Air Cathodes for Metal-Air Batteries and Fuel Cells

J. J. Martin, V. Neburchilov, H. Wang, and W. Qu

Abstract—Metal-air batteries and variant technologies have Rechargeable metal-air batteries consist of two main
the potential to drastically increase the power density and designs that utilize either two or three electrodes [1],[2]. The
decrease the cost of energy storage. This paper highlights some of three-electrode design consists of two separate electrodes for
the compositions, designs and methods of fabrication of air- the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution
cathodes for metal-air batteries. The more promising
reaction (OER). In this cell, the metal electrode is located
compositions for air cathodes are based on individual oxides, or
mixtures of such, with a spinel, perovskite, or pyrochlore between the air cathode and a third electrode for the OER. The
structure: MnO2, Ag, Co3O4, La2O3, LaNiO3, NiCo2O4, LaMnO3, air cathode is electrically isolated during the charging process,
LaNiO3, etc. These compositions provide the optimal balance of which increases its lifetime by avoiding exposure to the high
activity towards the oxygen reduction reaction and chemical OER potential. The electrolyte enclosed between the air
stability in an alkali electrolyte. The sol-gel and reverse micelle cathode and the porous substrate for metal deposition contains
methods supply the most uniform distribution of the catalyst on metal oxide ions, whereas the electrolyte between the third
carbon and the highest catalyst BET surface area. It is shown electrode and the metal electrode is free of the metal oxide.
that the design of the air cathode, including types of carbon The metal produced during charging of the three-electrode cell
black, binding agents, current collectors, Teflon membranes,
is deposited on the portion of the support facing the air
thermal treatment of the GDL, and catalyst layers, has a strong
effect on performance. cathode. Conversely, the two-electrode design consists of a
metal electrode and a bifunctional air electrode having active
Index Terms—Aluminum alloys, Aluminum compounds, catalytic components for both the OER during the charge
Batteries, Cathodes, Electrochemical electrodes, Fuel cells, Iron cycle and the ORR during the discharge cycle. Since the air
compounds, Lithium compounds, Nickel compounds, Zinc electrode can work as cathode for ORR and anode for OER,
compounds. this simple design does not require separation of the two
electrolyte flows.
I. INTRODUCTION Several metal-air chemistries have been studied with the

E NVIRONMENTAL concerns and increasingly power

hungry electronic devices have spurred substantial
research into improving energy storage density and decreasing
aim of realizing the potential of metal-air batteries. Most of
the commonly used components of traditional batteries have
been examined for use in air cathode designs. Fe-air batteries
the environmental impact of our energy system. Two have reasonably high theoretical capacities, long cycle life, are
technologies with the potential to address these concerns are inexpensive and environmentally friendly, but passivity of the
advanced batteries and fuel cells, both of which may find use iron during discharge results in low utilization [3]. Several
in applications such as transportation, back-up power, portable groups have studied air-metal hydride (air-MH) batteries
electronics and grid-scale energy storage. They have the because they have a 15-20 % higher energy density per unit
potential to significantly reduce the pollution produced by our weight than nickel-metal hydride batteries [4]-[6]. For
energy system, while also improving the performance of many example, lithium-air battery research has seen substantial
of the products desired by consumers. activity due to a theoretical specific energy of over 11
Metal-air batteries are a technology that can have kWh/kg, the highest of any metal-air battery [7]-[11]. Interest
characteristics of both fuel cells and batteries and are often in Li-air batteries has led to the development of models to
referred to as metal-air fuel cells. The first metal-air battery investigate numerous compositions [8]. Aluminum-air
was developed by Leclanche, in 1868, with a MnO2/carbon batteries have also been studied for decades, because of a high
cathode electrode, leading the way for Heise and Schudmacher specific energy of 8.1 kWh/kg, but the low coulombic
to develop a more modern design in 1932 [1]. Metal-air efficiency that results from the hydrogen evolution reaction
batteries are an attractive energy storage solution because of has led to difficulties in developing an effective battery [12]-
the decreased weight, volume and cost that can be achieved by [14]. However, Lan et al. [15] found that Zn-Al alloys with up
using atmospheric oxygen as the cathode reactant source. The to 41 % Al, demonstrated high operating potentials as the
two types of metal-air batteries commonly investigated are anode in a metal-air battery. Furthermore, Gibbons and Rudd
primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable). The developed Al-alloys with improved coulombic efficiency, but
technology commonly referred to as a metal-air fuel cell is they also noted that secondary batteries were not feasible
similar to a primary metal-air battery, but with a refuelable because Al could not be electrodeposited from aqueous
anode. solutions [16]. A comparison of metal-air battery chemistries
_______________________________________________________________
is shown in Table 1.
