Determinants and

Matrices
DETERMINANT
A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers, in m rows and n columns and enclosed within two
vertical bar is called a determinant. The notation of determinants arises from the process of
elimination of the unknowns of simultaneous linear equations.
Consider the two linear equations in x,

a1 x + b1 = 0 ... (1)
a2 x + b2 = 0 ... (2)
From (1)
x = - b1/a1
Substituting the value of x in (2); we get the eliminant
a2(-b1/a1)+b2 = 0 or a1b2 – a2b1 = 0 ... (3)
From (1) and (2) by suppressing x, the eliminant is written as

a1 b1
=0 ... (4)
a2 b2

When the two rows of a1, b1 and a2, b2 are enclosed by two vertical bars then it is called a
determinant of second order.

Each quantity a1, b1, a2, b2 is called an element or a constituent of the determinant.

From (3) and (4), we know that both expressions are Problem 1: Expand the following
eliminant, so we equate them. determinants:
a.
a1 b1
= a1b2 – a2b1 (expansion of the determinant ) 4 6
a2 b2
2 5
b.
Example 1. Expand the determinant -3 7
2 4
3 2
c.
6 7
8 5
3 1
Solution.
3 2
= 3*7 – 2*6 = 21-12 = 9 Ans.
6 7
MINOR

The minor of an element is defined as a determinant obtained by deleting the row and column
containing the element.

Thus the minors a1, b1 and c1 are respectively

b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
and
b3 c3 , a3 c3 a3 b3

Thus,
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 = a1 (minor of a1) – b1 (minor of b1) + c1 (minor of c1).
a3 b3 c3

COFACTOR

Cofactor = (– 1) r + c Minor

where r is the number of rows of the element and c is the number of columns of the element.
The cofactor of any element of jth row and ith column is (– 1)i+j minor
Thus the cofactor of a1 = (– 1)1+1 (b2c3 – b3c2) = + (b2c3 – b3c2)
The cofactor of b1 = (– 1)1+2 (a2c3 – a3c2) = – (a2c3 – a3c2)

The cofactor of c1 = (– 1)1+3 (a2b3 – a3b2) = + (a2b3 – a3b2)

The determinant = a1 (cofactor of a1) + a2 (cofactor of a2) + a3 (cofactor of a3).

Example 2. Write down the minors and cofactors of each element and also evaluate the
determinant.
1 3 -2
4 -5 6
3 5 2

M11 = Minor of element (1) =

-5 6
5 2

 (-5) * 2 – 6 * 5 = -10 - 30= - 40

Cofactor of element (1) = A11 = (– 1)1 + 1 M11 = (– 1)2 (– 40) = – 40

M12 = Minor of element (3)

4 6
3 2

 4*2 – 3*6 = 8 – 18 = -10

Cofactor of element (–2) = A12 = (– 1)1 + 2 (– 10) = 10

M13 = Minor of element (– 2)

4 -5
3 5

 4* 5 -( -5) *3 = 20 + 15 = 35
Cofactor of element (– 2) = A13 = (– 1)1+3 M13 = (–1)4 35 = 35

M21 = Minor of element (4)

3 -2
5 2

 3*2 - (- 2)* 5= 6+ 10 =16

Cofactor of element (4) = A21 = (– 1)2+1 M21 = (– 1)2+1 (16) = – 16

M22 = Minor of element (– 5)

1 -2
3 2

 1*2 -(- 2)* 3 =2 + 6 = 8

Cofactor of element (– 5) = A22 = (– 1)2+2 M22 = (– 1)2+2 (8) = 8

M23 = Minor of element (6)

1 3
3 5

 1*5-3*3 = 5-9 = -4
Cofactor of element (6) = A23 = (–1)2+3 M23 = (– 1)2+3 (– 4) = 4

M31 = Minor of element (3)

3 -2
-5 6

 3*6- (-2)*(-5) = 18-10 = 8

Cofactor of element (3) = A31 = (– 1)3+1 M31 = (– 1)3+1 8 = 8

M32 = Minor of element (5)

1 -2
4 6
  1*6 -( -2) *4 = 6 + 8 = 14
Cofactor of element (5) = A32 = (– 1)3+2 M32 = (– 1)3+2 14 = – 14

M33 = Minor of element (2)

1 3
4 -5

 1* (-5) -4 *3 = -5 -12 = -17

Cofactor of element (2) = A33 = (– 1)3+3 M33 = (– 1)3+3 (– 17) = – 17.

