Final Vol 5 No 1 - 2021 - Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs

ISSN 2475-6156 (print)
ISSN 2475-6164 (online)
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs

Volume 5, Issue 1, June 2021
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IMPRESSUM

Volume 5, Issue 1, June 2021
Editor in Chief:
Dr. Hourakhsh Ahmad Nia, Alanya Hamdullah Emin Pasa University, Turkey
Managing Editors:
Dr. José Manuel Pagés Madrigal, German University in Cairo, Egypt
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa University, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey.
Editors of this issue:

Dr. Wilfred Ochieng Omollo, Department of Planning and Development, Kisii University, Kenya
Dr. Seda Bostancı, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal
University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
ISSN 2475-6156 (print) ISSN 2475-6164 (online)

URL: www.ijcua.com
Email: [email protected]
Publisher: Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa Üniversitesi
Address: No: 58, Izzet Azakoğlu Boulevard, Saray Mahallesi, Alanya,Antalya, Turkey.
Faculty of architecture, Alanya HEP University, Cikcilli Mah. Saraybeleni Cad. No:7 07400,
Alanya/Antalya/Turkey
Phone: +90 506 189 99 66
Printed in: Erman Ofset, Fevzi Çakmak Mahallesi Büsan O.S.B. Özlem Caddesi No:33/G, KONYA, Turkey.
Circulation: 100 copies
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Journal of Contemporary
Urban
Affairs
Publisher: Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa Üniversitesi
Editor-in-Chief Managing Editors

Dr. Hourakhsh Ahmad Nia Dr. José Manuel Pagés Madrigal, German
Alanya Hamdullah Emin Pasa University, Turkey University in Cairo, Egypt
[email protected] [email protected]
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Alanya Hamdullah
Emin Pasa University, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey.
[email protected]
International Editorial Board members

Dr. Satish Sharma, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Dr. Francisco Gomes, University of Texas at Austin, USA
Dr. Evren Ulkeryildiz, Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa Üniversitesi, Dr. Jerri Killian, Wright State University, USA
Alanya, Antalya, Turkey Dr. Shamila Ahmed, University of Westminster, UK
Dr. Enamul Choudhury, Wright State University, USA Dr. Daniel Warshawsky, Wright State University, USA
Dr. Shahin Keynoush, Girne American University, KKTC, Cyprus Dr. Justyna Karakiewicz, University of Melbourne, Australia
Dr. Yu Hung Hong, MIT Department of Urban Studies and Dr. Shyamala Mani, National Institute of Urban Affairs, India
Planning, USA Dr. Elisa Lega, University of Brighton, UK
Dr. Iñaki Echeverria, University of Pennsylvania, USA Dr. Martina Klett-Davies, University of London, UK
Dr. Thomas Bryer, University of Central Florida, USA Dr. Paul Loh, University of Melbourne, Australia
Dr. Siqing Chen, University of Melbourne, Australia Dr. Aykut Karaman, MSGSU , Altınbaş University, İstanbul,
Dr, Harold Takooshian, Fordham University, USA Turkey
Dr. Jieling Xiao, Birmingham City University, UK Abdulsalam I. Shema, Department of Architecture, Cyprus
Dr. Wilson Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China International University, Turkey
Dr. Elizabeth Aitken Rose, University of Auckland, New Zealand Dr. Timothy Onosahwo IYENDO, European University of Lefke,
Dr. Christopher C. M. Lee, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Turkey
USA
Editorial Advisory Board

Dr. David M. Simpson, University Of Louisville, USA Dr. Ayşe Sirel, Istanbul Aydin University, Turkey
Dr. Alexandru-Ionut Petrisor, Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Dr. Taeg Nishimoto, Victoria University Of Wellington, New Zealand
Urbanism, Bucharest, Romani Dr. John Morrison, University of Kentucky, USA
Dr. Alaattin Kanoğlu, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey Dr. Alev Erarslan, Istanbul Aydın University, Department of
Dr. Gehan Selim, Faculty Of Engineering And Physical Sciences, Architecture, Turkey
University of Leeds, UK Dr. Daniel Jang Wong, RAIA, University of Bath, UK
Dr. Daniel Foroughi, Eastern Mediterranean University, Turkey Femi Emmanuel Arenibafo, Girne American University, Turkey
Dr. John I. Gilderbloom, University Of Louisville, USA
Production Editor
Siepan Khalil, Girne American University, Cyprus
Husam Husain, German university in Cairo, Egypt
Proofreader
Harry Jake Wadsworth, Girne American University, North Cyprus,
Kyrenia, Turkey
Technical-Editor
Dr. Emre Gungor, Alanya HEP University, Turkey
Batuhan Yildiz, Girne American University, North Cyprus, Kyrenia,
Turkey
Cover Design
Deren Raman, Girne American University, North Cyprus, Kyrenia,
Turkey
Journal of Contemporary urban Affairs, ISSN 2475-6156

Publisher:
Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa Üniversitesi
Address:
Faculty of architecture, Alanya Hamdullah Emin Paşa Üniversitesi University, Cikcilli Mah,
Saraybeleni Cad. No:7 07400, Alanya/Antalya/Turkey
Phone: +90 506 189 99 66
Website: www.ijcua.com , www.ahep.edu.tr
E-mail: [email protected]
About the Journal