J. J. Martin is with the NRC – Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, Despite the potential of other metal-air battery chemistries,
Vancouver, BC, Canada (email: [email protected]) zinc-air batteries are the most mature technology and have
V. Neburchilov is with the NRC – Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, contributed to significant development towards zinc-air fuel
Vancouver, BC, Canada (email: [email protected]) cells (ZAFCs) [2]. Button zinc-air batteries began to be
H. Wang is with the NRC – Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, Vancouver,
BC, Canada (email: [email protected]) actively developed 40 years ago, but in the early 1970’s they
W. Qu is with the NRC – Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, Vancouver, were prone to leakage. By the mid-70's, design improvements
BC, Canada (email: [email protected])

2009 IEEE Electrical Power & Energy Conference

978-1-4244-4509-7/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
led to the successful introduction of zinc-air button batteries This approach leads to an optimum balance of
for use in hearing aids as a replacement for 2-electrode cells. hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties and allows for good
By the mid 1980's, zinc-air batteries had become the standard oxygen adsorption. Other studies that utilized combinations of
for hearing aid applications. Since that time, button batteries carbon blacks include Ndzebet [22] and Koshiba et al. [23].
have seen significant development towards ZAFCs with In a catalyst improvement by Yang and Xi [24], they
increased electrochemical capacity, cell-to-cell performance showed that MnOOH has higher ORR activity than oxides
consistency, and control of electrolyte leakage, while such as Mn2O3, Mn3O4, and Mn5O8 due to an increase in the
providing a higher voltage and limiting current and controlling number of active centers. Furthermore, Roche et al. [25]
movement of moisture into and out of the cell [18]. Lawrence doped MnxO with Mg and Ni to significantly improve ORR
Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) developed secondary, activity and promote the four-electron pathway.
rechargeable, ZAFCs for other applications, including vehicles
B. Ag
with a range of 250-350 miles before refuelling [19].
Silver has been demonstrated to be an active and stable
TABLE 1 component for the ORR in alkaline solutions. Advances in
Comparison of Metal-Air Battery Anodes
Theoretical
Ag-based catalysts have included: using carbon nanocapsules
Theoretical Typical Operating as the support [26], doping with tungsten carbide (W2C) [27],
Metal Specific Energy, Ref.
OCV, V OCV, V V
kWh/kg oxidizing the Ag to form Ag2O [28], and applying a porous
Li 11500 2.9-3.1 ~2.5 [7],[9],[10] Ag coating on WC particles [29]. Improvements have also
Al 8100 2.78 ~2 0.9-1.2 [12],[16]
been achieved by combining Ag with active compositions
such as: MnOx [30] and Raney alloy (Ni-Al) [31].
Zn 1350 1.65 1.46 1.0-1.2 [10],[15],[17]
Although Ag is a precious metal, it is one of the cheapest
Fe 960-1200 1.3 [11] with a price of $17.125/troy oz on the London Metal
MH 1.2-1.5 [5] Exchange, which is about 110 times less than the platinum
price of $1963/oz (July, 2008) [32]. Regardless, the
Like other metal-air battery chemistries, the air cathode of concentration of Ag is very limited (5-15 %) in the more
ZAFCs is one of the most expensive cell components and is efficiently developed air cathodes. The most effective Ag-
largely responsible for determining the performance of the based air cathode catalysts consist of Ag/C, AgMnO4 + MnO2,
fuel cell. The air cathode of Alupower Ltd., for example, has a AgO-LaNiO3, and (Ag + WC=1:1)/C.