1 3 -2
4 -5 6
3 5 2

= 1 × (cofactor of 1) + 3 × (cofactor of 3) + (– 2) × Problem 2: Expand the

[cofactor of (– 2)]. determinant
= 1 × (– 40) + 3 × (10) + (– 2) × (35) 6 2 3
= – 40 + 30 – 70 2 3 5
4 2 1
= – 80 Ans.

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Property (i)
The value of a determinant remains unaltered, if the rows are interchanged into columns (or
the columns into rows).
Property (ii)
If two rows (or two columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the sign of the value of the
determinant changes.
Property (iii)
If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the determinant is zero.
Property (iv)
If the elements of any row (or column) of a determinant be each multiplied by the same
number, the determinant is multiplied by that number.
Property (v)
If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed as the sum of two
(or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two (or more)
determinants. For example,
Verification: L.H.S. =
So now expanding the determinants along the first row, we get,
Δ = (a1 + λ1) (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – (a2 + λ2) (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + (a3 + λ3) (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1) + λ1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – λ2 (b1c3
– b3 c1) + λ3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
= R.H.S.
Similarly, we may verify Property 5 for other rows or columns.

Property (vi)
If the equimultiples of corresponding elements of other rows (or columns) are added to every
element of any row or column of a determinant, then the value of determinant remains the
same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation Ri → Ri + k Rj or
Ci → Ci + k Cj .
Verification: Let where Δ1 is consequently obtained by the operation R1 → R1 + kR3. Here,
we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R3) by a constant k and added them to the
corresponding elements of the first row (R1). Symbolically, we write this operation as R1 →
R1 + kR3. Now, again
= Δ + 0 (since both R1 and R3 are proportional)
Hence Δ = Δ1

Solved Examples on Properties of Determinants

Question:

A. 0

B. 12 cos2x + 10 sin2x + 2

C. 12 sin2x – 10 cos2

D. 10 sin2x
Solution:
 As two columns are same, A = 0

A. 3, -1
B. -3, 1
C. 1, 3
D. -1, -3
Solution:

– 1(−6 + 15) − x[−3x + 6] = 0

−9 + 3x2 − 6x = 0
x2 −2x − 3 = 0
(x − 3) (x + 1) = 0
x = −1, 3
Thus the answer is D
FACTOR THEOREM
If the elements of a determinant are polynomials in a variable x and if the substitution x = a
makes two rows (or columns) identical, then (x – a) is a factor of the determinant.
When two rows are identical, the value of the determinant is zero. The expansion of a
determinant being polynomial in x vanishes on putting x = a, then x – a is its factor by the
Remainder theorem.
Example 3. Show that
1 1 1
x y z = (x – y)(y – z)(z – x)
x2 y2 z2
Solution. If we put x = y, y = z, z = x then in each case two columns become identical and the
determinant vanishes.
Thus, (x – y), (y – z), (z – x) are the factors.
Since the determinant is of third degree, the other factor can be numerical only k (say).
1 1 1
x y z = k (x – y)(y – z)(z – x) ........... (1)
x2 y2 z2
This leading term (product of the elements of the diagonal elements) in the given determinant
is yz2 and in the expansion
k (x – y) (y – z) (z – x) we get kyz2
Equating the coefficient of yz2 on both sides of (1), we have
k=1
Hence the expansion = (x – y) (y – z) (z – x). Proved.

