10.python Lists

PYTHON COLLECTIONS (ARRAYS)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are
unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing
the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an
increase in efficiency or security.
Python Lists
List
 Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other
3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 Lists are created using square brackets:
Example
Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Items
 List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

 List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
 When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.
 If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Changeable
 The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after
it has been created.
Allow Duplicates
 Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
 Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Length
 To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
 Print the number of items in the list:

print(len(thislist))
List Items - Data Types
 List items can be of any data type:
Example
 String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:
Example
 A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]
type()
 From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))
The list() Constructor

 It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
 Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thislist)
Access Items
 List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example
 Print the second item of the list:

print(thislist[1])
Negative Indexing
 Negative indexing means start from the end

 -1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:

print(thislist[-1])
Range of Indexes
 You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the
range.
 When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
 By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
 By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":

print(thislist[:4])
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

print(thislist[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
 Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1):

print(thislist[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists
 To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
Change Item Value
 To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Change a Range of Item Values
 To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values,
and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example
 Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
 If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
 Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
 Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not
match the number of items replaced.
 If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Insert Items
 To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use the
insert() method.
 The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Append Items
 To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Extend List
 To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
Add Any Iterable
 The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object
(tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Remove Specified Item
 The remove() method removes the specified item.
Example
Remove "banana":

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
Remove Specified Index
 The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example
Remove the first item:

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
 The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example
Delete the entire list:

del thislist
Clear the List
 The clear() method empties the list.

 The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example
Clear the list content:

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
Loop Through a List
 You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

for x in thislist:
print(x)
Loop Through the Index Numbers
 You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
Using a While Loop
 You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop your way
through the list items by refering to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1
Learn more about while loops in our Python While Loops Chapter.
Looping Using List Comprehension
 List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

[print(x) for x in thislist]
List Comprehension
 List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on
the values of an existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the letter "a" in the
name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a conditional test inside:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)
print(newlist)
With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
print(newlist)
The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.
Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.
Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]
The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than "apple", making the
new list contain all fruits except "apple".
The condition is optional and can be omitted:
Example
With no if statement:
newlist = [x for x in fruits]
Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.
Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:
newlist = [x for x in range(10)]
Same example, but with a condition:
Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:
newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Expression
 The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which you
can manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:
newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]
You can set the outcome to whatever you like:
Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':
newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]
 The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to manipulate
the outcome:
Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":
newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]
The expression in the example above says:
"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return orange".
Python - Sort Lists
Sort List Alphanumerically
 List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by
default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list numerically:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Sort Descending
 To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Customize Sort Function
You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key = function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number first):
Example
 Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)
Case Insensitive Sort
 By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being sorted
before lower case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:
Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet.
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Copy a List
 You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be a
reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
 Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Join Two Lists
 There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
 One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Example
Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
 Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by
one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
print(list1)
 you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one list to
another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.
Method Description
append(
Adds an element at the end of the list
)
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list
Tuple
 Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other
3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
 Tuples are written with round brackets.
Example
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)
Tuple Items
 Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

 Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
 When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and
that order will not change.
Unchangeable
 Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the
tuple has been created.
Allow Duplicates
 Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:
Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)
Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

print(len(thistuple))
Create Tuple With One Item
 To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item, otherwise
Python will not recognize it as a tuple.
Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:
thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))
#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))
Tuple Items - Data Types
 Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)
 A tuple can contain different data types:
Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:
tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

type()
 From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':
<class 'tuple'>
Example
What is the data type of a tuple?
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))
The tuple() Constructor
 It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thistuple)
Access Tuple Items
 You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:
Example
Print the second item in the tuple:

print(thistuple[1])
Negative Indexing
 Negative indexing means start from the end.
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

print(thistuple[-1])
Range of Indexes
 You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the
range.
 When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:5])
Range of Negative Indexes
 Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists
 To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Python - Update Tuples
 Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once the
tuple is created.
But there are some workarounds.
Change Tuple Values
 Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable, or
immutable as it also is called.
 But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and
convert the list back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)
Add Items
 Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but there are
other ways to add items to a tuple.
1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a
list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)
2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add one item,
(or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:
Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y
print(thistuple)
Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma after the item,
otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
 Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the same
workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)
Or you can delete the tuple completely:
Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:
Example
Packing a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This is called
"unpacking":
Example
Unpacking a tuple:
(green, yellow, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you must
use an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a list.
Using Asterisk*
 If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to the
variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")
(green, yellow, *red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
 If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will assign values to
the variable until the number of values left matches the number of variables left.
Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:
fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")
(green, *tropic, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
Loop Through a Tuple
 You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
 Iterate through the items and print the values:

