SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

OF CHEMISTRY
[NCERT]
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1. INTRODUCTION

2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

3. UNCERTAINITY IN MEASUREMENTS

4. LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

5. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

6. ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASS

7. MOLE CONCEPT

8. LIMITING REAGENT

9. CONCENTRATION TERMS
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or separate to form other
substances, and how substances interact with energy.

▪ The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass.

▪ All matter is made up of substances called elements, which have specific chemical and physical properties and
cannot be broken down into other substances through ordinary chemical reactions.

▪ All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can measure
without changing the composition of the sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space
occupied by a sample).

▪ Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances; they include
its flammability and susceptibility to corrosion.

▪ Physical properties can be extensive or intensive. Extensive properties vary with the amount of the substance and
include mass, weight, and volume. Intensive properties, in contrast, do not depend on the amount of the substance;
they include color, melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
▪ SI system of units is the short name for ‘International System of Units.’ It was originally named in French as
“Systeme Internationale d’Unite’s. SI system of units is the international system of units adopted for the measurement
of fundamental and derived physical quantities.

▪ Before the advent of the SI systems of units, different countries used different systems of units for measurements like
CGS, MKS, and FPS.

▪ Fundamental Units in SI System

There are seven fundamental or basic physical quantities in SI systems that do not depend on any other physical
quantities. The units of these quantities are called as fundamental or basic units. These seven physical quantities along
with their units and symbol are:

1.Length, unit: meter, symbol: m

2.Mass, kilogram, kg
3.Time, second, s
4.Temperature, kelvin, K
5.Electric current, ampere, A
6.Luminous intensity, candela, cd
7. Amount of substance, mole, mol
 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
▪ Derived Units in SI System of Units
The physical quantities derived from fundamental quantities are called as derived quantities and their units are
called as derived units. There are many derived physical quantities; some of them are given below:
1.Force, newton, N
2.Work, Energy, joule, J
3.Power, watt, W
4.Electric potential, volt, V
5.Electric resistance, ohm, Ω
6.Electric charge, coulomb, C
7.Frequency, hertz, Hz
8.Velocity or speed, m/s
9.Acceleration, m/s2
10.Magnetic induction, tesla, T
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
▪ Scientific notation (also referred to as scientific form or standard index form, or standard form in the UK) is a
way of expressing numbers that are too big or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form.

▪ EXAMPLES :

• 1 =100
• 10 = 1 x 10¹
• 100 = 1 x 10²
• 1000 = 1 x 10³
• 10000 = 1 x104
• 100000 = 1 x105

• 0.00000078 = 7.8 x10-7

• 676,000,000,000 = 6.76 x1011
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
▪ In chemistry, Significant figures are the digits of value which carry meaning towards the resolution of the
measurement.

▪ The term “significant figures” refers to the number of important single digits (0 to 9 inclusive) in the coefficient
of expression in the scientific notation. The number of significant figures in the expression indicates the precision
with which an engineer or scientist indicates a quantity.

Following are the significant figures rules that govern the determination of significant figures:
1.Those digits which are non-zero are significant.
For example, in 6575 cm there are four significant figures and in 0.543 there are three significant figures.
2.If any zero precedes the non-zero digit then it is not significant. The preceding zero indicates the location of the
decimal point, in 0.005 there is only one and the number 0.00232 has 3 figures.
3.If there is a zero between two non-zero digits then it is also a significant figure.
For example; 4.5006 have five significant figures.
4.Zeroes at the end or on the right side of the number are also significant.
For example; 0.500 has three significant figures.
5.Counting the number of objects for example 5 bananas 10 oranges have infinite figures as these are inexact
numbers.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
❑ Significant Figures Examples
The numbers in boldface are the significant figures.
•4308 – 4 significant figures
•40.05 – 4 significant figures
•470,000 – 2 significant figures
•4.00 – 3 significant figures
•0.00500 – 3 significant figures

Precision
The closeness of two or more quantities to each other is called precision. The level of measurement
that gives the same result when repeated.