The Journal Of Contemporary Urban Affairs is dedicated to focuses on the socio-economic consequences of
contemporary urbanization. In this regard, studies on conflict and divided territories, emerging cities, infra habitation,
slums, affordable houses, gated communities, revitalization and rapid urbanization are the main socio-economic
challenges in the contemporary urban spaces considered for publication in this journal. Recently, the editorial board
of the journal have been added “Pandemic and its socio-economic consequences on cities” as additional scope to
be considered for publication. Contributions are welcome from across the full range of social science disciplines and
are expected to advance empirical and theoretical knowledge on contemporary urban affairs - by considering the
main scopes of the journal - both from positive and normative perspectives. The highest priority is given to research
reports that are specifically written for a multidisciplinary audience.
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs distinguishes itself by providing an international and interdisciplinary platform for
the exchange of ideas and information among Architectures, urban planners, policymakers and urbanists from all
disciplines to focus on seven main concerns of this journal which are Housing studies, Emerging cities, urban ecology,
Infra Habitation, Revitalization strategies, conflict, divided territories and overall contemporary urban issues about
mentioned concerns. Submissions of empirical, comparative, theoretical research, critical review and manifestoes for
the future of cities from different scholarly disciplines and methodological perspectives are encouraged.
Coverages
The journal explores a range of academic and policy concerns including:
- Conflict and divided territories.
- Emerging cities.
- Urban ecology, morphology and growing concern on sustainability.
- Infra Habitation (Slums / Affordable houses and Gated communities).
- Revitalization, regeneration and urban renewal.
- Housing studies (livability, responsive environment, quality of life, etc.)
- Contemporary urban issues (politics, strategies, sociology, Crime, Immigration and international labour migration,
etc. New urbanism, Rapid urbanization, Urban sprawl).
Peer Review Statement

All research articles in this journal have undergone rigorous peer review, based on initial editor screening and
anonymized refereeing by two referees.
The manuscript submission and peer-review process is broken down into the following steps:
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Credit the source and copyright of photographs, figures, illustrations etc. in the supplementary captions.
Journal of contemporary urban Affairs, ISSN 2475-6156

Publication Frequency: 2 Issues per year (June & December)
www.ijcua.com , [email protected]
ISSN 2475-6156 (print)
ISSN 2475-6164 (online)
EDITORIAL
The Journal Of Contemporary Urban Affairs is dedicated to focuses on the socio-economic consequences of
contemporary urbanization. In this regard, studies on conflict and divided territories, emerging cities, infra habitation,
slums, affordable houses, gated communities, revitalization and rapid urbanization are the main socio-economic
challenges in the contemporary urban spaces considered for publication in this journal. Recently, the editorial board
of the journal have been added “Pandemic and its socio-economic consequences on cities” as additional scope to
be considered for publication. Contributions are welcome from across the full range of social science disciplines and
are expected to advance empirical and theoretical knowledge on contemporary urban affairs - by considering the
main scopes of the journal - both from positive and normative perspectives. The highest priority is given to research
reports that are specifically written for a multidisciplinary audience.
Editorial Board strives to provide a possibility for the scientists of different fields to publish the results of their research,
technical and theoretical studies. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs is multidisciplinary in approach and will publish
a great range of papers: reports of qualitative case studies, quantitative experiments and surveys, mixed-method
studies, action researches, meta-analyses, discussions of conceptual and methodological issues.
A broad outline of the journal's scope includes peer-reviewed original research articles, case and technical reports,
reviews, short communications and notes to the editor. All scholars, practitioners, professionals, researchers and
policymakers with a common interest to study in the field of architecture and urban design from different disciplines,
such as Art, Architecture, Landscape, Urban Planning and Urban Design are welcome to share their research findings.
The journal only publishes research of the highest quality and impact. All articles are published in English and undergo
a peer-review process.
Educational Technology
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs has an international editorial board of eminent experts in their field from Turkey,
USA, UK, Germany, India, Canada, New Zealand, Cyprus, Egypt, Malesia, Lebanon, Switzerland and Pakistan. We are
confident that JCUA will attract a great number of editors, eminent scientists in the field. The selection will be based on
the activities of the editors and their desire to contribute to the development of the journal. Journal of Contemporary
Urban Affairs provides a platform for academics and scientists professionals to refer and discuss recent progress in the
fields of their interests. Authors are encouraged to contribute articles that are not published or not under review in any
other journal. Each submitted manuscript is evaluated based on the originality of its contribution to the field of scholarly
publishing, the soundness of its theory and methodology, the coherence of its analysis and its availability to readers
(grammar and style). The normal turn-around time for the evaluation of manuscripts is one to two months from the date
of receipt.
Submission of an original manuscript to the journal will be taken to mean that it represents original work not previously
published, that is not being considered elsewhere for publication; that the author is willing to assign the copyright to the
journal as per a contract that will be sent to the author just before the publication and, if accepted, it will be published
in print and online and it will not be published elsewhere in the same form, for commercial purposes, in any language,
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requirement for the submission of a paper implies that it has not been published before; that it is not under consideration
for publication anywhere else.
When considering submitting an article, the Editors have provided the following criteria to assist authors with preparing
their submissions:
Originality – The author should ensure that the manuscript has not been previously published nor is being considered by
another journal.
Plagiarism - All articles are test ted with iThenticate software. Content should be properly referenced. Be sure to check
the paper for possible accidental plagiarism. Some plagiarism checker websites include: http://www.ithenticate.com/,
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Manuscripts must be submitted online. Electronic submission reduces the editorial processing and reviewing time. As
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A manuscript goes through the peer-review process. Authors submit manuscripts to Editorial office via the online system.
The acknowledgement letter should be sent to the author to confirm the receipt of the manuscript. The Chief Editor first
reviews manuscripts. Chief Editor is assisted by Section Editors (could also be Co- or Associate Editors). The Editor assigns
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Editor. Proof Editor confirms that the manuscript has gone through all the stages and can be published.
This issue on education has 9 articles. The editors seek to publish articles considering socio-economic consequences of
contemporary urbanization in the specific field of Housing Studies, Emerging Cities, Urban Ecology, Infra Habitation,
Revitalization Strategies, Conflict, Divided Territories; they are looking forward to substantial improvement of educational
processes and outcomes.
With kind regards,