for x in thistuple:
print(x)
Loop Through the Index Numbers
 You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
 Print all items by referring to their index number:

for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])
Using a While Loop
 You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
 Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and loop your
way through the tuple items by refering to their indexes.
 Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:

i=0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i=i+1
Join Two Tuples
 To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:
Example
Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
Multiply Tuples
 If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use the *
operator:
Example
 Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

mytuple = fruits * 2
print(mytuple)
Tuple Methods
 Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.
Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it
index()
was found
Set
 Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
 A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
 * Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.
 Sets are written with curly brackets.
Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)
Set Items
 Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.
Unordered
 Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
 Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred
to by index or key.
Unchangeable
 Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has
been created.
 Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new
items.
Duplicates Not Allowed
 Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
Example
 Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}
print(thisset)
Get the Length of a Set
 To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.
Example
 Get the number of items in a set:
print(len(thisset))
Set Items - Data Types
Set items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}
Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:
set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}
type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':
<class 'set'>
Example
What is the data type of a set?
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))
The set() Constructor
 It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:
thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thisset)
Access Items
 You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

 But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is
present in a set, by using the in keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:
print("banana" in thisset)
Change Items
 Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
Add Items
 Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
 To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)
Add Sets
 To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
thisset.update(tropical)
print(thisset)
Add Any Iterable
 The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object
(tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]
thisset.update(mylist)
print(thisset)
Remove Item
 To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset.remove("banana")
print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
thisset.discard("banana")
print(thisset)
 Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
 You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove the
last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know what item that gets
removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)
 Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item
that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:
thisset.clear()
print(thisset)
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:
del thisset
print(thisset)
Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Join Two Sets
 There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.

 You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from both sets,
or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set into another:
Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
 Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.
Keep ONLY the Duplicates
 The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.intersection_update(y)
print(x)
 The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items that are
present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:

z = x.intersection(y)
print(z)
Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates
 The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that are NOT
present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

x.symmetric_difference_update(y)
print(x)
 The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only the elements
that are NOT present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are present in both:

z = x.symmetric_difference(y)
print(z)
Set Methods
 Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.
Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets
Removes the items in this set that are also included in another,
difference_update()
specified set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets
Removes the items in this set that are not present in other,
intersection_update()
specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not
issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not
issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets
symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another
union() Return a set containing the union of sets
update() Update the set with the union of this set and others
Python Dictionaries
Dictionary
 Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

 A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.
 As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
 Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:
Example
Create and print a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Items
 Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.
 Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key
name.
Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])
Ordered or Unordered?
 As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
 When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.
 Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an
item by using an index.
Changeable
 Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after the
dictionary has been created.
Duplicates Not Allowed
 Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example
 Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(thisdict))
Dictionary Items - Data Types
The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}
type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data type 'dict':
<class 'dict'>
Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")
Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the keys:
x = thisdict.keys()
The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the dictionary
will be reflected in the keys list.
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change
Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the values:
x = thisdict.values()
 The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the values list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
car["year"] = 2020
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
car["color"] = "red"

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs
x = thisdict.items()
 The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done
to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
Example
 Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
car["year"] = 2020
Example
 Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
car["color"] = "red"
Check if Key Exists
 To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")
Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018
Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given argument.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})
Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value to it:
Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)
Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given argument. If the item
does not exist, the item will be added.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})
Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a random item is
removed instead):
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
Loop Through a Dictionary
 You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

 When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary, but
there are methods to return the values as well.
Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(x)
Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:
for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)
Copy a Dictionary
 You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will only be
a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)
 Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)
Nested Dictionaries
 A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.
Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}
Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:
Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three dictionaries:
child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}
Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description
clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary
copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value
get() Returns the value of the specified key
items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys
pop() Removes the element with the specified key
popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair
Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert the key, with
setdefault()
the specified value
update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs
values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

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PYTHON COLLECTIONS (ARRAYS)

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

 List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

 Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

 Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List Items - Data Types

 List items can be of any data type:

 String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

A list can contain different data types:

 A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

The list() Constructor

 Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

 Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

 Negative indexing means start from the end

Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

Remember that the first item has index 0.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

Range of Negative Indexes

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

Check if Item Exists

 To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Change Item Value

 To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Change a Range of Item Values

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

 Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Add Any Iterable

Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Remove Specified Item

 The remove() method removes the specified item.