Accuracy
It is the level of measurement that gives true as well as consistent results (i.e. it has no systematic
and random errors). The observed results are in agreement with the true results.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES [ROUNDING OFF RULES]
While limiting the result to required number of significant figures , one has to keep in mind the following points for
rounding off the numbers:

1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one. For example,
1.386. If we have to remove 6, we have to round it to 1.39.

2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed. For example, 4.334 if 4
is to be removed, then the result is rounded upto 4.33.

3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the preceding number is not changed if it is an even number but it
is increased by one if it is an odd number. For example, if 6.35 is to be rounded by removing 5, we have to
increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4 as the result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded off it is rounded off to 6.2.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS - CONVERSION
 LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Antoine Lavoisier
RICHER (1744)
(1794)
AVOGADRO’S LAW LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTION

Joseph Proust
(1799)
AMEDEO AVOGADRO

GAY LUSSAC’S LAW JOHN DALTON LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION

GAY LUSSAC (1804)
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS:

The law of conservation of mass states that “mass in an isolated system is neither created nor destroyed by chemical
reactions or physical transformations”. According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a
chemical reaction must equal the mass of the reactants.

If heating 10.0 grams of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produces 4.4 g of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 5.6 g of calcium oxide
(CaO), show that these observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

Solution:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Mass of the reactants = 10.0 g of CaCO3
10.0g of reactant
Mass of the products=4.4g of CO2+5.6g of CaO=10.0g of products
Mass of the reactants=Mass of the products
10.0g of CaCO3=4.4g of CO2+5.6g of CaO
10.0g of reactant=10.0g of products
Because the mass of the reactant is equal to the mass of the products, the observations are in agreement with the law of
conservation of mass.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTION:
The law of constant proportions states that “chemical compounds are made up of elements that are present in a fixed ratio by mass”. This
implies that any pure sample of a compound, no matter the source, will always consist of the same elements that are present in the same ratio
by mass. The law of constant proportions is often referred to as Proust’s law or as the law of definite proportions.

(a) 1.08 gram of Cu- wire was allowed to react with HNO3. The resulting solution was dried and ignited when 1.35 gram of CuO was
obtained.
(b) In another experiment 2.3 gram of CuO was heated in presence of H2, then 1.84 gram of Cu is obtained.
Show that the above data follows law of constant proportion .
Solution-
Cu + HNO3 ——–> Cu(NO3)2 ———–> CuO
1.08 gram 1.35 gram
a) 1.35 gram CuO contains Cu = 1.08 gram
100 gram CuO contains Cu = 1.08 X100/1.35 =80 gram
% of Cu in CuO =80%
% of O in CuO =(100-80) =20%
b) CuO + H2 ——> Cu + H2O
2.3 gram 1.84 gram
2.3 gram CuO contains Cu = 1.84 gram
100 gram CuO contains Cu = 1.84 X100/2.3 =80 gram
% of Cu in CuO =80%
% of O in CuO =(100-80) =20%
% of Cu in both the cases is same .So data follows law of constant proportion.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS:
Law of multiple proportions states that “when two elements combine with each other to form more than one compound, the weights of one
element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small whole numbers.”

Two different compounds are formed by the elements carbon and oxygen. The first compound contains 42.9% by mass carbon and
57.1% by mass oxygen. The second compound contains 27.3% by mass carbon and 72.7% by mass oxygen. Show that the data are
consistent with the law of multiple proportions.

Solution
The law of multiple proportions is the third postulate of Dalton's atomic theory. It states that the masses of one element which combine with a
fixed mass of the second element are in a ratio of whole numbers.
Therefore, the masses of oxygen in the two compounds that combine with a fixed mass of carbon should be in a whole number ratio. In 100
grams of the first compound (100 is chosen to make calculations easier), there are 57.1 grams oxygen and 42.9 grams carbon. The mass of
oxygen (O) per gram of carbon (C) is:
57.1 g O / 42.9 g C = 1.33 g O per g C
In the 100 grams of the second compound, there are 72.7 grams of oxygen (O) and 27.3 grams of carbon (C). The mass of oxygen per gram
of carbon is:
72.7 g O / 27.3 g C = 2.66 g O per g C
Dividing the mass O per g C of the second (larger value) compound:
2.66 / 1.33 = 2

This means that the masses of oxygen that combine with carbon are in a 2:1 ratio. The whole-number ratio is consistent with the law of
multiple proportions.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTIONS:

The law of reciprocal proportions states that, "If two different elements combine separately with a fixed mass of a third
element, the ratio of the masses in which they do so are either the same as or a simple multiple of the ratio of the masses in
which they combine with each other".

