Vector Analysis

Vector algebra
Vectors

The quantities have direction as well as magnitude is called vectors.

Example: velocity, acceleration, force, momentum..

Scalars

Quantity that have magnitude but no direction are called scalars

Example: mass. Charge, density, temperature

● We can denote vectors by an arrow, above the letter. That is “vector A” can be denoted as
𝐴⃗.
● Magnitude of 𝐴⃗ is denoted by |⃗⃗⃗
𝐴| or simply A.
● Vectors are denoted by arrows; the length of arrow is proportional to the magnitude, and
the arrow head denotes the direction.

Fig 1.a 𝐴⃗ , Fig 1.b −𝐴⃗

● Minus 𝐴⃗ (-𝐴⃗) is a vector with same magnitude as 𝐴⃗ and the direction if opposite to 𝐴⃗.

Fig 2

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Vector Operation

a) Addition of two vectors

For adding 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, place the tail of 𝐵
⃗⃗ at the head of 𝐴⃗; the sum, 𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗, is the vector from

the tail of 𝐴⃗ to the head of 𝐵

⃗⃗.

Fig 3: vector addition

Addition is commutative:

𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗=𝐵
⃗⃗+𝐴⃗

Addition is associative:

(𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗)+ 𝐶⃗=𝐴⃗+(𝐵
⃗⃗+𝐶⃗).

To subtract a vector, add its opposite vector

𝐴⃗−𝐵
⃗⃗=𝐴⃗+(−𝐵
⃗⃗).

b) Multiplication by a scalar.

When multiply a vector by a positive scalar, we just multiplies the magnitude but leaves
the direction unchanged. If a is negative, the direction is reversed.

If a is a scalar,

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Scalar multiplication is distributive

a(𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗) =a𝐴⃗+a𝐵
⃗⃗

c) Dot product of two vectors.

The dot product of two vectors is defined by

𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ ≡ AB cosθ

Where θ is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ that is angle form when they placed tail-to-tail

 𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ is scalar (also called scalar product).

 The dot product is commutative,

⃗𝑨⃗ · ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗= ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗· ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗

 and distributive,

⃗⃗ · (𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪
⃗⃗) = 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ · 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨
⃗⃗ · 𝑪
⃗⃗.

Geometrically, 𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or the product of B
times the projection of A along B).

If the two vectors are parallel, then

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𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ABcos 0

𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ = AB

And,

𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗ = A2

If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are perpendicular,

𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0.

d) Cross product of two vectors.

The cross product of two vectors is defined by

⃗𝑨⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑩 ≡ AB sinθ𝒏
̂

Where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector (vector of magnitude 1), pointing perpendicular to the plane of 𝐴⃗ and
⃗⃗.
𝐵

 We shall use a hat (ˆ) to denote unit vectors.

 The direction of the resultant vector can be obtained by the right hand rule: Let your
fingers point in the direction of the first vector and curl around (via the smaller angle),
toward the second; then your thumb indicates the direction of 𝑛̂.

 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is a vector (another name is vector product)

 The cross product is distributive,

⃗𝑨⃗ × (𝑩
⃗⃗⃗+ ⃗𝑪⃗) = (𝑨
⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑪⃗)
𝑩) + (𝑨

 Not commutative

⃗⃗⃗× 𝑨
(𝑩 ⃗⃗) = −(𝑨
⃗⃗× 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗).

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In Figure direction of 𝐴⃗× 𝐵
⃗⃗ is points into the plane; 𝐵
⃗⃗× 𝐴⃗ points out of the plane.

 ⃗⃗× ⃗𝑩
Geometrically, |𝑨 ⃗⃗| is the area of the parallelogram generated by 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.

 If two vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero

𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 0

Here 0 is the zero vector, with magnitude 0.

Vector Algebra: Component Form

Vector can be act on a system with vector components, Consider a Cartesian coordinates x, y, z
Let x,
̂ ŷ and ẑ be unit vectors parallel to the x, y, and z axes, respectively.

⃗A⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂

A is the basis vector having the components on x, y and z axes.