price of $120/m2 and an energy cost of $50/kW, at a high
surface power density of 5 kW/m2, with the cathode catalyst C. CoOx + MnOx
responsible for 50 % of this cost [19]. The growth in demand Cobalt oxides have also been identified as active catalysts
for cost effective non-noble air cathodes has increased activity for the ORR in alkaline solutions. Oyshinsky et al. [33]
in the development of novel ORR catalysts that are active and demonstrated that the combination of CoOx (which is ORR
durable in alkaline electrolytes. active but unstable in alkaline electrolyte) with MnO2 (which
Herein, we review the development of electrodes for ORR is stable and active for H2O2 decomposition) into 2.5 % MnOx
or ORR/OER in alkaline electrolyte. While the majority of the + 7.5 % CoOx/C results in a high ORR activity of 120 mA/cm2
work has been performed on zinc-air systems, the findings are at E=–0.1 V.
applicable to most metal-air battery and metal-air fuel cell
chemistries, along with other alkaline fuel cell technologies. D. Co/FeTMPP
CoTMPP has higher electrochemical stability than
II. AIR CATHODE CATALYST COMPOSITIONS
FeTMPP, but has lower ORR activity. Furthermore, unlike
The ORR in aqueous solutions can proceed by two CoTMPP, which promotes the two-electron ORR pathway,
pathways: a direct four-electron pathway and a less effieicnt FeTMPP promotes direct four-electron reduction. The
peroxide two-electron pathway. In the direct four-electron stabilities of the following metal macrocyclic complexes,
pathway, oxygen directly reduces to OH−. In the peroxide two- which depend on the metal, are ranked as follows: Co> Fe>
electron pathway, an initial reduction to HO2− is followed by Mn [34]. The presence of carbon during the pyrolysis of
the reduction of HO2− to OH− [20]. The peroxide pathway of CoTMPP plays a key role in the ORR activity of CoTMPP/C,
the ORR is more common in alkaline solutions and the direct but not its structure [35]. 10 % CoTMPP/C (C - activated
four-electron pathway of the ORR proceeds by dissociative carbon), with 5 hours of heat treatment in Ar at T = 460-850
absorption on the metal catalyst surface. ºC, demonstrated a performance of 200 mA/cm2 at -200 mV
(Hg/HgO), in 7 M KOH at room temperature [36]. Doping
A. MnOx
CoTPMM with MnO2 gives one of the highest ORR
MnO2 is the most common ORR catalyst for primary performances for a primary ZAFC: j = 216 mA/cm2 at 1 V, in
ZAFCs, however it’s ORR activity is insufficient and it 30 % KOH at T = 25 ºC [37].
promotes the less efficient two-electron pathway. However, it
is sufficiently active for hydrogen peroxide decomposition and E. Manganese Nitride
stable in alkaline solution. Air Energy Resources Inc. (AER) Mn4N is an ORR active catalyst that promotes the direct
obtained impressive performances from MnO2 by utilizing an four-electron pathway. It has a stable performance (5 hours at j
advanced sol-gel method for fabrication and by combining = 2400 mA/cm2 and 50 hours at j = 300 mA/cm2) at –125 mV
two carbon blacks with low and high BET surface area [21]. (Hg/HgO) in 9 M NaOH at 80 ºC [38].
F. Structured Oxides treating the carbon with CoTMPP and Ag, the use of
ammonium carbonate for pore formation, and differing
Spinel NiCo2O4 is one of the few non-noble compounds,
which simultaneously has high stability and ORR activity in concentrations of the ORR and OER catalysts in the various
alkaline electrolyte. It is more active than CoO and NiO in 75 layers. The electrode design consisted of an active layer with
two sublayers (0.02 and 0.025 in. thick) and a 0.015 in. thick
% KOH at T = 200 ºC. The performance of a ZAFC with a
wet-proofed GDL layer. The catalyst was investigated in a
NiCo2O4 + PTFE air cathode in 5 M KOH is j = 200 mA/cm2
half-cell with a Ni counter electrode. The optimal ratio of
at 0.87 V and room temperature [39].
