological mechanisms of one’s control and/or lack of control
over one’s sexual desires.
In a preliminary study of 16 men, Miner and colleagues (2009) used the Compulsive Sexual
Behavior Inventory and an impulse control task (computerized Go-No Go), and administered a
magnetic resonance imaging technique called diffusion tensor imaging to examine the potential
of white matter disorganization in the frontal lobes of men with compulsive sexual behavior.
The neuroimaging scans were inconclusive and inconsistent with neuroanatomical correlates of
impulse control disorders.
Pitchers and colleagues (2010) studied sexual behavior in male rats that were later exposed
to amphetamines and found that sexual behavior enhanced the amphetamine locomotor response
after 1 week of abstinence. Pitchers found morphological changes, increased dendritic spines in
the shell and core of the nucleus accumbens, after 1 week, but not after 1 day, after mating. This
growth of dendritic spines suggests a mechanism for how sexual behavior can induce long-lasting
neuroadaptations in the mesolimbic system, and how an abstinence period may induce changes
in the nucleus accumbens and subsequent enhanced conditioning for drug use. Not much clinical
relevance can be gleaned from one rat study, however, identifying neural plasticity as a result
of the interplay of sexual behavior and stimulant administration is an interesting finding with
potential relevance patients who suffer from drug abuse and compulsive sexuality.

TREATMENT

There are no significant placebo-controlled, double-blind studies of any psychotherapeutic or

biological approach for sex addiction or hypersexuality. In lieu of large-scale controlled studies,
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 85

the best practices for sex addiction are based upon numerous uncontrolled studies, case reports, a
sound theoretical framework, consensus among practicing clinicians, and expert opinion (Carnes,
1991; Earle & Earle, 1995; Kaplan & Krueger, 2010).
Regardless of the label given to these patients—compulsive, impulsive, hypersexual, or
addicted—in general, treatment consists of approaches that have been popularized for addiction
such as group and individual therapy, motivational interviewing, cognitive behavioral approaches
to identify triggers, dialectical behavioral techniques to manage cravings, relapse prevention
strategies, insight-oriented therapy to identify deeper causes, family therapy to resolve conflicts,
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

exercise and nutrition, treatment of comorbid mental illness and addictions, referral to appropri-
ate 12-step based recovery groups, and psychopharmacology aimed at diminishing dysfunctional
sexual behaviors, reducing cravings, improving the outcome during desired sexual experiences,
and treating associated psychiatric disorders.
Throughout the country, there are numerous inpatient and outpatient treatment centers using an
addiction model to treat sexual compulsivity. For an understating of the approaches to addiction,
see basic addiction texts such as Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders (3rd ed.), by Frances,
Miller, and Mack (2005). Carnes has developed a task-centered approach program with a series
of operationalized workbooks for sex addiction patients per se (Carnes, 2005a, 2009). These
workbooks provide homework assignments and readings for the first year of therapy. Sexual
behavior with partners and masturbation are tightly controlled and reintroduced in such a way
as to promote the patient’s healthy sexual goals and avoid triggers for relapse. A great emphasis
is placed on self-care—nutrition, physical exercise, rest, introspection, friendship, and healthy
living.
Long-term and multimodal psychotherapy may also be required to address the deeper causes of
sex addiction. Some theorists view sex addiction as an attachment disorder; therefore, psychoana-
lytic, object relations–oriented, interpersonal, and other modes of insight-oriented psychotherapy
may be indicated (Carnes & Adams, 2002). Most experienced clinicians would agree with Levine
(2012) in noting that sex addiction and related disorders result from a complex interplay of biol-
ogy, psychology and culture; therefore, clinicians need to address and skillfully mange the many
factors at play in causing and perpetuating problematic sexual excesses.
What may surprise novice clinicians is that sex addiction patients are generally not good at sex.
They function poorly in the bedroom. Sex addicts feverishly pursue their dysfunctional sexual
behaviors yet generally have sexual difficulties with intimate partners, healthy sexual encounters,
and/or stable relationships. Therefore, in addition to addiction treatment, they need sex and
conjoint therapy. Premature ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, anorgasmia, and sexual anorexia
(extended periods when the addict has no sexual activity) are common (Carnes, 1997). Masters,
Johnson, and Kolodny (1988), Kaplan (1988), and others have developed sex therapy for sexual
disorders; however, these behavioral interventions need to be modified when working with the
sexually addicted client. Sex therapy cannot commence until the patient has their dysfunctional
behaviors under control.
Another surprise for clinicians is how treating the sex addiction may worsen the marriage or
relationship. Steinglass (1980) noted how in families where there is alcoholism, alcohol may be
the glue that enables the couple to meld, tolerate dysfunctional marriages, and/or avoid personal
problems. Similarly, recovery from sex addiction puts new demands on marital relationships.
Significant others of sex addicts may suffer from sexual anorexia, sexual aversions, and/or sexual
dysfunctions, explaining why partners have found it acceptable to live with the frequent lack
 86 ROSENBERG ET AL.

