In this lesson, you’ll describe the evolution of audio production, video production, and

broadcast media. You'll also describe the history and evolution of radio, television and
films. You'll identify current applications of audio and video technologies in daily life
and explain the importance of using elements of art and principles of design in media
products. Finally, you’ll analyze the influence of society on the effectiveness of media
products and analyze claims made in the media and the credibility of media sources.

Evolution of Radio, Film, and Television

When you send messages to one or many people on electronic devices or in print, you
use mass media. Technology supports the existence and functioning of mass
media. You can interact directly with someone near you, but you can use technology to
connect to people located in different locations through mass media. If you talk to a
friend about a movie you just watched, it is interpersonal communication. In contrast, if
you watch the Oscar Awards on television, it is mass communication. Let’s look at how
technology has contributed to the evolution of radio, film, and television as the most
powerful mass media vehicles.

The Evolution of Radio

The history of radio is closely associated with the history of sound recording. Through
the ages, various scientists contributed to the understanding and study of sound
waves. The earliest method of recording sound was to record directly onto a
medium. A diaphragm captured the sound and transmitted its particular vibrations to a
stylus. The stylus was a pointed needle-like structure. It made a groove in the recording
medium. This process was called acoustic recording.
Acoustic recording: The French inventor Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville created
the phonautograph in 1857. It could record sounds, but not play them back. In 1877,
the American inventor Thomas Edison recorded and played back his recital of Mary
Had a Little Lamb on his invention. The device he invented was the phonograph. The
first phonograph used tin foil to record sound. In 1885, Alexander Graham Bell
invented the graphophone. It used wax-coated cardboard cylinders to record
sound. These cylinders could be preserved longer than tin foils. In 1887, the German-
born American, Emile Berliner patented a new device, the gramophone. It recorded
sound on shellac discs, which were easy to reproduce. The discs evolved into the
popular vinyl records of the 1940s.
Growth of radio: Sound recording technologies, and the efforts of inventors such as
the Italian Guglielmo Marconi, gave rise to radio. In 1894, Marconi used radio wave
technology to transmit sound wirelessly across the Atlantic. This feat laid the
foundation of radio. Radio captured audiences very quickly. The number of stations
rose from 5 in 1921 to 556 in 1923. Dramas on radio were called “soap operas” because
the major sponsors were soap companies. Their main target audience was housewives.

The Evolution of Film

In 1893 at the Chicago World’s Fair, Thomas Edison showcased two pioneering
inventions: the kinetograph, the first practical moving picture camera; and the
kinetoscope. Robert William Paul, an English electrician, invented the earliest film
projector and held the first public show in 1895. In the same year, in France, the
Lumière brothers (Auguste and Louis) invented the cinematograph. It was a portable,
three-in-one device: projector, camera, and printer. The addition of a projector made
the cinematograph suitable for mass viewing. Edison’s inventions, in contrast, were for
individual use. In 1902 the French illusionist George Melies’ film, A Trip to the Moon,
became the first film to explore fantasy. Melies’ experience as a magician helped him
create the first special effects.
Film editing: Edwin S. Porter, an American invented film editing. He introduced
techniques of basic camera movements and ellipses, or edited time transitions. As
films became popular, nickelodeons, the first permanent movie theaters, grew
rapidly. By 1908, there were 10,000 of them across the United States. The first editing
machine came on the movie market in 1924. In the earliest versions of editing, editors
cut celluloid films physically, and rejoined the sections with special tape.

The film industry: The popularity of movies as a mass medium drew investors to set
up studios. The first film studio in Hollywood opened in 1911. Filmmakers began
adding sound to celluloid film reels in the 1920s. In 1927, American audiences saw The
Jazz Singer. It was the first feature-length film with dialogue. Called talkies, this new
audiovisual film medium took over the movie industry. By 1930, movie directors added
greater sophistication to talkies. They experimented with sound and visual effects. They
also made many technical advances in microphones and cameras. Instead of recording
sounds directly when filming, they added ways to synchronize sounds at the editing
stage.
Transition to digital: Movie making continues to evolve today. Celluloid films and
manual editing methods are no longer used. Movies are shot and edited on digital
formats. Digital technology has simplified editing. Today, movies can be created quickly
and economically. Video devices and editing features are now common in mobile
devices, such as smartphones. Digital technology has made it possible for anyone with
a camera to make movies these days. Consequently, thousands of people upload
personal movies on the Internet every day.