Dr. Hourakhsh A. Nia
Editor-in-Chief
Alanya Hamdullah Emin Pasa University, Phone: +90 506 189 9966
Title: Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
URL: www.ijcua.com
Email: [email protected] ISSN 2475-6156 (print) ISSN 2475-6164 (online)
Journal of contemporary urban Affairs, Volume (5), Issue (1), 2021

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Journal of contemporary urban Affairs, ISSN 2475-6156

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Journal of contemporary urban Affairs, Volume (5), Issue (1), 2021
Table of Contents
Urban Acupuncture in Large Cities: Filtering Framework to Select Sensitive Urban Spots in Riyadh for Effective
Urban Renewal, Dr. Usama Abd Elhameed Nassar ……….1-18
DOI https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-1
Mediterranean Morphologies in Hot Summer Conditions: Learning from France’s “Glorious Thirty” Holiday
Housing, M.Sc. Marjan Sansen, Dr. Andrés Martínez, Dr. Philippe Devillers….19-34
Urbanization, Housing Quality and Health: Towards a Redirection for Housing Provision in Nigeria, Dr. Oluwafemi
K. Akande….35-46
Model Cities for Resilience: Climate-led Initiatives, Dr. Didem Gunes Yilmaz…..47-58
SIMURG_CITIES: Meta-Analysis for KPI's of Layer-Based Approach in Sustainability Assessment, PhD Candidate.
Burcu Ülker , Prof. Dr. Alaattin Kanoğlu, Prof. Dr. Özlem Özçevik….59-76
Urban Land-use and Traffic Congestion: Mapping the Interaction, Ph.D. Candidate James Kanyepe, Prof.
Dr. Marian Tukuta, Prof. Dr. Innocent Chirisa………………77-84
Enhancing Security in Affordable Housing: The Case of Prince Fawaz Project, Professor Dr. Maged Attia………….85-
100
Towards the Egyptian Charter for Conservation of Cultural Heritages, Associate Professor Dr. Corinna Rossi, Sara
Rabie………..101-111
Book Reviews
Book Review: Smart City Citizenship, Dr. Igor Calzada……………113-118
www.ijcua.com
2021, Volume 5, Number 1, pages 1– 18
Original scientific paper
Urban Acupuncture in Large Cities: Filtering
Framework to Select Sensitive Urban Spots in
Riyadh for Effective Urban Renewal
* Dr. Usama A. Nassar
Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
College of Engineering, Taibah University, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
ARTICLE INFO: ABSTRACT

New revitalization and regeneration strategies are currently taking place as
Article History: a scheme for reassessing urban spaces. This paper, as a result, navigates the
Received 25 April 2020
theory of Urban Acupuncture (UA) as a quick and effective tool that can be
Accepted 7 June 2020
Available online 18 June 2020 adopted in large cities. Using Riyadh city as a case study, it discusses how
this tool can be used to achieve maximum results with minimal effort in the
Keywords: most critical places. Riyadh city is the capital of Saudi Arabia and is
Urban Acupuncture; considered one of the fastest-growing metropolitan cities in the Arab world.
Riyadh; Through time, it has transformed into a city with leftover open spaces and an
Sensitive Spot; ever-increasing population. The study commences by exploring the term UA
Urban Renewal; and its principles and similarly presents some of its successful international
Human-centered Spaces. examples. It thereafter delves into the past and current situation in the city to
show some of the challenges it faces. The study aims to develop a filtering
framework for selecting a suitable sensitive spot that can be used to apply the
concept of UA. A conclusion is made that as a small-scale space approach
and a progressive concentrated urban renewal strategy.
This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(1), 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-1
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2020 Usama A. Nassar
This article is published with open
access at www.ijcua.com
pandemic, there is a need to pursue strategies

that would quickly and efficiently address such
1. Introduction
emerging challenges (Casagrande, 2020).
Urban areas are currently experiencing rapid
From the foregoing, the traditional strategic
population growth rates. It has, therefore,
urban development plans whose scope usually
become a necessity to use creative and
innovative strategies to cope with the *Corresponding Author:
challenges that may occasion from this Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Ismailia,
growth. Considering what the world is currently Egypt
going through regarding the COVID-19 Email address: [email protected]
How to Cite this Article:

Nassar, U. A. (2021). Urban Acupuncture in Large Cities: Filtering Framework to Select Sensitive Urban Spots in Riyadh for Effective Urban
Renewal. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-1
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(1), 1-18/ 2021
covers a macro scale might not provide a • Pedestrian Passage in Downtown

suitable path for addressing such challenges. Cairo, Egypt (Tang et al., 2015).
This is because there is now a great demand for Major Arab cities have experienced a rapid
a much faster approach that may be used to growth rate in recent years which has
address these challenges at a micro level, dramatically changed land use and old urban
consequently creating a healthier environment fabric. Riyadh is one of the cities that has
particularly in the most needed areas (Lastra & rapidly expanded on account of
Pojani, 2018). This paper, therefore, seeks to industrialization and population increase. For
explore the use of UA as an effective and instance, in 1862, it had 7500 people (Palgrave,
shortest way of promoting urban development 1868) and was projected in 2010 to reach
in large cities. The intention is to reduce urban 6,152,899 (Abderrahman, 2000). The city was
inflation in addition to restoring the green for that reason selected to study and extract
environment by dealing with leftover open the filtration framework due to its fast-urban
spaces individually within the urban tissue. It growth rate that is elicited by different
also seeks to develop a comprehensive development patterns. The study ends by
framework that would facilitate the presenting the conclusion and
application of UA as a tool for guiding the recommendations that cover the following:
selection of the most urgent spots in the city • Recommendation on UA approach
fabric that need to be developed. A literature implementation.
review is also undertaken to account for the • Future urban development for Riyadh,
difference between large- and small-scale and how UA can be used with the other
urban renewal strategies and UA strategy in urban development strategies.
addition to defining the UA approach with its • Proposed future studies to deal with the
principles and strategies. The paper further ongoing urban issues in cities.
presents the following two international Figure 1 shows the structure of the research. The
examples drawn from Egypt and Indonesia to aim is to reach the desired filtration framework
demonstrate the different strategies used. that applies UA theory.
• Upgrading of a slum area in
Kampung Jakarta,
Indonesia (Nurdiansyah, 2018).
Figure 1. Structure of the research.
2011). The development strategies of public