Ax , Ay and Az are numbers are the components of A;

Geometrically, they are the projections of A along the three coordinate axes

Ax = ⃗A⃗. 𝑥̂
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 Ay = ⃗A⃗. 𝑦̂

Az = ⃗A⃗. 𝑧̂

That is

⃗A⃗. 𝑥̂ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂ ). 𝑥̂

=𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂. 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂. 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂ . 𝑥̂

=Ax

That is

𝑥̂. 𝑥̂ = |𝑥̂ ||𝑥̂| cos 0 = 1 , 𝑥̂ is unit vector then |𝑥̂ | = 1

𝑦̂. 𝑥̂ = |𝑦̂||𝑥̂. | cos 90 = 0 , 𝑦̂ and 𝑥̂ are perpendicular

We can now reformulate each of the four vector operations as a rule for manipulating
components:

Rule (i): To add vectors, add like components,

𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗=(𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂ ) + (𝐵𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧̂ )

=(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑥̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑦̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑧̂

Rule (ii): To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.

⃗⃗ = (aAx )x̂ + (aAy )ŷ + (aAz )ẑ

aA

Rule (iii): To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add.

x̂, 𝑦̂ and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors,

Then x̂. x̂ = ŷ. ŷ = ẑ. ẑ = 1 ; x̂. ŷ = x̂. ẑ = ŷ. ẑ = 0

(𝐴⃗ · 𝐵
⃗⃗)= (𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂ ). (𝐵𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧̂ )

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 =𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝑥̂. 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝑥̂. 𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝑥̂. 𝑧̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝑦̂. 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝑦̂. 𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝑦. 𝑧̂ ) +
𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝑧̂ . 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝑧̂ . 𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝑧̂ . 𝑧̂ )

=𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

𝐴⃗ · 𝐴⃗=𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

(Three-dimensional generalization of the Pythagorean Theorem)

Rule (iv): To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first row is 𝐱̂, 𝒚
̂ , 𝐳̂ ,
whose second row is ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ (in component form), and whose third row is ⃗𝑨⃗.

x̂ × x̂ = ŷ × ŷ = ẑ × ẑ = 0

x̂ × ŷ = −ŷ × x̂ = ẑ

ŷ × ẑ = −ẑ × ŷ = x̂

ẑ × x̂ = −x̂ × ẑ = ŷ

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗= (𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂ ) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧̂ )

= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝑥̂ × 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝑥̂ × 𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝑥̂ × 𝑧̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝑦̂ × 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝑦̂ × 𝑦̂) +

𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝑦̂ × 𝑧̂ ) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝑧̂ × 𝑥̂ ) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝑧̂ × 𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝑧̂ × 𝑧̂ )

= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝑧̂ +𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (-𝑦̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (−𝑧̂ )+ 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (−𝑥̂)

=(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 -𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) 𝑥̂ +(𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 -𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 )𝑦̂+( 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝑧̂

It can be expressed as determinant form

𝐱̂ 𝐲̂ 𝐳̂
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗= 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛

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Triple Products

The cross product of two vectors is itself a vector; it can be dotted or crossed with a third
vector to form a triple product.

(i) Scalar triple product

⃗⃗⃗. (𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐂⃗)

⃗⃗. (𝐁
Geometrically, |𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐂⃗) | is the volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B, and C,
⃗⃗ × ⃗C⃗| is the area of the base, and |A cosθ| is the altitude
since |B

⃗⃗. (B
A ⃗⃗ × C
⃗⃗) = B
⃗⃗. (C
⃗⃗ × A
⃗⃗) = C
⃗⃗. (A
⃗⃗ × B
⃗⃗)

Note that “alphabetical” order is preserved

Or ⃗⃗. (C
A ⃗⃗ × B
⃗⃗) = B
⃗⃗. (A
⃗⃗ × C
⃗⃗) = C
⃗⃗. (B
⃗⃗ × A
⃗⃗)

Non alphabetic triple product has negative sign

In Component form

Ax Ay Az
⃗A⃗. (B
⃗⃗ × ⃗C⃗) = Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz

Note that the dot and cross can be interchanged

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 ⃗A⃗. (B
⃗⃗ × ⃗C⃗) = (A
⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗). ⃗C⃗

⃗⃗. ⃗B⃗) × ⃗C⃗ is a meaningless expression (cross

The placement of the parentheses is critical: (A
product of a scalar and a vector.)