OER catalyst/ORR catalyst was found to be 40:60. The ORR
Perovskites are the group of oxides with formula ABO3,
where A is a divalent metal ion (i.e., Ce, Ca, Sr, Ca, Pb, and activity and stability of the combined catalyst (La2O3 +
rare earth metals) and B is a tetrahedral metal (i.e., Ti, Nb, MnSO4) in alkaline electrolyte was superior to the individual
catalysts separately.
Fe). The perovskite-based ORR catalysts, LaMnO3 and
Coetzer et al. [50] investigated the use of different carbides
LaCoO3, have high ORR activity, but insufficient stability.
for bifunctional electrodes in the alkaline electrolyte of Li-Ion
However, LaMnO3 after doping with Sr and Fe
(La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.6Mn0.4O3) demonstrates significantly improved batteries. Several carbides, including TaC, WC, W2C, TiC,
stability as a ZAFC cathode: j = 500 mA/cm2 at -260 mV Cr3C2, Cr7C3, Cr23C6, MoNiC, and WCoC, were tested to
evaluate their stability and ORR activity in alkaline
(Hg/HgO) for 70 h [40].
electrolyte. TiC and VC showed the worst ORR activity,
Lead ruthenate pyrochlore (Pb2Ru2O6.5) effectively
MnC3 also demonstrated low ORR activity at low
promotes the four-electron ORR pathway and can be used as a
temperatures, and both Cr2O3 and FeC were unstable in
self-supported catalyst to avoid oxidation of the carbon-
support materials [41]. alkaline electrolyte and had low ORR activity. The best ORR
activity was obtained with a composition of TaC + WC + W2C
G. Bifunctional Electrodes for Secondary Batteries + TiC.
Secondary metal-air batteries are extremely desirable since Zhimin [51] developed a three-electrode secondary ZAFC,
they do not need to be replaced like primary batteries and do consisting of an ORR cathode with CoTMPP and an OER
not require mechanical replacement of the electrolyte and electrode composed of 30 % Ag + 70 % LaNiO3. The addition
anode metal like fuel cells. Secondary batteries require of Ag to LaNiO3 decreased the formation of ZnO, by
bifunctional electrodes, which have active components for decreasing the affinity of LaNiO3 for ZnO.
both the OER and the ORR. These electrodes must be able to Shimizu et al. suggested promising bifunctional perovskite-
operate in a wide range of potentials, from 0.6-0.7 V (RHE) based catalysts, with high ORR and OER activity, on the basis
during the ORR (discharge mode) [1], to over 2.1 V (RHE) of La1-xAxCoO3 (where A = Sr or Ca) and La0.8Sr0.2BO3
during the OER (charge mode). Additional requirements of (where B = Co, Mn, or Fe) [52]. It was discovered that the
bifunctional electrodes include higher stability of the ORR comparative activities of La0.8Sr0.2BO3 catalysts for ORR and
component in comparison with a primary battery and a fast OER were Co>Mn>Fe and Co>Fe>>Mn, respectively.
OER on the ORR component. Unfortunately, the Co-based catalysts that demonstrated the
Westinghouse Electric Corp. developed [42]-[47] highest OER and ORR activity did not have sufficient stability
promising bifunctional electrodes based on the following [53]. This led to the development of the Co-free catalyst La1-
composition: (CuS04 + NiWO4 + WC + Co)/C [43],[44]. The xAxFe1-yMnyO3 [54], where the type and concentration of the

carbon in this electrode consisted of a mixture of two different A-site component (Sr or Ca) strongly affects the ORR activity.
carbon blacks with high and low specific surface areas, which For example, La0.8Sr0.2Fe1-yMnyO3 catalyst had a maximum
provided a proper balance of hydrophilic and hydrophobic ORR activity at y = 0.6 and a maximum OER activity at y =
properties. 22 % PTFE was used as the binding agent and the 0.2. The La1-xCaxFe0.8Mn0.2O3 catalyst demonstrated a
silver ORR catalyst (load of Ag – 2 mg/cm2) was stabilized maximum for ORR (200-300 mA/cm2 at -300 mV (Hg/HgO)
with nickel sulphide [45]. The improved performance of the in 7 M KOH at 25 ºC with air flow) and OER activities and a
catalyst is based on the following [47]: Ag is a more active maximum BET surface area at x = 0.4.