of sexual intimacy. As discussed, sex addiction patients themselves often have sexual disorders.
Therefore, conjoint treatment is generally required to promote healthy relationships and satisfying
sexual experiences during recovery.
A critical aspect of treatment is addressing the package of addictions. Multiple addictions
are so common in this population that in the sex addiction community there is a term known
as addiction interaction disorder—which means that multiple addictive behaviors exist as part
of a single illness (Carnes et al., 2005). For example, a common addiction interaction disorder
is the combination of cocaine abuse, alcohol abuse, and excessive sexual behaviors (Rawson,
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

Washton, Domier, & Reiber, 2002). At most substance abuse treatment centers, individuals who
seek treatment for the combination of these behaviors would receive therapy for only substance
abuse and dependence. As a core addictive process, the unaddressed sex addiction will sometimes
be the reason an individual relapses with substances and sex.
Peer-support groups are helpful. There are five self-help fellowships modeled after Alcoholics
Anonymous: Sex Anonymous, Sexaholics Anonymous, Sex Addicts Anonymous, Sex and Love
Addicts Anonymous, and Sexual Compulsives Anonymous. Partners and couples may attend
S-Anon Family Groups, Co-Dependents of Sex Addicts, and Recovering Couples Anonymous.
All of these fellowships follow the Alcoholics Anonymous prototype of the 12 steps and 12
traditions, and recovery is viewed as a spiritual awakening. Even within the same fellowship,
individual groups vary according to the local culture, sexual orientation of the participants, and
the group’s approach to abstinence, celibacy, and masturbation. Therefore, the treating clinician
needs to familiarize herself with the local fellowship before making a recommendation to the
patient.
Pharmacologic treatment can be helpful. Traditional medical treatment of associated anxiety
and mood can be useful with the caveat that the clinician needs to be cognizant of the sexual side
effects which may help or hinder the sex addiction patient.
Citalopram demonstrated a moderate and significant reduction in masturbation and pornog-
raphy use (Muench et al., 2007; Tosto, Talarico, Lenzi, & Bruno, 2008). Open-label trials and
anecdotal reports support the use of medications that increase serotonin such as the selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitor and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor antidepressants to
reduce desire, arousal, and orgasm (Kafka, 2010). Antidepressants may be contraindicated if
there is a history of adverse reactions or medication-induced mania.
Anti-anxiety agents, other than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin/
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, may be helpful in sex addiction patients whose sexual acting
out is triggered by anxiety. Benzodiazepines need to be judiciously prescribed in the sex addiction
population because of their tendency towards multiple addictions, while in our clinical experi-
ence, nonaddictive anxiolytics such as buspirone may be useful. The treating clinician should
know that in theory, the prodopaminergic buspirone might increase sexual desire.
Antipsychotics may be indicated when disturbed realty testing, thought disorders, or severe
agitation are prominent clinical features. Antipsychotics may exert their benefit by reducing
sexual desire, arousal, and orgasm.
Sex addiction patients often present with high-risk and high-intensity sexual behaviors,
and patients may have a clinical presentation suggestive of bipolar disorder. Mood stabiliz-
ers and anti-impulsive mediations such as lithium, valproic acid, carbamazepine and lamot-
rigine may be useful, particularly when manic or impulsive features are prominent or when
promiscuity is a major presenting feature. The mood stabilizers are also associated with
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 87