(ii) Vector triple product

⃗⃗ × (𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐂⃗)

The vector triple product can be simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule:

⃗⃗ × (𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐂⃗) = 𝐁
⃗⃗(𝐀
⃗⃗. 𝐂⃗) − 𝐂⃗(𝐀
⃗⃗. 𝐁
⃗⃗)

Note: =

⃗⃗ × (𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐂⃗) = −𝐂⃗ × (𝐀
⃗⃗ × 𝐁
⃗⃗) = −𝐀
⃗⃗⃗(𝐁
⃗⃗. 𝐂⃗) + 𝐁
⃗⃗(𝐀
⃗⃗⃗. 𝐂⃗)

 cross-products are not

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩
(𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗). (𝑪
⃗⃗ × 𝑫
⃗⃗⃗) = (𝐀
⃗⃗. 𝐂⃗)( 𝐁
⃗⃗. 𝐃
⃗⃗ )- (𝐀
⃗⃗. 𝐃
⃗⃗ )(𝐁
⃗⃗. 𝐂⃗)

⃗⃗⃗ × [𝐁
𝑨 ⃗⃗ × (𝐂⃗ × 𝐃
⃗⃗ )] = 𝐁
⃗⃗[𝐀
⃗⃗. (𝐂⃗ × 𝐃
⃗⃗⃗ ) − (𝐀
⃗⃗. 𝐁
⃗⃗)(𝐂⃗ × 𝐃
⃗⃗⃗ )

Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

To locate a point on space, we need a coordinate system consider (x, y, z) Cartesian

coordinates. The vector to that point from the origin (O) is called the position vector.

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 𝐫⃗ ≡ 𝐱𝐱̂ + 𝐲𝐲̂ + 𝐳𝐳̂

We use 𝐫⃗ for denoting position vector.

It’s magnitude

r = √x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , It is the distance from the origin.

And unit vector, r̂

𝑟⃗ xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ

r̂ = =
|𝑟| √x 2 + y 2 + z 2

,the a unit vector pointing radially outward.

The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (x, y, z) to (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz), is

dl = dxx̂ + dyŷ + dzẑ

In electrodynamics, we have problems involving two points—typically, a source point, r’ ,

where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r, at which you are calculating the electric
or magnetic field

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We use the separation vector, is the vector from the source point to the field point. We can
denote it as

⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = r⃗ − r′
ᴫ

Its magnitude is

⃗⃗|
ᴫ = |r⃗ − r′

unit vector in the direction from r⃗⃗⃗I to r⃗ is,

⃗ᴫ⃗ ⃗⃗
r⃗ − r′
ᴫ̂ = =
|ᴫ| |r⃗ − r′⃗⃗|

In Cartesian coordinates,

⃗⃗ = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑥̂ + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )𝑦̂ + (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )𝑧̂

ᴫ

= √(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦′)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )2

(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑥̂ + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )𝑦̂ + (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )𝑧̂

=
√(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦′)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )2

How Vectors Transform

Vector must have specific transformation properties under rotation of the coordinate
system, then the components of vector must transform.

 Consider two sets of coordinate in Cartesian system. Here (x̅, y̅, z̅) is the coordinates
system, formed when rotated through an angle 𝜑 relative to (x, y, z), system with x̅ = x
as common axis.

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  Figure gives condition; before rotation

̅ in two systems.
The components of A

̅̅̅̅
A𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃̅ = 𝐴 cos(𝜃 − 𝜑)

= 𝐴(cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑)

= 𝐴 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 + 𝐴 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑

= 𝐴𝑦 cos 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 sin 𝜑

(𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 , 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃)

̅̅̅
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃̅ = 𝐴 sin(𝜃 − 𝜑)

=A(sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑)

= Asin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 − 𝐴 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑

=𝐴𝑧 cos 𝜑 − 𝐴𝑦 sin 𝜑

= −𝐴𝑦 sin 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 cos 𝜑

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 ̅̅̅̅
𝐀𝒚 = 𝑨𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋

̅̅̅
𝑨𝒛 = −𝑨𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋

̅𝑨̅̅̅𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙

The coordinate transformation can be expressed as matrix

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑦 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 𝐴𝑦
(̅̅̅̅) = ( )( )
𝐴𝑍 − sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝐴𝑧

If the rotation about arbitrary axis in 3D

̅𝐴̅̅𝑥̅ 𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑥𝑦 𝑅𝑥𝑧 𝐴𝑥

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦𝑥 𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑦𝑧 𝐴𝑦
̅̅̅
𝐴𝑧 𝑅𝑧𝑥 𝑅𝑧𝑦 𝑅𝑧𝑧 𝐴𝑧

In compact we can write,

𝐴̅𝑖 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑗
𝑗=1

Here 1 stands for x, 2 for y, and 3 for z.

Note: vector can be also defined as, is any set of three components that transforms in the same
manner as a displacement when you change coordinates.

 A second-rank tensor is a quantity with nine components.

 In general, an nth-rank tensor has n indices and 3𝑛 components, and transforms with n
factors of R.