For example, 3 g of C react with 1 g of H to form methane.

Also, 8 g of O react with 1 g of H to form water.
The mass ratio of C:O=3:8.

In the same way, 12 g of C react with 32 g of O to form CO2.

The mass ratio of C:O = 12:32 = 3:8.
The mass ratio in which C and O combine with each other is the same as the mass ratio in which they separately combine with a fixed mass
of H.

Similarly, 12 g of C react with 16 g of O to form CO.

Here, the mass ratio of C:O = 12:16 = 3:4.
The mass ratio in which they separately react with a fixed mass of H is 3:8.
The ratio of the two ratios is 3/4 / 3/8= 8/4 = 2:1.

Here, the ratio in which C and O combine with each other is twice the ratio in which they separately combine with a fixed mass of H.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW OF GASEOUS VOLUMES:
This law, formulated by Gay Lussac, states that, "the ratio between the volumes of gaseous reactants and products can be
expressed in simple whole numbers."

10 litres of propane[C3H8][60%] and Butane[C4H10][40%] is burnt. Calculate the total volume of carbon dioxide
formed. Combustion reactions of the mixture are represented as –

C3H8 + 5O2 -----> 3CO2 + 4H2O

2C4H10 + 13O2 --------> 8CO2 + 10H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O
6000 mL of propane (C3H8) gives 3 X 6000 = 18000 ml CO2
4000 mL of butane (C4H10) gives 8 X 4000/2 = 16000 ml of CO2
Total carbon dioxide produced = 34000 ml
So, when 10 litres of the mixture is burnt = 34 litres of CO2 is produced.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
AVOGADRO’S LAW:
Avogadro’s law, states that “under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases
contain an equal number of molecules.” Another statement is, "Volume is directly proportional to the number of
moles.“

The volume increases as the number of moles increases. It does not depend on the sizes or the masses of the molecules.
V∝n, where V is the volume, and n is the number of moles.
V/n=k, where k is a proportionality constant.
We can rewrite this as:
V1/n1=V2/n2
A 6.00 L sample at 25.0 °C and 2.00 atm contains 0.500 mol of gas. If we add 0.250 mol of gas at the same pressure and
temperature, what is the final total volume of the gas?

Solution
The formula for Avogadro's law is:
V1/n1=V2/n2
V1=6.00 L;n1=0.500 mol
V2=?;mmln2=0.500 mol + 0.250 mol = 0.750 mol
V2=V1×n2/n1
V2=6.00 L×0.750mol/0.500mol=9.00 L
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which were indivisible and indestructible. He
also stated that all the atoms of an element were exactly the same, but the atoms of different elements differ in size and mass.
Postulates of Dalton's atomic theory
The important features of the Dalton's Atomic theory are listed,
(1) Every matter is made up of very small particles known as atoms.
(2) Atoms are the ultimate particles of matter which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction & cannot be further
subdivided into smaller particles.
(3) All atoms of a particular element are identical in all respects. This means that they have same mass, size & also same
chemical properties
(4) Atoms of different elements have different masses, sizes and also chemical properties.
(5) Atoms are the smallest particles of matter which can take part in chemical combination.
(6) Atoms of the same or different elements combine in small whole number ratios to form molecules of a compound.
(7) The relative number & kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
(8) Atoms of two different elements may combine in different ratios to form more than one compound. For example, carbon
& oxygen may combine to form
carbon monoxide (CO) & carbon dioxide (CO2) in which the ratios of the combining atoms (C and O) are 1 : 1 and 1 : 2
respectively.
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY - DRAWBACKS
❑ Drawbacks of Dalton's atomic theory
Some of the drawbacks of the Dalton's atomic theory of matter are given below :
(1) According to Dalton's atomic theory, atoms were thought to be indivisible. But it is now known that atoms can be further
divided into still smaller particles called electrons, protons & neutrons.
(2) Dalton's atomic theory said that all the atoms of an element have exactly the same mass. But it is now known that atoms of
the same element can have slightly different masses, as in case of isotopes.
(3) Dalton's atomic theory said that atoms of different elements have different masses. But it is now known that even atoms of
different elements can have the same mass as in case of isobars.
(4) Substances made up of the same kind of atoms may have different properties. For example, charcoal, graphite & diamond
are all made up of carbon atoms but have different physical properties.
(5) The ratio in which the different atoms combine to form compound may be fixed and integral but not be simple. For example,
sugar (sucrose) molecule (C12H22O11) contains C, H & O in the ratio 12 : 22 : 11 which is integral and fixed but not simple. The
modifications, as given above, are called the postulates of "modern atomic theory" .
 ATOMIC MASS & MOLECULAR MASS
What is Atomic Mass?
Atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than an atom of carbon taken as 12.
One atomic mass unit is equal to one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon 12 isotope. The atomic mass of an element is
the average relative mass of its atoms as compared to an atom of carbon 12 taken as 12.
Gram Atomic Masses
The atomic masses of elements expressed in grams is their gram atomic masses. For eg: the atomic mass of oxygen is 16
amu.