SPECIAL TYPES OF DETERMINANTS

(i) Orthosymmetric Determinant. If every element of the leading diagonal is the same and
the conjugate elements are equal, then the determinant is said to be orthosymmetric
determinant.
a h g
h a f
g f a
(ii) Skew-Symmetric Determinant. If the elements of the leading diagonal are all zero and
every other element is equal to its conjugate with sign changed, the determinant is said to be
Skew symmetric.

0 -a -b
a 0 -c
b c 0
Property 1. A Skew-symmetric determinant of odd order vanishes.
Property 2. A skew-symmetric determinant of even order is a perfect square.
MATRIX
MATRICES
Let us consider a set of simultaneous equations,
x+2y+3z+5t=0
4x+2y+5z+7t=0
3 x + 4 y + 2 z + 6 t = 0.
Now we write down the coefficients of x, y, z, t of the above equations and enclose them
within brackets and then we get
1 2 3 5
A= 4 2 5 7
3 4 2 6
The above system of numbers, arranged in a rectangular array in rows and columns and
bounded by the brackets, is called a matrix.
It has got 3 rows and 4 columns and in all 3 × 4 = 12 elements. It is termed as 3 × 4 matrix, to
be read as [3 by 4 matrix]. In the double subscripts of an element, the first subscript
determines the row and the second subscript determines the column in which the element lies,
aij lies in the ith row and jth column.
VARIOUS TYPES OF MATRICES
(a) Row Matrix. If a matrix has only one row and any number of columns, it is called a Row
matrix, e.g.,
[2 7 3 9]
(b) Column Matrix. A matrix, having one column and any number of rows, is called a
Column matrix, e.g.,

1
2
3
(c) Null Matrix or Zero Matrix. Any matrix, in which all the elements are zeros, is called a
Zero matrix or Null matrix e.g.,
0 0 0
0 0 0
(d) Square Matrix. A matrix, in which the number of rows is equal to the number of
columns, is called a square matrix e.g.,
2 5
1 4
(e) Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix is called a diagonal matrix, if all its non-diagonal
elements are zero e.g.,
 1 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 4
(f ) Scalar matrix. A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal to a
scalar, say (k) is called a scalar matrix.
For example;
−6 0 0 0
2 0 0
0 −6 0 0
0 2 0 ,
0 0 −6 0
0 0 2
0 0 0 −6
0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖   𝑗  
i.e., A = [aij]n × n is a scalar matrix if aij =
𝑘, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑗
(g) Unit or Identity Matrix. A square matrix is called a unit matrix if all the diagonal
elements are unity and non-diagonal elements are zero e.g.,
1 0 0
1 0
0 1 0 ,
01
0 0 1
(h) Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix will be called symmetric, if for all values of i and j,
aij = aji i.e., A’= A
𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
ℎ 𝑏 𝑓
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐
(j) Triangular Matrix. (Echelon form) A square matrix, all of whose elements below the
leading diagonal are zero, is called an upper triangular matrix. A square matrix, all of whose
elements above the leading diagonal are zero, is called a lower triangular matrix
e.g.,
1 3 2 2 0 0
0 4 1 , 4 1 0
0 0 6 5 6 7
Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

Transpose of a Matrix. If in a given matrix A, we interchange the rows and the

corresponding columns, the new matrix obtained is called the transpose of the matrix A and is
denoted by A’ or AT e.g.,
1 3 2 1 0 0
′
𝐴= 0 4 1 , 𝐴 = 3 4 0
0 0 6 2 1 6
Conjugate of a Matrix
1 + 𝑖 2 − 3𝑖 4
Let 𝐴=
7 + 2𝑖 − 𝑖 3 − 2𝑖
Conjugate of matrix A is 𝐴̅
1 − 𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 4
𝐴̅ =
7 − 2𝑖 𝑖 3 + 2𝑖
Idempotent Matrix. A matrix, such that A2 = A is called Idempotent Matrix.
2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4
𝐴 = −1 3 4 , 𝐴 = −1 3 4 −1 3 4 = −1 3 4 = 𝐴
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3

Singular Matrix. If the determinant of the Problem 3: Find the values of x, y, z and
matrix is zero, then the matrix is known as ‘a’ which satisfy the matrix equation.
singular matrix e.g. 𝑥 + 3 2𝑦 + 𝑥 0 −7
𝐴= =
1 2 𝑧 − 1 4𝑎 − 6 3 2𝑎
𝐴= is singular matrix, because |A| = 6
3 6
– 6 = 0.