 Vector is a tensor of rank 1, and a scalar is a tensor of rank zero

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Ordinary Derivatives
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 df
Consider a function f (x) of one variable, then gives how rapidly have change in f,
𝑑𝑥

when x changes by tiny amount, dx

df
df = ( ) dx
dx

 If we increment x by an infinitesimal amount dx, then f changes by an amount d f ; the

derivative is the proportionality factor.

 If f increases rapidly with x, and the derivative is large.

df
Geometrical Interpretation: The derivative𝑑𝑥 , is the slope of the graph of f versus x.

Gradient

Suppose we have a function of three variables T (x, y, z), We want to give all the changes
in T, by changing all the variables x, y, and z.

That is,

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 ∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = ( ) dx + ( ) dy + ( ) dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx,
dy, dz. We need the partial derivative along each of the three coordinate directions. The above
equation can be written in the form of dot product,

∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = ( x̂ + ŷ + ẑ ) . (dx x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ)
∂x ∂y ∂z

dT = (∇T). dl

Where,

∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T ≡ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z

,is the gradient of T.

 Note that ∇T is a vector quantity, with three components; it is the generalized derivative.

 It is the change at a point in all directions.

Geometrical Interpretation: Like any vector, the gradient has magnitude and direction.

𝑑𝑇 = (∇T). dl

𝑑𝑇 = |∇T||dl| cos 𝜃

𝜃 is the angle between ∇T and dl.

 Now, if we fix the magnitude |dl| and change the directions of it, that is, θ varies, the
maximum change in T occurs when θ = 0 (cos θ = 1). That is, for a fixed distance |dl|, dT
is greatest when I move in the same direction as ∇ T.

Note: The gradient ∇ T points in the direction of maximum increase of the function T, and
magnitude |∇ T | gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.

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  Imagine you are standing on a hillside. Look all around you, and find the direction of
steepest ascent. That is the direction of the gradient.

 If ∇ T = 0 at (x, y, z), then dT = 0 for small displacements about the point (x, y, z). This
is, then, a stationary point of the function T (x, y, z). It could be a maximum (a summit),
a minimum (a valley), a saddle point (a pass), or a “shoulder.”

 This is analogous to the situation for functions of one variable, where a vanishing
derivative signals a maximum, a minimum, or an inflection. In particular.

 If you want to locate the extrema of a function of three variables, set its gradient equal to
zero.

 Example: 𝐹 = −∇𝑈,𝐸 = −∇𝑉

The Del Operator

∂ ∂ ∂
∇T = ( x̂ + ŷ + ẑ) T
∂x ∂y ∂z

The term in parentheses is called del:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇ is a vector operator that acts upon T.

Similar to an ordinary vector, operator ∇ can act:

1. on a scalar function T: ∇ T: the gradient

2. on a vector function v, via the dot product: ∇ ·v: the divergence

3. on a vector function v, via the cross product: ∇ ×v: the curl

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The Divergence

Divergence of a vector is,

∂ ∂ ∂
∇. v = ( x̂ + ŷ + ẑ) . (vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂vx ∂vy ∂vz

∇. v = ( + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z

Note that divergence of a vector function is a scalar.

Geometrical Interpretation: As the name divergence, ∇ · v a measure of how much the vector
v spreads out from the point.
+ VE

∇𝑉 = 0

-VE

In figure has a large (positive) divergence. If the arrow pointed in, it would be a negative
divergence.

Example: ∇. 𝐸 ≠ 0: It either diverges or converges, ∇. 𝐵 = 0; B is solenoidal.

The Curl

The curl of a vector function is,

𝐱̂ 𝐲̂ 𝐳̂
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
∇x𝐯 =
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝐯𝐱 𝐯𝐲 𝐯𝐳

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 𝛛𝐯𝐳 𝛛𝐯𝐲 𝛛𝐯𝐱 𝛛𝐯𝐳 𝛛𝐯𝐲 𝛛𝐯𝐳
∇x𝐯 = 𝐱̂ ( − ) + 𝐲̂ ( − ) + 𝐳̂ ( − )
𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳 𝛛𝐳 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲

Curl of a vector function is a vector.

Geometrical Interpretation: As the name shows, ∇ × v is a measure of how much the vector v
swirls around the point in question.