Russian-born American electronics engineer Vladimir Zworykin with some of the

television tubes he invented.
The Evolution of Television
Image broadcasting began as a mechanical technology. It started with the Nipkow
disc, designed by the German Paul Nipkow in 1884. Images of a perforated
rotating disc set in front of a brightly illuminated subject were sent over a wire. Other
pioneers of this technology were the American Charles Jenkins and the Scotsman John
Baird. In 1907, the English inventor A.A. Campbell-Swinton and the Russian inventor
Boris Rosing independently developed an electronic technology for television. They
both used a cathode ray tube. In 1923, Russian-American Vladimir Zworykin, invented
the iconoscope. The iconoscope was a tube to capture television images. It broke down
pictures into thousands of separate electronic elements. Eventually, scientists and
inventors favored and improved this electronic system.
In 1927, technicians from Bell Laboratories sent a live picture and voice together over a
long distance. It was the first public show on television. In 1939, at the New York
World’s Fair, people saw and heard a live broadcast of President Roosevelt’s welcome
speech through a network of televisions set up at the fairground.

Color television: In 1946, Peter Goldmark a Hungarian born American created a

mechanical device for a color television system. He did this by rotating a red-blue-
green wheel in front of a cathode ray tube. At the New York World’s Fair in 1964, people
saw the color television in operation for the first time.
Cable television: In the 1940s, cable television systems began with the invention of
coaxial cable. A cable television system has a large community antenna to receive
broadcast signals. Coaxial cables then carry these signals to individual homes. The
cable system came up as a solution to take television reception to remote and hilly
areas. In the 1960s, networks found that regular television signals were blocked by tall
buildings in cities. So they introduced cable systems to cities in the 1960s.
Transition to digital: In 1998, television broadcasting began to change from analog to
digital formats. Information is carried on electric signals in analog transmission, and on
binary codes (0s and 1s) in digital transmission. Digital television enables you to see
clearer, high-definition images. The next stage in television broadcasting is called 4K
UHDTV (4000 Ultra high-definition TV). This technology has even higher resolutions and
significantly improved image clarity.

Applications of Radio and Television

Let’s look at the current applications of radio and television technologies in our daily
lives.

Applications of Radio
It’s important to understand how much we rely on radio waves. Radio waves are
versatile. The waves can go far out into space, but they can also work over a short
distance of a few millimeters. In a broadcast, radio waves are sent from specific
locations to many others over specific distances. Many common appliances that you
use every day, such as mobile phones and television, depend on radio waves. Mobile
phones, like cordless phones, are radio signal receivers. When you use a mobile phone,
radio waves carry your voice, text, images, and videos to the specific person you
want. Radio waves also enable you to use wireless internet and 3G. Using radio waves,
you can open garage doors and car doors that have wireless keys.

Wi-Fi is a connecting technology based on radio waves. It allows your laptop,

smartphone, or other mobile device to connect to the Internet without a cable. Wi-
Fi uses radio waves the same way that a walkie-talkie does.
Other Applications of Radio
Besides the uses you have read about so far, radio technology has many other useful
applications. Emergency responders such as firefighters and police use radios for quick
communication. Community radio is a radio network for small communities. It is
different from large public broadcast radio. People living in areas that do not have
electricity (parts of Asia, Africa, South America, etc.) can listen to radio on battery-
operated or hand-cranked systems. Radio taxis also make use of two-way radio
communications. Many truckers still use citizen band (CB) radios to keep in touch with
each other. They get live updates on traffic through these radios.
Radar is another technology that uses radio waves. A transmitting device emits radio
waves that strike objects and bounce back to a receiver. Radar has been used widely in
ocean studies and to monitor weather.

Radio astronomers study stars, planets, star clusters, and galaxies. Radio waves are
found by large radio antennae. Astronomers use these instruments to study objects
that can’t be detected by optical telescopes.

AM and FM radio: A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave with relatively large