ORR catalyst in the presence of Co and Ni than Co alone; the OER activity depends on the type of cation on the A-site
presence of sulphides (NiS) causes the formation of the and is ranked accordingly: Sr>Ca>Ba>La. Furthermore, while
relatively stable Ag2S; hydrated cobalt oxide promotes increasing the Mn concentration to 60 % leads to an increase
decomposition of the hydroxides produced during the ORR; ORR activity, the maximum OER activity occurs at a
and WC and Ni-Fe hydrated oxides have a high ORR activity. concentration of 20 %. As established by Jain et al. [55], Sr
Another of Westinghause’s improved bifunctional increases the surface area of mixed perovskite-based catalysts.
electrodes was developed by Liu et al. [48] and consisted of Shimizu et al. [56] developed La0.6Ca0.4Co0.8B0.2O3/C
(AgCoWO4 + WC +WS2 + NiS + 10-15 % Co)/C + 20 % (where B = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, or Cu) with a maximum
PTFE. This electrode composition did not allow gas pockets to bifunctional activity for B = Fe (1 M NaOH at 25 ºC, j = 200
form between the air cathode and electrolyte during discharge. mA/cm2 for the ORR and 300 mA/cm2 for the OER at -150
Gas pockets interrupt the chemical reaction between the and +620 V (Hg/HgO) respectively). The Fe-based catalyst
electrolyte and air cathode and decreases cell performance. also demonstrated a high activity for the decomposition of the
Shepard et al. [49] developed other bifunctional electrodes HO2- intermediate. These electrodes were synthesized by the
with complex ORR catalyst compositions similar to the OER amorphous citrate precursor (ACP) method. The effect of the
catalyst from Westinghouse. However, their fabrication B-site metal on the BET surface area and the HO2-
method of this electrode included: multiple sintering steps, decomposition activity in 1 M NaOH at 25 ºC was determined
based on the rates of oxygen evolution from the
decomposition of H2O2 in 7 M NaOH at 80 ºC [53]. The III.OUTLOOK
majority of oxygen reduced on the developed electrode
Analysis of the air cathode market (Table 2) for primary
proceeded via the two-electron mechanism, but the ORR rate
- alkaline ZAFCs showed that the eight main types of ORR
was only determined by the HO2 decomposition rate under
catalysts are based on MnOx, CoOx-MnOx, Ag,
working current densities. The four-electron mechanism of
CoTMPP/FeTMPP, metal nitrides, spinel, perovskites, and
ORR was only observed at low current densities. The
pyrochlore compositions.
electrode with B = Fe produced the maximum BET surface
2 - While MnO2-based catalysts have a high activity for
area (28 m /g) and rate of HO2 decomposition.
peroxide decomposition and sufficient stability in
Lippert et al. [57] tested La0.6Ca0.4CoO3-δ and
concentrated alkaline solution, they promote the less desirable
La0.7Ca0.3CoO3-δ as bifunctional air catalysts for ZAFCs.
two-electron ORR pathway. In contrast, Ag promotes the
These catalysts, which have an amorphous structure, mixed
direct four-electron ORR pathway, and is the cheapest
orientation or single orientation, were produced by pulsed
precious metal with a high ORR activity and high stability in
laser deposition. Catalysts with mixed or single orientations
alkaline solution. Effective Ag-based catalysts can utilize
showed higher OER/ORR activity in a ZAFC in comparison to
MnO2, LaNiO3, and W2C. The latter catalyst could be used in
those with an amorphous structure.
TABLE 2
METAL-AIR BATTERY CATHODE COMPOSITIONS

Assignee Catalyst composition Design Performance Fabrication method Ref.