∴ Gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 g.

Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance is the number of times the molecule of the substance is heavier than one-twelfth the mass
of an atom of carbon -12. Or, the molecular mass is equal to the sum of its atomic masses of all the atoms present in one
molecule of a substance. For eg: Water (H2O)

Gram Molecular Mass

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is the gram molecular mass. For eg: Molecular mass of oxygen = 32u
∴ Gram molecular mass of oxygen = 32 g
 EQUIVALENT WEIGHT
Equivalent Weight
We define the equivalent weight of a substance (element or compound) as:
“The number of parts by weight of it, that will combine with or displace directly or indirectly 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen, 16 parts by
weight of oxygen, 35.5 parts by weight chlorine or the equivalent parts by weight of another element”.

It is important to know that the equivalent weight of any substance is dependent on the reaction in which it takes part. Equivalent weight is a
relative quantity so it does not have any unit. When we express the equivalent weight of a substance in grams, we call it Gram Equivalent
Weight (GWE).

How to Calculate Equivalent Weight?

Equivalent weight = Molar mass / Valence factor

(The Valence factor for a base = acidity of the base, the Valence factor for an acid = basicity of the acid and the Valence factor for an
element = valency)
Titration

Titration is a procedure in which we can determine the concentration of an unknown solution with the help of solution, the concentration of
which we know. In this procedure, we determine the concentration of solution A by adding carefully measured volumes of a solution of
known concentration B. We continue adding these solutions until the reaction of A with B is just complete.

Law of Equivalence

Titration is based on the Law of Equivalence. This law states that,

“At the endpoint of a titration, volumes of the two titrants reacted have the same number of equivalents or milliequivalents”
 MOLE CONCEPT
The mole concept is a convenient method of expressing the amount of a substance. Any measurement can be broken down
into two parts – the numerical magnitude and the units that the magnitude is expressed in. For example, when the mass of a
ball is measured to be 2 kilograms, the magnitude is ‘2’ and the unit is ‘kilogram’. When dealing with particles at an atomic
(or molecular) level, even one gram of a pure element is known to contain a huge number of atoms. This is where the mole
concept is widely used. It primarily focuses on the unit known as a ‘mole’, which is a count of a very large number of
particles.

What is a Mole?
In the field of chemistry, a mole is defined as the amount of a substance that contains exactly 6.02214076 * 1023 ‘elementary
entities’ of the given substance.

The number 6.02214076*1023 is popularly known as the Avogadro constant and is often denoted by the symbol ‘NA’. The
elementary entities that can be represented in moles can be atoms, molecules, monoatomic/polyatomic ions, and other
particles (such as electrons).