open spaces in the twentieth century were
2. Why the Demand for a New Urbanism?
mostly large in scale with an overview vision of
Several urban planners, such as Christopher
all the city, which is not efficient and desirable
Alexander, Allan Jacobs, and Lewis Mumford
with the quickly accelerating pace of the
have stressed the importance of open spaces
surrounding environment (Ellin, 2007).
in urban areas. They highlighted the major
The demand for a new tool of urbanism started
contribution of public spaces to quality of life
to arise in recent decades. De Meulder stated
and how it contributes to urban image and
in his book, Urban Trialogues, that with all the
economic development (Shidan & Qian,
Dr. Usama A. Nassar 2

fast growth and complexity of cities at the environment as a dynamic accumulative

moment, changing development conditions, process. A successful city must, therefore, have
and dramatic shifts in urban situations in the the ability to understand and interact with the
societies, it seems to be clear that the inhabitants to solve its difficulties (Jacobs,
traditional approach of master planning and 2002). In this approach of understanding, UA
static land use distribution is not sufficient to has been defined as a kind of surgery
achieve sustainable and comprehensive performed in a city (Ellin, 2007). The term UA
urban development (De Meulder et al., 2004). went through various steps from its initial
In European countries, some plans to develop concept, developing through time. The
urban areas were large in scale, and the concept was first conceived by the Barcelona
revitalisation of every neighbourhood was urbanist, Manuel de Solà-Morales, as the
usually made by governments at a local level, urgent need to achieve urban development
which proved to not be a suitable approach projects in a short period and have the
compared to pinpointing the local problems of maximum effect on Barcelona city
each area (Lastra & Pojani, 2018). On the other revitalisation in the 1980s (Degen & Garcia,
hand, in 2007, the Netherlands had forty 2012). The purpose was to develop the city by
neighbourhoods known for having a lot of implementing small urban projects in
problems and dysfunctions. The government’s residential neighbourhoods (Marzi & Ancona,
approach to solving the problem was to 2004).
spotlight the potential in each neighbourhood
and start separate action plans for 3.1 Urban Acupuncture vs. other renewal
development instead of making a general strategies
vision (Permentier et al., 2013). UA aims to have an impact on every potential
The case of a Seattle neighbourhood in the space in the city. It can be applied through
USA is another model of how the local art—sometimes, it is called the ‘true art of our
community found a unique approach for urban context’ (Lerner, 2016). That is why it is
developing opportunities for their urban different from the large urban renewal strategy
spaces when the community members built up that has been previously used; it is a localised,
a small movie theatre to replace an unused small-scale intervention method. Because this
car parking laneway (Wolfe, 2011). The approach should be influenced by the local
evidence above indicates that UA as a new inhabitants, it must be raised from the smallest-
way to deal with open spaces on a smaller scale urban city development (Marzi &
scale has been becoming more desirable than Ancona, 2004; Harjoko, 2009a). Table 1
a top-to-bottom urban vision. illustrates the comparison between UA, small-
and large-scale urban renewal strategies.
3. Urban Acupuncture Concept

Thinking of a city as a living organism is an
approach to understanding the urban
Table 1. Comparison between UA, Large and Small-Scale Urban Renewal.
Various Types of Urban Renewal
Comparison Items Large-Scale Urban Small-Scale Urban
Urban Acupuncture
Renewal Renewal
Solve different urban
Achieve mostly financial Improve the environment
Aim of Development problems (social,
profit and living conditions
environmental, etc.)
Director of Government and Government, developers,
Government and residents
Development developers and local community
Development Mostly to demolish and Achieve goal in stages The accumulative effect,
Method reconstruct all at one time progressively step by step
One-time investment from From government and Various/unlimited

Funding
government or developers residents’ funds channels

Various Types of Urban Renewal

Comparison Items Large-Scale Urban Small-Scale Urban
Urban Acupuncture
Renewal Renewal
Strategy:
From top to bottom From top to bottom From top to bottom
Planning and design
Strategy:
From top to bottom From bottom to top From bottom to top
Construction
The difficulty of
Simple Flexible Flexible
Strategy Application
Level of Urban
One-time improvement Step-by-step improvement Step-by-step improvement
Development
Preserving Local style The small level of A small level of
A balanced level of
and Historical preservation with a large preservation with a small
preservation
Context level of demolition level of demolition
Economic Land Use
High Low High
Benefit
Sustainability and
Ongoing Low Moderate High
Development
3.2 How to achieve a successful UA Strategy frequently linked with other spots is the most
To choose the best successful strategy in UA, suitable spot for the needle of UA. With this
two important criteria must be achieved. The ability, like stem cells in a human body, UA
first one is the quality and effectiveness of the would improve the whole structure of the city
urban catalyst and mixed-use areas; the (Apostolou, 2015).
second is to choose the best sensitive spot. UA theory has a more effective impact when
3.2.1 Urban catalyst effectiveness and mixed- applied to human-centred open spaces,
use where the spaces are more walkable, safe,
The most effective catalyst for UA must be accessible, and sociable. Thus, it is better to
related to ecological, economic, and social choose this approach for small, leftover,
factors (Jackson, 2018). From an architectural neglected spaces in the urban fabric, not for
point of view, any successful building must well-designed, large open spaces or parks. As
stimulate economic and social activities and shown in Table 2, the concept of human-
be within walking distance of other activities oriented spaces can be categorised as follows:
(Rosa-Jiménez et al., 2017). Hence, it is more • Spatial aspects that relate to spatial
effective to select areas with more mixed uses forms of space.
and different types of recreational facilities. • Socio-spatial aspects, which involve
3.2.2 Selection of the best sensitive spot the relation between users and open
Like the human body, each place in a city has space.
certain linkages to other places. Space most
Table 2. Different aspects of human-centred public open spaces.
Aspects Explanation
Enhances pedestrian-friendly activity and ease of
Walkable navigation for people walking through (Ewing and Handy,
2009).
Offers protection from traffic movement and crime,
Safe
increasing the feeling of safety (Gehl and Lars, 2008).
Spatial
Easy to access and move around during all the times of the
aspects Accessible
day (Varna, 2014; Mehta, 2014).
Offers different kinds of activities to practice, either when
Comfortable
standing or sitting (Casagrande, 2020).
Has special elements of aesthetic value in a human-scale
Delightful
environment (Kamel et al., 2017).