sexual suppression and may therefore exert their benefit partly or entirely due to their sexual side
effects.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is frequently associated with sexual risk-taking. In
particular, patients who become absorbed in cybersex may demonstrate distractibility and search
for novel stimuli, which are characteristic signs of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Stimu-
lants, such as methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine, may be indicated for highly distractible
and thrill-seeking individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (oral communication,
Martin Kafka, February 2011), although the dopaminergic stimulants carry the risk of addiction
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

and increasing sexual desire. A nonaddictive medication, such as atomoxetine, may be useful.
Naltrexone, commonly used in addiction psychiatry for the treatment of chemical addictions,
has been reported to be effective in reducing problem gambling, and may be effective for some
patients with sex addiction. In a retrospective review of 19 adult men treated with naltrexone for
compulsive sexual behavior, 89% indicated a reduction in compulsive sexual behavior symptoms
(Raymond, Grant, & Coleman, 2010). A case report of an individual diagnosed with Internet
addiction disorder also reported a decrease in symptoms when treated with naltrexone (Bostwick
& Bucci, 2008). Grant noted that the opiate antagonist nalmefene decreases sexual compulsivity
to the same extent that the medication decreases compulsive gambling (Grant & Potenza, 2006).
Naltrexone, in general, decreases the hedonic experience of orgasm, and thereby may be helpful
in reducing addictive behavior, yet hurtful for healthy sexual relations (Holloway, 2012). The
prescribing physician should also be aware of the fact that theoretically, opiate antagonists are
known to increase sex hormones such as testosterone and can thereby increase sexual urges
(Bostwick et al., 2009).
Anti-androgens can dramatically diminish all phases of the sexual response cycle may be
indicated in extreme cases of sexual acting out (e.g., sentenced sex offenders). Guay (2009)
proposed combination treatment of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and antiandrogenic
treatments for refractory patients. Berlin and Meinecke (1981) have decades of experience in
using antiandrogens for sexual offenders.
Sex addiction patients may require prosexual drugs to enhance sexual function. As noted,
erectile dysfunction, impaired desire, sexual aversions, sexual anorexia, and anorgasmia are
common among sex addiction patients, particularly when they engage with long-standing partners
or in stable relationships. If patients are closely monitored, erectogenics may be prescribed for
primary, secondary, and/or situational erectile dysfunction.

SUMMARY

The American Society of Addiction Medicine has suggested that sex can be addictive (American
Society of Addiction Medicine, 2011). The International Classification of Diseases notes the
existence of a medical condition characterized by excessive sexual behavior (World Health
Organization, 2007). The American Psychiatric Association is more circumspect and has not yet
found sufficient data to support a sex addiction diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders.
While the diagnostic controversies persist, tens of thousands of patients with dysfunctional
and excessive sexual behaviors have gravitated toward clinicians who claim expertise in addic-
tion (personal communication, International Institute for Trauma and Addiction Professionals,
 88 ROSENBERG ET AL.

October 2011). With the first exposure to Internet pornography cited to be as young as age
11 years (Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2007), the number of patients presenting with compul-
sive sexuality may increase. Given the increased public awareness of sex addiction and Internet
addiction, many more patients are likely to seek help from the addiction community.
In our view, controlled studies are required and the issues are complex. Excessive sexual
behaviors may exist along a continuum from problematic to impulsive-compulsive to hypersexual
to addictive. Regardless of the terminology, dysfunctional and excessive sexuality progresses as
an illness in a way that conforms to elements of the addictive cycle and successful treatment often
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

uses addiction-based modalities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Martin Kafka, MD, Janniko Giorgiadis, PhD, and Stefanie Carnes, PhD for
their thoughtful comments.