wavelengths. The radio station announces the frequency of this wavelength. Listeners
can then tune in from different locations. The earliest radio broadcasts were of the AM
(amplitude modulation) type. In the 1930s, broadcasters introduced FM (frequency
modulation) broadcasts. AM broadcasts may get disturbed by lightning or by
electromagnetic phenomena. FM broadcasts offer better sound quality and stereo
broadcasts.
Phase modulation (PM): This modulation pattern encodes information as variations in
the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Phase modulation is widely used for
transmitting radio waves and is an integral part of many digital transmission coding
schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like Wi-Fi, GSM (Global System for
Mobile communication) and satellite television.
HD radio: HD (high definition) radio is a radio transmission that uses a digital
signal. Sometimes, stations broadcast a mix of both digital and analog
signals. Nowadays, satellite radio is also based on digital signals. Broadcasters beam
the signal to a satellite. The satellite sends the signal back to Earth, and it reaches a
wider broadcast area.
Internet radio: Internet radio is the latest variant of radio. Users transmit audio files
over the Internet. Anyone can receive the transmission on a computer. Technically,
however, this is not a radio. The signal is not sent via electromagnetic
waves. Therefore, users refer to it as a simulated radio.
Applications of Television
For over 50 years, viewers got television programs on just one screen: a television (TV)
set. Broadcast and cable networks could only vary the content of their programs. They
could not get any idea of the viewer’s experiences. However, many TV viewing
applications are available today. You can view programs on many screens as and when
you want to see them. The most important shift is that you now have the power to
decide how and when you will view a broadcast and how you will share it.
User experience (UX): UX is now used to attract viewers. The UX revolution in media is
driven by many factors:
 the growth of broadband suitable for delivering high-quality video content
 the growth of viewer-controlled devices that can display high-quality video
content
 flexibility for viewers to connect these devices to TV sets, to view programs at
their convenience
 the growth of multichannel video programming distributors (MVPDs), such as
Hulu, Netflix and Amazon
 the easy availability of cheap editing tools, which has led to a boom in high-
quality video content
Users can now vote with their time and money to determine how UX will evolve.

Smart television: Advances in television technology have transformed information

technology (IT). IT is now a powerful audiovisual medium. A smart television set
includes internet features. You can access it through set-top boxes or on
smartphones. These smart devices provide internet television, on-demand streaming
media, and online interactive content like games.
Remote applications: Although it is a broadcast medium, television’s reach is suited
for many distributed applications. Medical specialists can use television technology,
supported by satellites, high-resolution screens, and recording devices, to offer
healthcare at low cost to remote areas in the form of telemedicine. Television
technology is also used for teleteaching. This allows teachers to give classroom
programs through videoconferencing to students at remote locations.
Immersive television: In recent years, online video streaming technology has
provided millions of television viewers live (or immersive) experiences of major
sporting events. Immersive broadcast technology is developing rapidly, with the use
of ultra-high definition (UHD) devices, curved screens, and 8K filming.
Broadcasting is changing from one-way content delivery to everyone at the same time
to more personalized services. The spread of Internet Protocol (IP) networks provides
broadcasters with the opportunity to implement IP from the camera to the home, end-
to-end. This will allow the delivery of content that is much richer than at present in
terms of quality, reach, additional data, and interactive services. Taken together, these
developments represent a new broadcasting system (NBS) to bring immersive, data-
rich services to the public.

broadband
The growth of  is suitable for delivering high-quality 
video
 content.
The UX revolution in media is driven by many factors: the growth of broadband
suitable for delivering high-quality video content; the growth of viewer-
controlled devices that can display high-quality video content; flexibility for viewers to
connect these devices to TV sets to view at their convenience; the growth of multi-
channel video programming distributors (MVPDs), such as Hulu, Netflix and Amazon;
and easy availability of cheap editing tools, which has led to a boom in high-
quality video content.

Television in the Age of Convergence

This activity will help you meet these educational goals:

 Content Standards—You will describe the way changing technology has affected
the television industry.
 Inquiry—You will make observations and communicate your results in written
form.
 21st Century Skills—You will apply employ online tools for research and analysis
and communicate effectively.

Effectiveness of Media Products

Many factors affect the way viewers respond to shows on radio, film, or
television. Viewers have different social habits, cultural norms, spending patterns, and
personal beliefs. Viewer preferences also keep changing. According to Nielsen (the
television rating agency), hip-hop music is currently very popular with television
audiences. The growing interest in hip-hop is a trend signal for creators of media
products. A recent Nielsen study showed that hip-hop personalities are as popular as
other performers and stars. So, a young, large, and growing audience will respond
positively to various forms of hip-hop–related entertainment.
More content does not mean that more channels will be in demand. According to a
2014 Nielsen survey, the average US home received 189 TV channels. This was a
significant jump since 2008, when there were just 129 channels. Ironically, viewers were
found to use an average of just 17 channels. If you design media products, you’ll need
to use design elements innovatively to grab and retain viewer attention. You should
aim to create entertaining and educational products suited to these viewers. You must
understand the collective effect of design elements as well as media viewing trend
signals.
Designing for User Experience (UX)
The control of the media experience is shifting to users. So, if you design media
products, you need to think not only of artistic elements and trend signals, but also
about user reactions. UX elements can include not only visual design, but also
information structure, interactive facilities, and so on. UX is about getting users’ full
attention and connecting with them emotionally. However, there are many ways to do
this. Your choice of design elements will depend on the project’s context, viewers, and
intended experience. For example, sounds or audio cues are an example of an element
that builds emotional and powerful moments in a radio, film, or television product. In a
movie, for example, you may have noticed how music helps build suspense in a scene.