MnO2-based ORR catalyst
Rayovac Corp MnO2 (20-26μm) + C (activated Standard * 1.15V at 150mA/cm2, more stable than the prior Sol-gel (reduction of [22]
(USA) carbon + BP2000) + PTFE art in 30 %KOH over 15h KMnO4)
Ag-based ORR catalysts
C-Y Wu et al. Ag/CNC Standard * j = 200 mA/cm2 at E=0.8V (30 %KOH, T = 25 [26]
ºC)
H.Meng et al. AgW2C/C Standard * RRDE in 1 M KOH, 25 ºC: j= 6 mA/cm2 at Intermittent microwave [27]
200mV (Hg/HgO) heating method (IMH)
Gillette Corp. AgMnO4 + 5-10 %MnO2 + C + PTFE GDL: 30-70 5 %MnO2 – 28 mA/cm2 at 0.16 V (SHE) MnO2 – heating Mn(NO3)2 [30]
(USA) %PTFE, CL: 10 %MnO2 – 50 mA/cm2 at 0.16 V (SHE) AgMnO4 – reducing Ag
10-30 %PTFE permanganate
Luz Electric Fuel Raney silver catalyst + PTFE=5:1 (24 C + PTFE on 200 mA/cm2 at 0.9V after 5 hours discharge [31]
Izrael Ltd. mg/cm2) Ni mesh/foam
Zinc Air Power Ag2O + 10 %LaNiO3 Standard * No degradation during 500h in 32 %KOH [28]
Corp.
CoTMPP-based ORR catalysts
Ovonic Battery 2.5% MnOx + 7.5% CoOx/C Standard * j = 120mA/cm2 at 0.1 V [33]
Company, Inc.
(USA)
Nitride-based ORR catalysts
N.Miura et al. 60 %Mn4N/C + PTFE Standard * j = 2400 mA/cm2 for 5h at 0.8 V (RHE), j = 300 Co-precipitation [38]
mA/cm2 for 50h in 9 M NaOH at 80 ºC
Spinel –based ORR catalyst
W.J.King et al. NiCo2O4 spinel Standard * 0.87 V in 5 M KOH and room temperature Pyrolysis of metal salts [39]
Perovskite –based ORR catalysts
T. Hyodo et al. Perovskites Current (mA/cm2) at –160 mV (Hg/HgO) [40]
(1) La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.6Co0.4O3, (2) LaMnO3, (1) 682, (2) 1266, (3) 922, (4) 1006, (5) 468, (6)
(3) La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.6Mn0.4O3, (4) LaCoO3, 344, (7) 273, (8) 519
(5) LaNiO3, (6) LaCrO3, (7) LaFeO3,
(8) La0.8Sr0.2FeO3
Pyrochlore-based ORR catalysts
A.Gibeney et al. Pb2M2-xPbxO7- j = 6x10-3 at –100 mV (Hg/HgO) in 1 M NaOH [46]
at 25 ºC
Bifunctional electrodes
Westinghouse 1. CuS04, NiWO4, WC + 20 %Co, 2. Hydrophilic 4. At -0.3 V (Hg/Hg): j = 100 mA/cm2 (initial), j [43]
Electric Corp WS2 + WC or WC +1-20 %Co, 3. WS CL, FEP sheet = 40 mA/cm2 (934h). Stable performance during
+ C + PTFE, 4. WC + Ag + C + FEP first 750 h, voltage drop 50 mV at 25 mA/cm2
Y.Shmizu et al. La1-xAxFe1-yMnyO3 (A = Sr, Ca) j = 200-300 mA/cm2 at –300 mV (Hg/HgO) in 7 [54]
M KOH, 25 ºC, air flow
Y.Shimizu et al. La0.6Ca0.4Co0.8 Fe0.2O3 j = 200 mA/cm2 at -150 V (Hg/HgO) in 1 M [56]
NaOH at 25 ºC
* Standard cathode design: Teflon film (air side) + Current collector + Gas diffusion layer + Catalyst layer
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 composite catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline solution,” J. College. He obtained his M.A.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering as part of the
Electrochem. Soc., vol. 154, pp. B733-B738, 2007. Institute for Integrated Energy Systems (IESVic) at the University of Victoria,
[38] N. Miura. H. Horiuchi, Y. Shimizu, and N. Yamazoe, “Gas diffusion where his research and education focused on energy systems, specifically on
electrodes for oxygen reduction loaded with transition metal oxides,” fuel cell technology and the application of Particle Image Velocimetry for
Nippon Kagaku Kaishi, pp. 617-621, 1987. visualization of the flow structures in serpentine fuel cell flow fields. He has
[39] W. J. King and A. C. Tseung, “The reduction of oxygen on nickel-cobalt authored fifteen journal papers, seven industrial reports, twelve conference
oxides—I : The influence of composition and preparation method on the papers or presentations and two book chapters.