REFERENCES

Aragona, B. J., Liu, Y., Yu, Y. J., Curtis, J. T., Detwiler, J. M., Insel, T. R., & Wang, Z. (2006). Nucleus accumbens
dopamine differentially mediates the formation and maintenance of monogamous pair bonds. Natural Neuroscience,
9, 133–139.
American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). (2011). Public policy statement on the definition of addiction.
Available at http://www.asam.org/for-the-public/definition-of-addiction
Bancroft, J. (2009). Human sexuality and its problems (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Elsevier.
Bancroft, J., Janssen, E., Strong, D., Carnes, L., Vukadinovic, Z., & Long, J. S. (2003). The relation between mood and
sexuality in heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 217–230.
Bancroft, J., Janssen, E., Strong, D., & Vukadinovic, Z. (2003). The relation between mood and sexuality in gay men.
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 231–242.
Bancroft, J., & Vukadinovic, Z. (2004). Sexual addiction, sexual compulsivity, sexual impulsivity, or what? Toward a
theoretical model. The Journal of Sex Research, 41, 225–234.
Berlin, F. S., & Meinecke, C. F. (1981). Treatment of sex offenders with antiandrogenic medication: Conceptualization,
review of treatment modalities and preliminary findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 601–607.
Bostwick, J. M., & Bucci, J. A. (2008). Internet sex addiction treated with Naltrexone. Mayo Clinical Proceedings, 83,
226–230.
Bostwick, J. M., Hecksel, K. A., Stevens, S. R., Bower, J. H., & Ahlskog, J. E. (2009). Frequency of new-onset
pathologic compulsive gambling or hypersexuality after drug treatment of idiopathic Parkinson Disease. Mayo Clinic
Proceedings, 84, 310–316.
Carnes, P. J. (1991). Don’t call it love: Recovering from sexual addiction. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Carnes, P. J. (1997). Sexual anorexia: Overcoming sexual self-hatred. Center City, MN: Hazelden.
Carnes, P. J. (2005a). Facing the shadow: Starting sexual and relationship recovery. Carefree, AZ: Gentle Path Press.
Carnes, P. J. (2005b). Sexual addiction. In B. J. Sadock, V. A. Sadock, & H. I. Kaplan (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of
psychiatry. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Carnes, P. J. (2009). Recovery zone, Volume 1: Making changes that last—The internal tasks. Carefree, AZ: Gentle Path
Press.
Carnes, P. J., & Adams, K. M. (2002). Clinical management of sex addiction. New York, NY: Routledge.
Carnes, P. J., Green, B. A., Merlo, L. J., Polles, A., Carnes, S., & Gold, M. S. (2011). PATHOS: A brief screening application
for assessing sexual addiction. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 6, 29–34. doi: 10.1097/ADM.0b013e3182251a28.
Carnes, P. J., Murray, R., & Charpentier, L. (2005). Bargains with chaos: Sex addicts and addiction interaction disorder.
Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 12, 79–120.
Carter, C. S. (1998). Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 779–818.
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 89