As a UX designer, you must pay attention to even the smallest sensory elements. These
elements can have a deep effect on a user’s experience. Another design element could
be the use of multiple screens. Typically, users are taking in experiences from many
screens. A person viewing a movie on a smartphone may answer a phone call and look
at SMS alerts as well. Therefore, as a UX designer, you need to consider many elements
as you focus on enhancing the overall user response to media.

Social Television
In the past, television viewers used to watch a show, and then discuss it later with
friends. These days, many viewers prefer to discuss the show as it happens, using
social media like Twitter or Facebook. This phenomenon is called social television.

According to a 2013 Nielsen study, an increasing number of Americans are adapting to

social television. The study showed that 15 percent of television viewers said they liked
watching television more when social media interaction was involved. About 25
percent of viewers said that they were more aware of television programs due to their
social media interactions.
In addition to social media, viewers also use a second screen for other digital
activities. The second screen could be on a tablet or smartphone. For example, they
may browse the Internet, shop, look up famous people, text friends, or check sports
scores. Television viewers also use laptops, tablets, or smartphones to interact. They
share comments, follow their favorite shows, and talk with friends. They do all these
things before, during, and after a show. These social television interactions give you a
new trend signal to explore.
Radio’s Unique Popularity
Audio (specifically local radio) is an integral part of US culture. Public radio is a special
part of the lives of Americans, and it continues to grow because of the financial support
of its listeners. Portable radio is a constant companion. It is with you in traffic in the
morning, during your workday, and on the weekends too. According to Nielsen, radio
plays a big part in the lives of Americans. In 2014, 91 percent of Americans (age 12 or
older) were listening to the radio each week. Moreover, the radio audience is still
growing. Since the beginning of 2010, the national weekly radio audience has grown
from 239.7 million to 243 million listeners tuned into more than 250 local markets. The
public radio network currently has more than 900 rated stations. It offers an engaging
mix of news, music, cultural programming, and entertainment.
If you’re designing media products, radio gives you a mass audience in real time, in
both large and small markets. The vast majority of radio listeners are employed. Over
three quarters of the national adult audience is employed full- or part-time. Moreover,
they listen to radio outside their homes, and when they’re ready to buy. You can use
this knowledge to create appropriate and timely media products.

Marketing Movies
Movie previews and television commercials are the two most popular media products
for marketing new movies, according to Nielsen. The number of moviegoers who
watched television promotions of movies declined from 81 percent in 2008 to 67
percent in 2014. However, television is still a major advertising medium for movies. In
the third quarter of 2014, Americans spent over 141 hours per month, on average,
watching traditional TV. Further, 53 percent of moviegoers said they pay attention to
movie advertisements.
Social marketing: Digital media and social marketing are also an important part of the
movie marketing mix. For example, moviegoers said that if they see an online
advertisement for a movie they’re interested in, 75 percent would click on it. In
addition, 81 percent would search for more information about the movie. Likewise,
advertisements on social networks, when noticed, also influence
moviegoers. Moviegoers said they searched for more information about a movie (37
percent), clicked on the advertisement (25 percent), liked the official movie review (22
percent), and shared the advertisement (10 percent). So, if you are a media product
designer trying to reach the typical moviegoer today, you must include television and
social media marketing in your plans.
Media Literacy
Media literacy refers to the ability of individuals in society to be able to critically study
the information they are exposed to in the media. Every day, we are exposed to
messages through media such as radio, television, film, and the Internet. According to
the nonprofit National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), a person who
is media literate is able to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate information.

Media is everywhere. Media information affects all of us because it surrounds us at all

times. A key role of media literacy education is to enable you to critically study the
hundreds of media messages you receive every day. Our exposure to media begins in
early life. A study by the Kaiser Family Foundation (a US-based non-profit organization
that conducts public opinion polls on health issues) noted that 68 percent of children
aged 2 and younger spend an average of 2 hours in front of a computer or television
screen each day. US teenagers are spending an average of 7.5 hours with media
daily. This is almost as much time as they spend in school. However, media literacy is
not merely a skill for young people. It is useful for people of all ages, because we get
much of our information from various media sources.