ADDITION OF MATRICES
If A and B be two matrices of the same order, then their sum, A + B is defined as the matrix,
each element of which is the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B.
Thus if
4 2 5 1 0 2
𝐴=
,𝐵 =
1 3 −6 3 1 4
4+1 2+0 5+2 5 2 7
Then A + B = =
1+3 3+1 −6+4 4 4 −2

If A = [aij], B = [bij] then A + B = [aij + bij]

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

Only matrices of the same order can be added or subtracted.

(i) Commutative Law. A + B = B + A.

(ii) Associative law. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.

SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

The difference of two matrices is a matrix, each element of which is obtained by subtracting
the elements of the second matrix from the corresponding element of the first.

A – B = [aij – bij]
SCALAR MULTIPLE OF A MATRIX
Problem 4: Matrices A and B are such that
If a matrix is multiplied by a scalar 2 1
3A–2B= and
−2 − 1
quantity k, then each element is multiplied
−1 2
by k, i.e. -4A+B = . Find A & B.
−4 3

4 2 5 Problem 5:
𝐴= ,𝑘 = 3
1 3 −6 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 6 4 𝑥+𝑦
3 = +
𝑧 𝑤 −1 2𝑤 𝑧+𝑤 3
12 6 15
Then 3A =
3 9 − 18 Find x, y, z and w.
MULTIPLICATION
The product of two matrices A and B is only possible if the number of columns in A is equal
to the number of rows in B.
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bij] be an n × p matrix. Then the product AB of
these matrices is an m × p matrix C = [cij] where

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + ai3 b3j + .... + ain bnj

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

1. Multiplication of matrices is not commutative. AB ≠ BA
2. Matrix multiplication is associative, if conformability is assured. A (BC) = (AB) C
3. Matrix multiplication is distributive with respect to addition. A (B + C) = AB + AC
4. Multiplication of matrix A by unit matrix. AI = IA = A
5. Multiplicative inverse of a matrix exists if |A| ≠ 0. A . A–1 = A–1 . A = I
6. If A is a square then A × A = A2, A × A × A = A3.
7. A0 = I
8. In = I, where n is positive integer.
0 1 2 1 −2
Example 4. If A = 1 2 3 and B = −1 0
2 3 4 2 −1
Obtain the product AB and explain why BA is not defined.

ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Let the determinant of the square matrix A be | A |.

a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
If A = b1 b2 b3 then | A | = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
The matrix formed by the co-factors of the elements in

A1 A2 A3
| A | is B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3
Where, A1 = = b2c3-b3c2 A2 = - = -b1c3+b3c1
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑎3
A3 = = b1c2-b2c1 B1 = - = - a2c3+a3c2
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
B2 = = a1c3-a3c2 B3 = − = - a1c2+a2c1
𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3
C1 = = a2b3-a3b2 C2 = − = -a1b3 – a3b1
𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3
𝑎1 𝑎2
C3 = = a1b2 – a2b1
𝐵1 𝐵2
A1 A2 A3
Then the transpose of the matrix of co-factors B1 B2 B3 is called the adjoint of the matrix
C1 C2 C3
A and is written as adj A.
PROPERTY OF ADJOINT MATRIX
The product of a matrix A and its adjoint is equal to unit matrix multiplied by the determinant
A.