Chen, C. S., Burton, M., Greenberger, E., & Dmitrieva, J. (1999). Population migration and the variation of dopamine
D4 receptor (DRD4) allele frequencies around the globe. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 309–324.
Cherkas, L. F., Oelsner, E. C., Mak, Y. T., Valdes, A., & Spector, T. D. (2004). Genetic influences on female infidelity
and number of sexual partners in humans: A linkage and association study of the role of the vasopressin receptor gene
(AVPR1A). Twin Research, 7, 649–658.
Congdon, E., Lesch, K. P., & Canli, T. (2008). Analysis of DRD4 and DAT polymorphisms and behavioral inhibition in
healthy adults: implication for impulsivity. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics,
147B, 27–32.
Cooper, A., Putnam, D. A., Planchon, L. A., & Boies, S. C. (1999). Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the
net. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 6, 79–104.
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: HarperPerennial.
Depue, R. A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J. V. A. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for
conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Behavioral and Brain Science, 28, 313–395.
Ding, Y., Chi, H., Grady, D. L., Morishima, A., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., . . . Moyzis, R. K. (2002). Evidence of positive
selection acting at the human dopamine receptor D4 gene locus. PNAS, 99, 309–314.
Dreber, A., Apicella, C. L., Eisenberg, D. T. A., Garcia, J. R., Zamore, R. S., Lum, J. K., & Campbell, B. (2009). The 7R
polymorphism in the dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) is associated with financial risk-taking in men. Evolution
and Human Behavior, 30, 85–92.
Earle, R. H., & Earle, M. R. (1995). Sex addiction: Case studies and management. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
Eisenberg, D. T. A., Campbell, B., MacKillop, J., Modi, M., Dang, D., Lum, J. K., & Wilson, D. W. (2007). Polymorphisms
in the dopamine D4 and D2 receptor genes and reproductive and sexual behaviors. Evolutionary Psychology, 5,
696–715.
Ewing, J. A. (1984). Detecting alcoholism: The CAGE questionnaire. JAMA, 252, 1905–1907.
Fisher, H. E., Aron, A., Mashek, D., Li, H., & Brown, L. L. (2002). Defining the brain systems of lust, romantic attraction,
and attachment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 413–419.
Frances, R. A., Miller, S. I., and Mack, A. H. (2005). Clinical textbook of addictive disorders (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Garcia, J. R., MacKillop, J., Aller, E. L., Merriwether, A. M., Wilson, D. S., & Lum, J. K. (2010). Associations between
dopamine D4 receptor gene variation with both infidelity and sexual promiscuity. PLoS One, 5(11), e14162. Retrieved
from http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.prone.0014162
Gearhardt, A. N., Grilo, C. M., DiLeone, R. J., Brownell, K. D., & Potenza, M. N. (2010). Can food be addictive? Public
health and policy implications. Addiction, 106, 1208–1212.
Georgiadis, J. R. (2012). Doing it . . . wild? On the role of the cerebral cortex in human sexual activity. Socioaffective
Neuroscience & Psychology, 2, 17337. doi: 10.3402/snp.v2i0.17337
Georgiadis, J. R., Farrell, M., Boessen, R., Denton, D., Gavrilescu, M., Kortekaas, R., . . . Egan, G. F. (2010). Dynamic
subcortical blood flow during male sexual activity with ecological validity: A perfusion fMRI study. NeuroImage, 50,
208–216.
Georgiadis, J. R., Reinders, A. A., Paans, A. M., Renken, R., & Kortekaas, R. (2009). Men versus women on sexual brain
function: Prominent differences during tactile genital stimulation, but not during orgasm. Human Brain Mapping, 30,
3089–3101.
Goodman, A. (1998). Sexual addiction: An integrated approach. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Grant, J. E., & Potenza, M. N. (2006). Compulsive aspects of impulse-control disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North
America, 29, 539–550.
Grant, J. E., & Steinberg, M. A. (2005). Compulsive sexual behavior and pathological gambling. Sexual Addiction &
Compulsivity, 12, 235–244.
Guay, D. R. (2009). Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders. Clinical Therapy, 31(1), 1–31.
Harpending, H., & Cochran, G. (2002). In our genes. PNAS, 99, 10–12.
Holloway, K. S. (2012). Opioid mediation of learned sexual behavior. Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology, 2,
14874. doi: 10.3402/snp.v2i0.14874
Insel, T. R., & Young, L. J. (2001). The neurobiology of attachment. Nature Review Neuroscience, 2, 129–136.
Johnson, P. M., & Kenny, P. J. (2010). Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive
eating in obese rats. Nature, 13, 635–641.
Kafka, M. P. (2010). Hypersexual disorder: A proposed diagnosis for DSM-V. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 377–400.
 90 ROSENBERG ET AL.

Kafka, M. P., & Hennen, J. (1999). The paraphilia-related disorders: An empirical investigation of nonparaphilic hyper-
sexuality disorders in outpatients males. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 25, 305–319.
Kafka, M. P., & Hennen, J. (2002). A DSM-IV Axis I comorbidity study of males (N = 120) with paraphilias and
paraphilia-related disorders. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment, 14, 349–366.
Kaplan, H. S. (1988). Intimacy disorders and sexual panic states. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 14, 3–12.
Kaplan, M. S., & Krueger, R. B. (2010). Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of hypersexuality. Journal of Sex Research,
47, 181–198.
Kingston, D. A., & Firestone, P. (2008). Problematic hypersexuality: A review of conceptualization and diagnosis. Sexual
Addiction & Compulsivity, 15, 284–310.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: W. B.
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