The number of moles of a substance in a given pure sample can be represented by the following formula:

n = N/NA

Where n is the number of moles of the substance (or elementary entity), N is the total number of elementary entities in the
sample, and NA is the Avogadro constant.
 MOLE CONCEPT - EXAMPLES
Q: Calculate the number of moles in each of the following:

392 grams of sulphuric acid

44.8 litres of carbon dioxide at STP
6.022 x 1023 molecules of oxygen

Solution:

1) 1 mole of H2SO4= 98 g
Thus, 98 g of H2SO4= 1 mole of H2SO4
392 g of H2SO4 = 4 moles of H2SO4

2) 1 mole of CO2 = 22.4 litres at STP

i.e. 22.4 litres of CO2 at STP = 1 mole
44.8 litres of CO2 at STP = 2 moles CO2

3) 1 mole of O2 molecules = 6.022 x 1023 molecules.

6.022 x 1023 molecules = 1 mole of oxygen molecules.
 LIMITING REAGENT
The limiting reagent (or limiting reactant or limiting agent) in a chemical reaction is the substance that is totally
consumed when the chemical reaction is completed. The amount of product formed is limited by this reagent, since the
reaction cannot continue without it.

To determine the limiting reagent, first, we must be aware of the amount of all reactants and mole ratio of reactants. If the
ratio of moles of reactant A with respect to reactant B is greater than the ratio of the moles of A to moles of B for a balanced
chemical equation then B is the limiting reactant.
2Al + 3I2 ------> 2AlI3

Determine the limiting reagent and the theoretical yield of the product if one starts with:

(a) 1.20 mol Al and 2.40 mol iodine.

For aluminum: 1.20 / 2 = 0.60
For iodine: 2.40 / 3 = 0.80
The lowest number indicates the limiting reagent. Aluminum will run out first in part (a) of the question. Why?

1.20/2 means there are 0.60 "groupings" of Al and 2.40/3 means there are 0.80 "groupings" of I 2. If they ran out at the same time, we'd need one "grouping" of
each. Since there is less of the "grouping of Al," it will run out first.

The second part of the question "theoretical yield" depends on finding out the limiting reagent. Once we do that, it becomes a stoichiometric calculation.

Al and AlI3 stand in a one-to-one molar relationship, so 1.20 mol of Al produces 1.20 mol of AlI3. Notice that the amount of I2 does not play a role, since it is in
excess.
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
Concentration is a very common concept used in chemistry and related fields. It is the measure of how much of a given
substance there is mixed with another substance.

1. Qualitative notation: Qualitatively, solutions of relatively low concentration are described using adjectives such as
“dilute,” or “weak,” while solutions of relatively high concentration are described as “concentrated,” or “strong.” As a rule,
the more concentrated a chromatic solution is, the more intensely colored it is.

These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are “weaker”
(or more dilute), compared to the “stronger” (or more concentrated) solutions on the right.

2. Quantitative notation: Quantitative notation of concentration is far more informative and useful from a scientific point
of view. There are a number of different ways to quantitatively express concentration; the most common are listed below.
Note: Many units of concentration require measurement of a substance’s volume, which is variable depending on ambient
temperature and pressure. Unless otherwise stated, all the following measurements are assumed to be at standard state
temperature and pressure (that is, 25 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere).
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
Mass percentage: denotes the mass of a substance in a mixture as a percentage of the mass of the entire mixture.

For instance: if a bottle contains 40 grams of ethanol and 60 grams of water, then it contains 40% ethanol by mass. Commercial
concentrated aqueous reagents such as acid and bases are often labeled in concentrations of weight percentage with the specific
gravity also listed. In older texts and references this is sometimes referred to as weight-weight percentage (abbreviated as w/w).
Find the mass percentage of 6 g sodium hydroxide dissolved in 50 g of water. (Note: since the density of water is nearly
1, this type of question often gives the volume of water in milliliters.)

First find the total mass of the solution:

total mass = 6 g sodium hydroxide + 50 g water

total mass = 56 g

Now, you can find the mass percentage of the sodium hydroxide using the formula:

mass percent = (grams of solute / grams of solution) x 100

mass percent = (6 g NaOH / 56 g solution) x 100
mass percent = (0.1074) x 100
answer = 10.74% NaOH
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
Mass-volume percentage, (sometimes referred to as weight-volume percentage and often abbreviated as % m/v or %
w/v): denotes the mass of a substance in a mixture as a percentage of the volume of the entire mixture.