Encourages all types of activities; welcoming and inviting

Inclusive
(Madanipour, 2010).
Socio-
Enhances social-user interaction for both active and passive
spatial Sociable
types (Carmona et al., 2010).
aspects Well used and busy all day long for both day and night
Liveable
activities (Gehl and Lars, 2008).
3.3 Urban Acupuncture Strategies (UA-S) open space; it is a step to redefine the space
From the literature review on UA, the research as a living hybrid.
will draw a conclusion in reference to the UA-S07 Confirm the sentimental value of
strategies that have been used mostly to vegetation
develop small urban spaces (Messeter, 2015; Improve the relationship between the local
Apostolou, 2015; Houghton et al., 2015; Lastra citizen and the natural environment; promote
& Pojani, 2018; Casagrande, 2020). The diversity in vegetation according to each site’s
different UA strategies can be listed as follows: identity.
UA-S01 Use existing resources UA-S08 Connectivity and graduate design
It is important to recognise each Each intervention in this strategy should
neighbourhood’s resources and use them in connect with the open space and work
the best way by utilising direct local citizen gradually from the highest interest to the edge.
participation to achieve this. UA-S09 Adaptive and open design
UA-S02 Redefinition of aesthetic urban The design should be flexible and aim to
elements promote an adaptive and open style; the level
Urban features show the identity of the street, of interaction with local citizens will certainly be
and open-space furniture should connect with affected gradually.
the personality of each space individually in an UA-S10 Shared management and responsibility
aesthetic way. Empower local users and the neighbourhood
UA-S03 Achieve diversity and inclusivity to the extent that management systems of
Promote the presence of diversity and establish public space must ensure their inputs over time.
the connection between residents yet allow 3.4 Urban Acupuncture Principles (UA-P)
each one to express his taste. Most studies on UA indicate that no model or
UA-S04 Increase visibility of public buildings rule has applied the approach to the existing
Stress visually on important public buildings’ open city spaces. Instead, what exists is a
entrances through different colours and unique group of principles set as a trial for possible use
vegetation (Rosa-Jiménez et al., 2017). in future studies. Based on the literature review,
UA-S05 Open space redefinition this research will, therefore, conclude with a set
Understand the vital role that open space plays of important principles that can be used to
and increase its potential to form positive achieve the development of open city spaces
events in daily lives. through small-scale urban interventions. Figure
UA-S06 Reuse and recycling of resources 2 shows the principles of UA.
The word “recycling” has become especially
important in every contemporary design of
Figure 2. Urban Acupuncture Principles.

3.4.1 Sensitive spot selection (UP-P01) development project would take three years
Like in Chinese acupuncture therapy, locating to achieve, and to make it happen we would
the sensitive points in the human body is the first need to have a certain scenario with a design
and most important step for treatment. This proposal and ideas (Lerner, 2016).
principle was first stated by De Solà-Morales in 3.4.5 Educate people (UP-P05)
his book, A matter of things (De Solà-Morales, Like in placemaking, it is essential in the UA
2008). On the other hand, Lerner defines the approach to understanding how the built
sensitive point in the urban tissue as the place environment has been received by its society.
that lacks energy flow in a sick city (Lerner, The people's knowledge and understanding of
2016). urban intervention accelerate the possibility of
3.4.2 Small scale (UP-P02) success (Nurdiansyah, 2018).
Every UA intervention must be applied to small- 3.4.6 Citizen participation (UP-P06)
scale spaces, as this approach aims for a big The decision-makers are not the only sources of
impact with small pilot projects. De Solà- design proposal—the people themselves take
Morales mentioned that the scale is relative, the lead in the UA approach. Citizen
and it does not only mean scale in size; it can participation will lead the planner to a whole
also be applied to financial input or investment new vision of development, as the planner
(De Solà-Morales, 2008). does not have the right answers for every
3.4.3 Quick action plan (UP-P03) problem (Stupar & Savcic, 2009).
While normal planning might take a while to 3.5 Principles (UA-P) vs Strategies (UA-S)
design and implement, UA needs a quick Though the UA principles mentioned above
action plan; Lerner refers to this as having a are a must for every project, each principle
spark in our spaces and confirms that we don't can be achieved through many strategies.
have unlimited time to keep on planning and Hence, principles are mandatory to be
implementing (Lerner, 2016). accomplished, while strategies are different
3.4.4 Having a scenario (UP-P04) according to each location’s potential. Figure
Lerner was the first to claim the necessity of 3 describes how each principle can be
having a scenario in any urban acupuncture accomplished through two or more strategies.
development. He stated that every city
Figure 3. Urban Acupuncture Principles vs Strategies.

different strategies mentioned earlier. Table 3
shows the selected case studies, their
4. Urban Acupuncture International Examples
locations, and years of implementation.
In this section, the paper introduces two
successful projects that have applied the
principles of UA. These selected projects will be
presented and evaluated according to the

Table 3. Locations of selected international examples of Urban Acupuncture.