activity of nickel-cobalt oxides,” Electrochim. Acta, vol. 19, pp.485-491,
1994. Dr. Vladimir Neburchilov is a research officer in
[40] T. Hyodo, M. Hayashi, S. Mitsutake, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, the Electrocatalyst Team in the Institute for Fuel
“Praseodymium–calcium manganites (Pr1−xCaxMnO3) as electrode Cell Innovation, National Research Council of
catalyst for oxygen reduction in alkaline solution,” J. Appl. Canada (NRC-IFCI). He obtained his Ph.D degree in
Electrochem., vol. 27, p. 745, 1997. electrochemistry (2003, Karpov Institute of Physical
[41] J. Prakash, D. Tryk, and E. Yeager, “Electrocatalysis for oxygen Chemistry (Moscow, Russia)) and his Master of
electrodes in fuel cells and water electrolyzers for space applications,” J. Management of Technology (2000, joint program of
Power Sources, vol. 29, pp.413-422, 1990. the Russian Academy of National Economy and the
[42] B. G. Demczyk and C. T. Liu, “Potential distribution on a carbon-based University of Texas, USA).
bifunctional air electrode,” J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 129, pp.1159- As a research officer at Karpov Institute of
1164, 1982. Physical Chemistry (1988-2003) he carried out research and development of
[43] E.S. Buzzet, “Metal/air cells and improved air electrodes for use electrocatalysts for chlorine membrane electrolysers, chlorate electrolysis,
therein,” U.S. Patent 3 977 901, Aug. 31, 1976. cathode protection, electrodialysis and electrodepostion processes. As a post-
[44] J. Chottiner, “Multi-ply laminar pasted air electrodes,” U.S. Patent 4 doctoral researcher at the University of Alberta, he was involved in
152 489, May 1, 1979. technology commercialization and developed pulsing Ni-Co and Ag-Sn
[45] C. T. Liu and J. F. Jackovitz, “Bifunctional gas diffusion electrodes electrodeposition in 2004. In 2006 he joined NRC-IFCI as an NSERC post-
employing wettable, non-wettable layered structure using the mud- doctoral fellow where he developed novel catalysts for PEMFC, DEFC,
caking concept,” U.S. Patent 5 318 862, Jun. 7, 1994. DMFC, MFC. MFE and ZAFC applications. Dr. Neburchilov has
[46] A. Gibeney and D. Zuckerbrod, Power Source (Ed. J.Thomson) 143, accumulated twenty-seven years’ professional research experience in
Academic, New York, 1983 electrochemistry, electrocatalysis and fuel cell technology. He has over
[47] D. Tryk, W. Alfred, and E. Yeager. First Report for the period Oct.9, thirteen journal papers, five conference papers and three patents.
1980 – to Apr.1, 1983, prepared by Western Reserve University.
Subcontract 1377901 for Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Dr. Haijiang Wang is a senior research officer,
Livermore, CA (July 15, 1983). project manager of multi-projects and core
[48] C. T. Liu and B. Demczyk, “Size and weight graded multi-ply laminar competency leader of the Unit Fuel Cell Team in the
electrodes,” U.S. Patent 4 444 852, Apr. 24, 1984. Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, National Research
[49] V. R. Shepard, Y. G. Smalley, and R. D. Bentz, “Bifunctional metal-air Council of Canada (NRC-IFCI). He is leading a team
electrode,” U.S. Patent 5 306 579, Apr. 26, 1994. of over ten researchers to carry out research and
[50] J. Coetzer and M. M. Thackeray, “Cathode for an electrochemical cell development on novel fuel cell design, novel fuel
and an electrochemical cell,” U.S. Patent 4 288 506, Sep. 8, 1981. cell material, fuel cell diagnosis and durability.