Example: ∇ × 𝐹 = 0; F is irrotational ,∇ × 𝐵 ≠ 0; B is rotational

Product Rules

For ordinary derivatives,

𝐝 𝐝𝐟 𝐝𝐠
(𝒇 + 𝒈) = +
𝒅𝒙 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱

If k is constant,

𝐝 𝐝𝐟
(𝐤𝐟) = 𝐤
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱

Product rule,

𝐝 𝐝𝐠 𝐝𝐟
(𝐟𝐠) = 𝐟 +𝐠
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱

Quotient rule,

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 𝐝𝐟 𝐝𝐠
𝐝 𝐟 𝐠 −𝐟
( )= 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
For the vector derivatives. 𝐝𝐱 𝐠 𝐠𝟐

 ∇ ( f + g) = ∇ f + ∇ g,

 ∇ · (A + B) = (∇ · A) + (∇ · B),

 ∇ × (A + B) = (∇ × A) + (∇ × B),

 ∇ (k f ) = k∇ f

 ∇ ·(kA) = k(∇ · A)

 ∇ × (kA) = k(∇ × A),

There are two ways to construct a scalar as the product of two functions:

 f g (product of two scalar functions),

 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ (dot product of two vector functions),

and two ways to make a vector:

 f A (scalar times vector),

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ (cross product of two vectors).

There are six product rules,

two for gradients:

(i) ∇ ( f g) = f ∇g + g∇f,

⃗⃗⃗. 𝑩
(ii) ∇ (𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗) = 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ × (∇ ×𝑩
⃗⃗⃗) + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ × (∇ × 𝑨
⃗⃗) + (𝑨
⃗⃗ · ∇)𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ + (𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ · ∇)𝑨
⃗⃗,

two for divergences:

⃗⃗⃗) = f (∇ · 𝑨
(iii) ∇ · ( f 𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗) + 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ · (∇ f ),

⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
(iv) ∇ · (𝑨 ⃗⃗) = ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ · (∇ × ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗) − ⃗𝑨⃗ · (∇ × ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗),

19
and two for curls:

(v) ∇ × ( f ⃗𝑨⃗) = f (∇ × ⃗𝑨⃗) − ⃗𝑨⃗ × (∇ f ),

⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
(vi) ∇ × (𝑨 ⃗⃗) = (𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ · ∇)𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ − (𝑨
⃗⃗ · ∇)𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑨⃗ (∇ · ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗) − ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ (∇ · ⃗𝑨⃗).

Proof for 3

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × ( f 𝐴⃗) = 𝜕𝑥 (𝑓𝐴𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑓𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑓𝐴𝑧 )

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝐴𝑧

=( 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑓 )+( 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑓 )+( 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑓 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
=𝜕𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑓( 𝜕𝑥𝑥 + + )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= (∇ f ) · A + f (∇ · A).

Quotient rules

𝒇 𝒈𝛁𝒇−𝒇𝛁𝒈
 𝛁 ( 𝒈) = 𝒈𝟐

⃗⃗
𝐀 ⃗⃗)−𝐀
𝐠(𝛁.𝐀 ⃗⃗.(𝛁𝐠)
 𝛁. 𝐠 = 𝒈𝟐

⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗)+𝑨
𝒈(𝛁×𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ ×(𝛁𝒈)
 𝛁 × ( 𝒈) = 𝒈𝟐

Second Derivatives

 The gradient, the divergence, and the curl are first derivatives.

 By applying ∇ twice, we can construct five second derivatives.

The gradient ∇ T is a vector then,

(1) Divergence of gradient: ∇ · (∇ T)

(2) Curl of gradient: ∇ × (∇ T)

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The divergence ∇ ·v is a scalar; we can take its gradient:

(3) Gradient of divergence: ∇ (∇ · v).

The curl ∇ × v is a vector, so we can take its divergence and curl:

(4) Divergence of curl: ∇ ·(∇ ×v).

(5) Curl of curl: ∇ ×(∇ × v).

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂T ∂T ∂T
1. ∇ ∙ (∇T) = (∂x x̂ + ∂y ŷ + ∂z ẑ) . ( ∂x x̂ + ∂y ŷ + ∂z ẑ)

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
∇ ∙ (∇T) = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

It can be writing as 𝛁 𝟐 𝑻, is called the Laplacian of T

 Laplacian of a scalar T is a scalar.

 Laplacian of a vector, 𝛁 𝟐 𝐯 means

𝛁 𝟐 𝐯 = 𝛁 𝟐 𝐯𝐱 𝐱̂ + 𝛁 𝟐 𝐯𝐲 𝐲̂ + 𝛁 𝟐 𝐯𝐳 𝐳̂

2. The curl of a gradient is always zero:

∇ × (∇ T) = 0

3. The divergence of a curl, is always zero:

∇ · (∇ × v) = 0.