No. Year Project name Location Level of Acupuncture
1 2016 Upgrading of a slum area in Kampung Jakarta, Indonesia Buildings and Space
2 2015 Pedestrian Passage in Downtown Cairo Cairo, Egypt Street
4.1 Upgrading of a slum area in Kampung, in dire need of affordable housing (Harjoko,
Indonesia 2009b). The government had, therefore, to
Jakarta has had massive expansion that has respond to this demand by offering affordable
led to urban slum problems, especially in urban housing and urban spaces (Harjoko, 2009a).
Kampung (Nurdiansyah, 2018). Kampung is Table 4 shows the project information and
largely inhabited by poor people who are location.
mainly migrants, lacking work skills and who are
Table 4. Kampung Neighbourhood Upgrading project.
Project Information
Type of
Affordable housing project
project
Project
Buildings and Space
scale
Main To create affordable housing buildings with

concept surrounding urban green spaces
(Nurdiansyah, 2018)
Project Description
• The implementation of the upgrading project was

finished by the government of Jakarta in 2016.
• Some of the poor residents (beneficiaries) in the
area have been moved to the newly designed
area.
• The project succeeded in improving the quality of
housing in the neighbourhood.
• The area became healthier and cleaner from the
improved quality of living and green areas.
• The level of participation and responsibility of the
individual residents increased a lot during and
after the project implementation.
(Nurdiansyah, 2018)
Development vision

4.2 Pedestrian Passage in Downtown Cairo, cultural events by day and social gatherings by
Egypt night (Nassar, 2014a). Later, after the 2011
Downtown Cairo has been the city’s centre of revolution, it was notable, not only in
attention since 1992. There had been many Downtown Cairo, but across all the city that
trials for preserving its historic buildings and people had started to gather and socialise in
developing the open space network (Nassar, many physical forms in the streets and spaces,
2015b; Kamel et al., 2017). Most of the previous engaging in many types of activities, like street
efforts, both academic and governmental, performance, festivals, art fairs, and graffiti
were related to documenting historical (Tang et al., 2015). The selected Passage in
heritage (Elsorady, 2018). Recently, the private Downtown Cairo is one of the important
company, Al Ismailia for Real Estate destinations for small-scale gatherings
Investment, attempted to develop the area by because of its central location and variety of
preserving its heritage buildings and creating adjacent services. In this context, the Kodak
dynamic urban fabric through small Pedestrian passage between buildings was
interventions in certain spots (Tang et al., 2015). carried out by CLUSTER as a pilot project to
According to Nassar, most people were using engage the local community after it had been
spaces in Downtown Cairo for social and isolated for many years (CLUSTER, 2015).
Table 5. Pedestrian streetscape passage in Downtown Cairo.
Project Information
Type of
Streetscape development
project
Project
Street
Scale
The purpose was to reuse the street

as an open exhibition to attract
Main
different types of artists and cultural
concept
events and create a hub for
pedestrians to socialize.
Site Location in Downtown Cairo
Project Description
The development project of the downtown
passage mission aimed to achieve four main
aspects:
• Establish a suitable platform for culture,
integrating outdoor art and green areas.
• Create a network hub that would attract
different stakeholders to participate with the
local community.
• Make open space more accessible and create
a more suitable environment for diverse
activities.
• Use a variety of approaches to power the
informal practices to create a more intimate
space with the participation and management Street Design (Tang et al., 2015)
of inhabitants.

Development vision JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 5(1), 1-18/ 2021
(Tang et al., 2015)
4.3 Summary of international examples gathering hub for different types of

The results of analysing the two international users.
examples of UA are presented in Table 6. The • The different scales of the two projects
main conclusions can be listed as: illustrate that the smaller the project
• The project in Cairo successfully was, the easier it was to apply more
applied most of UA strategies, which strategies and engage the local
supported the success of the pilot community more in the design and
project and allowed it to become a management processes.
Table 6. UA strategies in international examples.

International Examples
Upgrading of a slum
Cairo,
area in Kampung,
Pedestrian Passage in
Downtown
Indonesia
Egypt
Indonesia Egypt
UA-S01 Use existing resources √ √
UA-S02 Redefinition of urban aesthetic elements √
UA-S03 Achieve diversity and inclusivity √ √
√
Urban Acupuncture Strategies
UA-S04 Increase visibility of public buildings
UA-S05 Open space redefinition √
UA-S06 Reuse and recycle resources √
UA-S07 Confirm the sentimental value of vegetation
UA-S08 Connectivity and graduate design √
UA-S09 Adaptive and open design √ √
UA-S10 Shared management and responsibility √

of the oil boom (1970-1990). Its rapid from a

pedestrian-friendly environment into a car-
5. Case Study of Riyadh City
oriented city was not an easy evolution but a
Riyadh city is the capital of KSA. It started as a
dramatic change full of conflicts and urban
small gated city and developed rapidly into a
problems along the way (Menoret, 2014).
liveable metropolitan city over the years. This
Figure 4 shows the location of the city.
massive change happened during the period
Figure 4. The study area of Riyadh city (Khan et al., 2018)
5.1 Historical background and land use two significant urban patterns developed in
transformation the city, which can be explained as follows:
The city of Riyadh is a centre of vibrant urban • The old walled city, which is a
activity in the KSA, working as a link between traditional old community with narrow
the eastern and western metropolitan areas to streets and high dependency on
form a crossing axis in the country (Al-Hemaidi, pedestrian movement (Almahmood et
2001). During the oil boom stage of al., 2018).
development, the city was expanding at 8% • The grid street pattern, which has a new
per annum. The population surpassed one land use transformation of both housing
million by the 1980s, and the city covered types (Separated Villas) and larger
almost 1600 km2 in 1986 (Mubarak, 2004). road width and open space network
Today, the population has reached 6 million accessed only by cars (Menoret, 2014).
(Almahmood et al., 2018). Table 7 illustrates the

Table 7. Historical development of Riyadh.