INVERSE OF A MATRIX
If A and .
To find the inverse matrix with the help of adjoint matrix
We know that A . (Adj. A) = | A | I
 A. 1/ | A| (Adj A ) = I [Provided | A | 0] ...(1)
and A . A–1 = I ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
–1
A = 1/ | A | (Adj. A) Problem 6. Find the adjoint and inverse
3 −3 4 of the following matrices:
Example 5. If A = 2 − 3 4 , find A-1.
0 −1 1 25 3 1 0 −1
a. 3 1 2 b. 3 4 5
Solution:
12 1 0 −6 −7
3 −3 4
A= 2 −3 4
0 −1 1
| A | = 3 (– 3 + 4) + 3 (2 – 0) + 4 (– 2 – 0) = 3 + 6 – 8 = 1
 −3 + 4 − 2 − 0 − 2 − 0
The co-factors of elements of various rows of | A | are 3−4 3−0 3−0
−12 + 12 − 12 + 8 − 9 + 6
Therefore, the matrix formed by the co-factors of | A | is
1 −2 −2 1 −1 0
−1 3 3 , Adj. A = −2 3 − 4
0 −4 −3 −2 3 − 3
1 −1 0 1 −1 0
 A -1 = 1/| A | . Adj A = 1/1 = −2 3 − 4 = −2 3 − 4 Ans.
−2 3 − 3 −2 3 − 3
RANK OF A MATRIX

The rank of a matrix is said to be r if

(a) It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.

(b) Every minor of A of order higher than r is zero.

Note: (i) Non-zero row is that row in which all the elements are not zero.

(ii) The rank of the product matrix AB of two matrices A and B is less than the rank of either
of the matrices A and B.

(iii) Corresponding to every matrix A of rank r, there exist non-singular matrices P and Q
𝐼𝑟 0
such that PAQ =
0 0
EIGEN VALUES
a11 𝑎12 … … 𝑎1𝑛 x1 y1
⎡a21 𝑎22 … … 𝑎2𝑛 ⎤ ⎡𝑥2⎤ ⎡𝑦2⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Let ⎢a31 𝑎32 … … 𝑎3𝑛 ⎥ ⎢𝑥3⎥ = ⎢𝑦3⎥
⎢… … … … …⎥ ⎢…⎥ ⎢…⎥
⎣an1 𝑎𝑛2 … … 𝑎𝑛𝑛⎦ ⎣𝑥𝑛⎦ ⎣𝑦𝑛⎦
AX = Y ... (1)
Where A is the matrix , X is the column vector and Y is also column vector.
Here column vector X is transformed into the column vector Y by means of the square matrix
A.
Let X be a such vector which transforms intoX by means of the transformation (1). Suppose
the linear transformation Y = AX transforms X into a scalar multiple of itself i.e. X.
AX = Y =  X
AX – IX = 0
(A – I) X = 0 ...(2)
Thus the unknown scalar  is known as an eigen value of the matrix A and the corresponding
non zero vector X as eigen vector.
(𝐴 – 𝐼) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of the matrix A. The roots of characteristic
equation (𝐴 – 𝐼) = 0 are called characteristic roots or Eigen values of matrix A.
The Eigen values are also called characteristic values or proper values or latent values.
2 2 1
Let A = 1 3 1
1 2 2
2 2 1 1 0 0 2− 2 1
A – I = 1 3 1 -  0 1 0  1 3 −  1 characteristic matrix
1 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2−
Some Important Properties of Eigen Values
(1) Any square matrix A and its transpose A’ have the same eigen values.
Note. The sum of the elements on the principal diagonal of a matrix is called the trace of the
matrix.
(2) The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to the trace Problem 7. Find the
of the matrix. characteristic roots of the matrix

(3) The product of the eigen values of a matrix A is equal to the 6 −2 2

−2 3 − 1
determinant of A. 2 −1 3
(4) If n are the eigen values of A, then the eigen
values of
(i) k A are kkkn
(ii) Am are 1m, 2m,.......,nm
(iii) A–1 are 1/1, 1/2, ........., 1/n