Saunders.
Kort, J. (2004). Covert cultural sexual abuse of gay male teenagers contributing to etiology of sexual addiction. Sexual
Addiction & Compulsivity, 11, 287–300.
Langstrom, N., & Hanson, R. K. (2006). High rates of sexual behavior in the general population: Correlates and predictors.
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 37–52.
Levine, S. B. (2010). What is sexual addiction? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 36, 261–275.
Levine, S. B. (2012). Problematic sexual excesses. Neuropsychiatry, 2(1), 69–79.
Li, D., Sham, P. C., Owen, M. J., & He, L. (2006). Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system
genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Human Molecular Genetics, 15, 2276–2284.
Li, Y., Xue, Y., He, Y., Li, F., Xue, L., Xu, C., . . . Lu, L. (2011). Inhibition of PKM in nucleus accumbens core abolishes
long-term drug reward memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 5436–5446.
MacKillop, J., Menges, D. P., McGeary, J. E., & Lisman, S. A. (2007). Effects of craving and DRD4 VNTR genotype on the
relative value of alcohol: An initial human laboratory study. Behavioral and Brain Function, 11. doi: 10.1186/1744-
9081-3-11
Masters, W. H., Johnson, V. E., & Kolodny, R. (1988). Masters and Johnson on sex and human loving. New York, NY:
Little, Brown and Company.
Melis, M. R., & Argiolas, A. (1995). Dopamine and sexual behavior. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, 19(1), 19–38.
Mick, T. M., & Hollander, E. (2006). Impulsive-compulsive sexual behavior. CNS Spectrum, 11, 944–955.
Miner, M. H., Coleman, E., Center, B. A., Ross, M., & Simon Rosser, B. R. (2007). The Compulsive Sexual Behavior
Inventory: Psychometric properties. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 579–587.
Miner, M. H., Raymond, N., Mueller, B. A., Lloyd, M., & Lim, K. O. (2009). Preliminary investigation of the impulsive and
neuroanatomical characteristics of compulsive sexual behavior. Psychiatric Research: Neuroimaging, 174, 146–151.
Muench, F., Morgenstern, J., Hollander, E., Irwin, T. W., O’Leary, A., Parsons, J. T., . . . Lai, B. (2007). The conse-
quences of compulsive sexual behavior: The preliminary reliability and validity of the Compulsive Sexual Behavior
Consequences Scale. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 14, 207–220.
O’Brien, C. P., Volkow, N., & Li, T.-K. (2006) What’s in a word? Addiction versus dependence in DSM-V. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 764–765.
Orford, J. (1978). Hypersexuality: Implications for a theory of dependence. British Journal of Addiction, 73, 299–303.
Pitchers, K. K., Balfour, M. E., Lehman, M. N., Richtand, N. M., Yu, L., & Coolen, L. M. (2010). Neuroplasticity in the
mesolimbic system induced by natural reward and subsequent reward abstinence. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 872–879.
Potenza, M. N. (2006). Should addictive disorders include non-substance related conditions? Addiction, 101(s1), 142–151.
doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01591.x.
Rawson, R. A., Washton, A., Domier, C. P., & Reiber, C. (2002). Drugs and sexual effects: role of drug type and gender.
Journal Substance Abuse Treatment, 22, 103–108.
Ray, L. A., Bryan, A., MacKillop, J., McGeary, J., Hesterberg, K., & Hutchison, K. E. (2008). The dopamine D4 receptor
(DRD4) gene exon III polymorphism, problematic alcohol use and novelty seeking: Direct and mediated genetic
effects. Addiction Biology, 14, 238–244.
Raymond, N. C., Coleman, E., & Miner, M. H. (2003). Psychiatric comorbidity and compulsive-impulsive traits in
compulsive sexual behavior. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44, 370–380.
Raymond, N. C., Grant, J. E., & Coleman, E. (2010). Augmentation with naltrexone to treat compulsive sexual behavior:
A case series. Annuals of Clinical Psychiatry, 22(1), 56–62.
Redish, A. D., Jensen, S., & Johnson, A. (2008). A unified framework for addiction: Vulnerabilities in the decision
process. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31, 415–487.
 EVALUATION AND TREATMENT OF SEX ADDICTION 91