Traditional urban pattern
The urban pattern of the traditional walled town of Riyadh (Mubarak, 2004).
New street pattern
Pattern Type
A new street pattern in Riyadh city, Al-Malaz (Al-Hathloul, 1981).
5.2 Urban growth since 1972

Most of the development plans made for the
city adopted the car as the main mode of
transportation. Hence, the street patterns for
the city were designed in a hierarchical way,
which included freeways and ring roads to
connect all of the city with other regions in the
kingdom, going low until reaching arterial
streets that serve inside each neighbourhood
(Al-Hathloul & Mughol, 2004). Nowadays, the
old traditional fabric of the city is in poor
condition. Through the urban growth shown in
Figure 5, there is a new network of roads that
were laid out to facilitate car movement
(Alotaibi & Potoglou, 2018). Meanwhile, the
spatial arrangement and the old open spaces
network in traditional areas in Riyadh have
been affected badly. Figure 5 illustrates the
high rate of expansion for the city from 1972 to
2015, which will affect plans and creates an
urgent need for public transport to connect the Figure 5. Urban growth in Riyadh city through time (1972–
city. 2015) (Khan et al., 2018)

5.3 Future Plans for Transportation the concept of UA can be applied in the urban
As mentioned before, the city has developed fabric is identified. This process will be staged in
rapidly and has highly become car-oriented three steps as follows:
(Al-Hathloul, 2017). It, however, lacks the public • The first step—Selecting the best
transportation system needed to connect its development centre
areas, which certainly affects pedestrian • Second step—Urban catalyst and
connectivity and consequently creates mixed-use areas
isolated spaces or green areas, either big or • The third step—Selecting the sensitive
small (Aldalbahi & Walker, 2016). Riyadh spot
Development Authority developed a strategic 5.4.1 First step—Selecting the best
development plan, Medstar (ADA, 2015), development centre
which identified some transport strategies in The Riyadh Public Transport Network (RPTN)
the city to include the following (Alotaibi & consists of the metro lines network and the bus
Potoglou, 2018): lines, which are meant to connect all the urban
• Developing an effective public areas. These lines are already under
transport network in the city. implementation and were expected to be
• Coordinating between high-density delivered in late 2019 (Al-Hathloul, 2017). This
residential areas and major public network adapted the concept of Transit-
transport spines. Oriented Development in the city, and for the
• Developing the management research limitation, the historic centre will be
measures of roads, including road selected to choose from it a suitable open and
charging and congestion pricing. green space where the concept of UA can be
Figure 6 shows the designed metro lines in the applied. Figure 7 shows the planned five transit-
city that connects all the urban areas. oriented development centres in Riyadh and
the selected centre in the middle.
Figure 7. Transit-Oriented Development TOD strategy in the

Riyadh metropolitan area (ADA, 2016).
Figure 6. The planned public transport system in Riyadh - 5.4.2 Second step—Urban Catalyst and mixed-
Metro Line (ADA, 2015).
use areas
In this stage, the research navigates the land
5.4 Steps to select the right open space in
use in the selected historical centre, where four
Riyadh
districts were selected randomly from highly
To this point in the current research, an
mixed-use areas and evaluated to choose the
overview of the Riyadh city master plan is
most suitable one to study on an urban level.
undertaken. This progressively narrows to a
The best location to apply the UA approach will
smaller focus until the best sensitive spot where
thereafter be picked. While Figure 8 illustrates

the detailed land use of these districts with their evaluates the four districts from the
population densities and development rates development centre to provide the basis for
(ADA, 2017), Table 8, on the other hand, picking the best site.
Figure 8. Detailed land use of some areas in the historical centre (ADA, 2017)

Table 8. Evaluating the four districts to select the best one Selected Zones.
√ High
Moderate
Low
District 1 District 2 District 3 District 4
Higher population density √
Lowest development rate √
Lowest open green spaces √
Evaluation Criteria
Potentials of existing catalyst buildings √

Most distributed mixed-use √
Most available public services √
Street patterns encourage walkability √
Highest violence and crime rate √
Source: Adapted by the author from ADA (2017) and RUO (2018).
As shown in the table above, the district that according to the aspects presented in Table 2
needs much development appears to be highlighting the filters that should be used to
District 3, according to the criteria points which choose the best human-centered open space.
were derived from the literature review. Figure 9 consequently shows the urban
development pattern for District 3 which
5.4.3 Third step—Selecting the sensitive spot highlights the most sensitive spots that may be
This stage focus on the selected district from chosen to apply the concept of UA.
where the appropriate space to develop will
be chosen. The process will be performed
Figure 9. The urban street pattern for District 3 with the potential suitable sensitive spots to apply the UA concept.

section now concludes the filtering framework

that may be applied to Riyadh city or any other
6. Filtering framework to apply Urban
place to select a suitable site where UA as a
Acupuncture Approach
concept may be applied. Figure 10 presents a
After undertaking a literature review on the UA
conclusion on the five filters.
that included its principles and strategies, this
Figure 10. Sensitive spot selection and filtering framework for applying the UA approach.
since it remains very flexible by encouraging