4. Curl of a curl

𝛁 × (𝛁 × 𝑽) = 𝛁(𝛁. 𝑽) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝑽

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INTEGRAL CALCULUS

A. Line Integrals

Line integral

𝒃
∫ 𝐯⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍
𝒂

Where v
⃗⃗ →vector function

dl→ infinitesimal displacement vector

Integral is carried out along the path a to point b.

Example: work done by the force, W = ∫ F. dl

If it is closed loop (that is, if b = a)

∮ 𝒗. 𝒅𝒍

Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the path taken from a to b, but there
is a special class of vector functions, integral is independent of path and determined entirely by
the end points. A force that has this property is called conservative.

B. Surface Integrals.

Surface integral

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 ∫ 𝐯⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐚
𝐬

⃗⃗ → vector function, and the integral over a surface s.

where 𝐯

da→ is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the surface

If the surface is closed (forming a “balloon”),

∮ 𝐯. 𝐝𝐚

If the areal vector points outwards is positive, but for open surfaces it’s arbitrary.

C. Volume Integrals.

Volume integral

∫ 𝑻𝒅𝝉
𝒗

T→ is a scalar function

dτ→ is an infinitesimal volume element.

In Cartesian coordinates,

dτ = dx dy dz.

Volume integrals of vector functions:

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 ∫ 𝑣⃗𝑑𝜏 = ∫(vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ)dτ

=𝑥̂ ∫ vx dτ + ŷ ∫ vy dτ + ẑ ∫ vz dτ

Note: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

𝑏
𝑑𝑓
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

That is there are two ways to determine the total change in the function: either subtract the values
at the ends or go step-by-step, adding up all the tiny increments as you go. You’ll get the same
answer either way.

The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

Suppose T a scalar function of three variables T (x, y,z). Starting at point a, move small distances
and ends at b. When the small distance is 𝑑𝑙1 , change in T,

dT = (∇ T)·𝑑𝑙1

Then we move other small displacement 𝑑𝑙2 , it will give a change in T

The total change in T in going from a to b is,

𝑏
∫𝑎 ∇𝑇. 𝑑𝑙 and,

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 𝒃
∫𝒂 𝛁𝑻. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐓(𝐛) − 𝐓(𝐚)

This is the fundamental theorem for gradients;

Line integral of the gradient of a scalar function over a selected curve is given by the difference
of magnitude of the function at the end points of the path.

Corollary 1

𝑏
∫𝑎 ∇𝑇. 𝑑𝑙 is independent of the path taken from a to b.

Corollary 2:

∮ ∇𝑇. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝟎

Since T (b) − T (a) = 0 that is beginning and end points are identical.

Gauss’s Divergence Theorem (The fundamental theorem for divergences)

It states that:

∫(𝛁. 𝒗
⃗⃗)𝒅𝝉 = ∮ 𝒗
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒂
𝒗 𝒔

 It is flux of v through the surface.

 So ∮𝑠 𝑣⃗. 𝑑𝑎 is the total amount of the flux passing through the entire surface. (∇. 𝑣⃗ )
measures the spreading out of vectors from a point.

 Then (∇. 𝑣⃗ )𝑑𝜏 gives the spreading out of fields through the volume 𝑑𝜏.

 Then LHS gives the spreading out of field through the bounded volume.

 That is amount of flux flow through the surface =total amount of flux in the volume.

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Normal surface integral of a vector function over a closed surface is equal to the volume integral
of the divergence of the vector function over the volume enclosed by the surface.

Stoke’s Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem for Curls)

It states that

∫(𝛁 × 𝐯⃗⃗)𝐝𝐚 = ∮ 𝐯. 𝐝𝐥
𝐬

Integral of curl over a surface of a function is equal to the value of the function at the boundary.

⃗⃗ means twisting of v, (∇ × v
Here ∇ × v ⃗⃗)da is the flux of twisting, on integrating this over the
surface we get the total flux of twisting, this can be also found out by going around the edges

Corollary 1:

∫(𝛁 × 𝐯⃗⃗)𝐝𝐚 depends only on the boundary line, not on the particular surface used.

26
Corollary 2:

∮(∇ × v). da = 0 for any closed surface, since the boundary line, like the mouth of a balloon,
shrinks down to a point.

27