Mass-volume percentage is often used for solutions made from solid reagents. It is the mass of the solute in grams multiplied
by one hundred divided by the volume of solution in milliliters.

Question 1. What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of 250 mL of aqueous sodium chloride solution
containing 5 g NaCl?

1.Write the equation used to calculate the weight/volume (%) :weight/volume (%) = (mass solute ÷ volume of solution) × 100
2.Identify the solute: solute = sodium chloride = NaCl
3.Extract the data from the question: mass solute (NaCl) = 5 g
volume of solution = 250 mL
4.Substitute the values into the equation and solve: w/v (%) = (5g ÷ 250 mL) × 100 = 2g/100mL (%)
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
Volume-volume percentage or % (v/v): describes the volume of the solute in mL per 100 mL of the resulting solution.

This is most useful when a liquid – liquid solution is being prepared. For example, beer is about 5% ethanol by volume. This
means every 100 mL beer contains 5 mL ethanol (ethyl alcohol).

Volume percent ={ Volume of solute / volume of solution} x 100

Example 1
Determine the volume/volume percent solution made by combining 25 mL of ethanol with enough water to produce 200
mL of the solution.
Solution
Given parameters are
Volume of solute is 25 mL
Volume of the solution is 200 mL
Substitute the values in the given formula,
Volume percent = volume of solute /volume of solution x 100%
= {25 mL / 200 mL }x 100%
Volume percent = 12.5 %
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
Molarity (M): denotes the number of moles of a given substance per litre of solution.

For instance: 4.0 litres of liquid, containing 2.0 moles of dissolved particles, constitutes a solution of 0.5 M. Such a solution
may be described as “0.5 molar.” (Working with moles can be highly advantageous, as they enable measurement of the
absolute number of particles in a solution, irrespective of their weight and volume. This is often more useful when performing
stoichiometric calculations.). See molar solution for further information.

It is quite widely used unit and it is denoted by letter M

It is the no. of moles of solute present in per litre solution. Unit = Moles per lit.
Molarity Formula is given as

If Volume = 1 litre
M = n solute
Unit of Molarity is Moles L-1
In terms of weight, molarity formula of the substance can be expressed as:
 MOLARITY- EXAMPLES
Question 1
Calculate the molarity of NaOH if the solution is prepared by dissolving 4 g in enough water to form 250
mL of the solution.
Solution
As per Molarity Formula
M=W/M×1000/V ml
= (4 g / 40 g ) × (1000/250) =0.1 mol/0.250 L
= 0.4 mol/L
= 0.4 M

Question 2
If 2 gm NaOH is dissolute in water to make solution upto 250 cc. Give molarity of the solution:
Solution
NaOH = W = 2 g
Molar Mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
M = W/M × 1000/(V ml) = 2/40 × 1000/250=1/5 M
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
“Parts-per” notation: The parts-per notation is used for extremely low concentrations. This is often used to denote the relative abundance
of trace elements in the Earth’s crust, trace elements in forensics or other analyses, or levels of pollutants in the environment.

Parts per hundred (denoted by ‘%’ and very rarely ‘pph’): -denotes one particle of a given substance for every 99 other particles. This
is the common percent. 1 part in 102.

Parts per thousand (denoted by ‘‰’ [the per mil symbol]): denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999 other particles. This
is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a cup of water, or one second per 17 minutes. ‘Parts per thousand’ is often used to record the
salinity of seawater. 1 part in 103.

Parts per million (‘ppm’): denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to
one drop of ink in a 40 gallon drum of water, or one second per 280 hours. 1 part in 106.

Parts per billion (‘ppb’): denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to
one drop of ink in a canal lock full of water, or one second per 32 years. 1 part in 109.

Parts per trillion (‘ppt’): denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly
equivalent to one drop of ink in an Olympic-sized swimming pool, or one second every 320 centuries. 1 part in 1012.

Parts per quadrillion (‘ppq’): denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly
equivalent to a drop of ink in a medium-sized lake, or one second every 32,000 millennia. There are no known analytical techniques that
can measure with this degree of accuracy; nevertheless, it is still used in some mathematical models of toxicology and epidemiology. 1 part
in 1015.