Reid, R. C., & Carpenter, B. N. (2009). Exploring relationships of psychopathology in hypersexual patients using the
MMPI-2. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 35, 294–310.
Reid, R. C., Garos, S., & Carpenter, B. N. (2011). Reliability, validity, and psychometric development of the Hypersexual
Behavior Inventory in an outpatient sample of men. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 30–51.
Reid, R. C., Harper, J. M., & Anderson, E. H. (2009). Coping strategies used by hypersexual patients to defend against
the painful effects of shame. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 16, 125–138.
Rush, B. (1812). Medical inquiries and observation upon the diseases of the mind. Philadelphia, PA: Kimber & Richardson.
Sacktor, T. C. (2011). How does PKMzeta maintain long-term memory? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12, 9–15.
Samenow, C. P. (2010). Classifying problematic sexual behaviors—It’s all in the name. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity,
17, 3–6.
Downloaded by [Sistema Integrado de Bibliotecas USP] at 09:32 22 December 2017

Satel, S., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2010). Singing the brain disease blues. AJOB Neuroscience, 1(1), 46–54.
Sescousse, G., Redoute, J., & Dreher, J. C. (2010). The architecture of reward value coding in the human orbitofrontal
cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 13095–13104.
Singer Kaplan, H. (1988). The illustrated manual of sex therapy. New York, NY: Bruner Meisel.
Steinglass, P. (1980). A life history model of the alcoholic family. Family Process, 19, 211–226.
Stice, E., Spoor, S., Bohon, C., & Small, D. H. (2008). Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is
moderated by Taq1A A1 allele. Nature, 322, 449–452.
Sussman, S. (2007). Sexual addiction among teens: A review. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 14, 257–278.
Tao, R., Huang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., & Li, M. (2010). Proposed diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction.
Addiction, 105, 556–564.
Tosto, G., Talarico, G., Lenzi, G. L., & Bruno, G. (2008). Effect of citalopram in treating hypersexuality in an Alzheimer’s
disease case. Neurological Science, 29, 269–270.
Træen, B., Spitznogle, K., & Beverfjord, A. (2004). Attitudes and use of pornography in the Norwegian population 2002.
Journal of Sex Research, 41, 193–200.
von Krafft-Ebing, R. (1965). Psychopathia sexualis. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. (Original work published
1886).
Walum, H., Westberg, L., Henningsson, S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., Igl, W., . . . Lichtenstein, P. (2008). Genetic
variation in the vasopressin receptor 1a gene (AVPR1A) associates with pair-bonding behavior in humans. PNAS,
105, 14153–14156.
Wang, E., Ding, Y., Flodman, P., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., Grady, D. L., . . . Moyzis, R. K. (2004). The genetic
architecture of selection at the human dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene locus. American Journal of Human
Genetics, 74, 931–944.
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Logan, J., Pappas, N. R., Wong, C. T., Zhu, W., . . . Fowler, J. S. (2010). Brain dopamine
and obesity. Lancet, 357, 354–357.
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Thanos, P. K., & Fowler, J. S. (2004). Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as
assessed by neurofunctional imaging: A concept review. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 23(3), 39–53.
Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national
sample of youth Internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247–257.
World Health Organization. (2007). International classification of diseases (10th ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
Xue, Y. X., Luo, Y. X., Wu, P., Shi, H. S., Xue, L. F., Chen, C., . . . Lu, L. (2012). A memory retrieval-extinction
procedure to prevent drug craving and relapse. Science, 336, 241–254.
Yoder, V. C., Virden, T. B., & Amin, K. (2005). Internet pornography and loneliness: An association? Sexual Addiction
& Compulsivity, 12, 19–44.
Zapf, J. L., Greiner, J., & Carroll, J, (2008). Attachment styles and male sex addiction. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity,
15, 158–175.
Zietsch, B. P., Verweij, K. J. H., Bailey, J. M., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2010). Genetics and environmental
influences on risky sexual behaviour and its relationship with personality. Behavior Genetics, 40(1), 12–21.