[51] Z. Zhimin, “Lanthanum nickel compound/metal mixture as a third Dr. Wang received his Ph. D degree in
electrode in a metal-air battery,” U.S. Patent 6 383 675, May 7, 2002. electrochemistry from University of Copenhagen,
[52] Y. Shimizu, H. Matsude, A. Nemoto, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, “Bi- Denmark, in 1993. Then he joined Dr. Vernon Parker’s research group at the
functional oxygen electrode for rechargeable metal-air batteries,” Utah State University as a postdoc researcher to study electrochemically
Progress in Batteries & Battery Materials, vol. 12, pp. 108-114, 1993. generated anion and cation radicals. In 1997 he started with Natural Resources
[53] T. Hyodo, T. Shimizu, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, “Investigation of Canada as a research scientist to carry out research on fuel cell technology. In
Materials for gas diffusion-type oxygen cathode aiming at electric 1999 he joined Ballard Power Systems as a senior research scientist to
power-saving brine electrolysis,” Denki Kagaku, vol. 62, pp. 158-164, continue his research on fuel cell technology. After spending five years with
1994. Ballard Power Systems, he joined NRC-IFCI in 2004. He is currently adjunct
[54] Y. Shimizu, A. Nemoto, T. Hyodo, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, “Gas professor of five universities including University of British Columbia and
diffusion-type oxygen electrode using perovskite-type oxides for University of Waterloo. To date, Dr. Wang accumulated twenty-five years’
rechargeable metal-air batteries,” Denki Kagaku, vol. 61, pp. 1458-1460, professional research experience in electrochemistry and fuel cell technology.
1993. He has over seventy journal papers, forty industrial reports, thirty conference
[55] N. L. Jain, S. K. Tiwari, P. Chartier, and R. N. Singh, “Low-temperature papers or presentations and three patents.
synthesis of perovskite-type oxides of lanthanum and cobalt and their
electrocatalytic properties for oxygen evolution in alkaline solutions,” J. Wei Qu has been a Research Council Officer with
Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans., vol. 91, pp. 1871-1875, 1995. the National Research Council – Institute for Fuel
[56] Y. Shimizu, H. Matsuda, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, “Bi-functional Cell Innovation in Vancouver, British Columbia
oxygen electrode using large surface area perovskite-type oxide catalyst since 2005. His research interests include: ceramic
for rechargeable metal-air batteries,” Chem. Lett., vol. 21, pp. 1033- based electrode materials, air diffusion cathode,
1036, 1992. amorphous sealing materials and interconnect for
[57] T. Lippert, M. J. Montenegro, M. Dobeli, A. Weidenkaff, S. Muller, P. solid oxide fuel cell materials.
R. Willmott, and A. Wokaun, “Perovskite thin films deposited by pulsed Mr. Qu received his Bachelor’s degree in
laser ablation as model systems for electrochemical applications,” Prog. Inorganic Materials Science and Engineering from
Solid State Chem., vol. 35, pp. 221-231, 2007. East China University of Science and Technology in
1986, and his Master’s degree in Chemical Engineering from University of
Jonathan J. Martin is a Research Council Officer Calgary in 2004. Mr. Qu has almost twenty years of combined experience in
with the National Research Council – Institute for academic research and industrial projects. This includes over ten years of
Fuel Cell Innovation in Vancouver, British Columbia experience directly related to fuel cell research (three in Zinc-Air fuel cells in
and has been involved in fuel cell research since China and five in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells in Canada). The remainder of his
2001. Areas of focus for his research include: fuel experience is related to the research and development of new materials and
cell design, failure mode analysis, performance and processes especially in glass and ceramic materials, high temperature sealing
durability testing, accelerated testing protocols and materials, thin films technology.
fuel cell diagnostic tool development.
Mr. Martin received his B.S.E. in Mechanical
Engineering with a minor in Mathematics from
Loyola Marymount University, in Los Angeles, as a member of the Honors