ongoing planning and implementation. The
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
research further concludes that the principles
This paper has examined the use of UA as an
of UA should be examined in future studies with
alternative tool for dealing with open spaces
a focus on more practical research being
on a smaller scale. It also introduced the
undertaken in different locations by engaging
concept of evolutionary history and discussed
all stakeholders in the development process.
how UA differs from other urban renewable
As a recommendation, since the city of Riyadh
strategies in addition to highlighting the
shows the highest rate of urban expansion,
applicable strategies and principles. The paper
there is a need to adopt the strategic urban
consequently examined the city of Riyadh as a
development plans and localise small-scale
case study for implementing UA and proposed
space interactions to create a balance
a filtering selection framework that can be
between the newly planned district and the
applied to select the suitable open spaces for
old ones through UA. It is moreover important
adopting UA. The paper concludes that as a
to change the existing social and cultural
small-scale space approach and a progressive
norms by frequently engaging the people
concentrated urban renewal strategy, UA
through awareness in creating a better
enhances a city’s potential rather than entirely
environment as one of the important principles
relying on the urban planners’ vision. In this
of UA. Finally, since the city of Riyadh has a
way, the city’s development remains healthier,
mixture of newly planned and large old
effective, and sustainable. The selected
historical fabric, a different development
international case studies further showed that
approach should be adopted for each of the
the UA could be more effective on smaller-
two regarding the urban fabric and socio-
scale action projects where it can achieve a
cultural composition of the residents.
tremendous effect in a noticeably short time

Finally, considering the world is going through Acknowledgements

the COVID-19 pandemic and that most of the This research did not receive any specific grant
affected districts have the highest population from funding agencies in the public,
density with no green lung or development commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
projects, the concept of green roofs in
buildings can, therefore, be a good approach
Conflict of interests
to deal with the high-density district in Riyadh.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
This can be revitalized by selecting suitable
spots that may be developed on a separate
case-by-case basis.
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Mediterranean Morphologies in Hot Summer
Conditions: Learning from France’s “Glorious
Thirty” Holiday Housing
* 1 M.Sc. Marjan Sansen , 2 Dr. Andrés Martínez , 3 Dr. Philippe Devillers
Montpellier National School of Architecture, France
1,2 and 3
1 Email: [email protected] , 2 E mail: [email protected]

3 Email: [email protected]

Climate change and rising temperatures lead to an air-conditioning
Article History: proliferation in the summertime of the Mediterranean regions. This study
Received 5 May 2020 links urban morphology to the microclimate. It claims that a lesson can be
Available online 1 July 2020 drawn from holiday housing morphologies designed with an additive
approach during the “Glorious Thirty” French coastal development (1946-
Keywords: 75). It is based on a morphological analysis of four case studies, with on the
Morphology; one hand re-drawing and site visiting, on the other hand, assessment of
Mediterranean; environmental performance through key parameters: Absolute Rugosity,
Environmental Assessment; Compactness Ratio, Building Density, Mineralization, Sky View Factor (SVF)
Additive Architecture; and Height/Width (H/W) Ratio. Compared to literature reference values of a
Holiday Housing. traditional courtyard morphology, the case studies are less compact and with
a lower H/W Ratio (higher SVF), but they are less mineral than a historic
medieval city centre. This research contributes to the search for semi-
collective alternatives (for example additive morphologies) to individual
housing in peri-urban areas, with high environmental performance in the
This article is an open access summertime.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2020 Marjan Sansen, Andrés Martínez, Philippe Devillers.
1. Introduction architecture occasioned by new technologies

The “Glorious Thirty” - 1946 to 1975, a depiction such as reinforced concrete, and by a reaction
of the thirty years of economic boom and the to the Modern Movement, the CIAM (Congrès
beginning of paid holidays for everyone International d’Architecture Moderne) and its
denotes when mass tourism was born,
consequently providing a huge demand for
holiday housing on the Mediterranean coast. *Corresponding Author:
It is a period of great excitement and Montpellier National School of Architecture, France
Email address: [email protected]
experimentation leading to a “new”
How to cite this article:

Sansen, M., Martinez, A., & Devillers, P. (2021). Mediterranean Morphologies in Hot Summer Conditions: Learning from France’s “Glorious Thirty”
Holiday Housing. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 19-34. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 19-34.
functional city which is typified by standard based on what is known as “urban canyons”, or
mass housing and functional urban zoning a symmetrical section of a certain length (Oke,
(Duport, 2015). As a result, the Mediterranean 1988). Unlike the current study, they mainly focus
Coast and this new program are used as an on urban city centres.
experimental laboratory by several avant-
garde architects (some affiliated with Team X – Although previous studies have been
the young generation of architects that undertaken from a historic and an architectural
organized the 10th CIAM congress). They intend point of view, their environmental functioning in
to combine rational minimalist architecture the summertime is yet to be evaluated
(new technologies) with architecture in due (technical and engineering point of view)
consideration of the site and the environment hence a knowledge gap. The current research,
(sun, wind, nature). They search for an therefore, focuses on this area since individual
architecture that repeats similar elements to housing and sprawl are still prevailing in France’s
facilitate construction and minimize costs and Mediterranean region because up till today,
assemble housing types or units. This brings to new individual housing is still in demand. The
the fore the concept of “Additive architecture” current study broadly contributes to the search
which, according to the words of Jørn Utzon for semi-collective alternatives (for example,
(Lukovich, 2018) describes architectural additive architecture) to individual housing in
projects based on growth patterns, through the peri-urban areas. The hypothesis is that these
assembly or addition of similar elements. additive residences have a positive
Several of those avant-garde architects from environmental performance during hot summer
the “Glorious Thirty” mention the use of conditions, thus providing a certain cooling
vernacular (mountain) villages as references for effect. The specific objectives are to assess the
morphologies. For instance, J. Aubert and A. environmental performance of four additive
Lefèvre were inspired by Kabyle mountain morphologies, to compare them, and finally to
villages. G. Candilis specifically quotes Avilcar relate them with the results of the literature
in Cappadocia, Turkey. Consequently, based review. As this is done, the “urban canyon”
on the knowledge of vernacular architecture approach, that evokes city centres is applied to
and personal intuition, additive morphologies peri-urban additive morphologies.
are designed specifically for the summer.
Were they pursuing solely a non- 2. Materials and Methods
monotonous image, by fear of mass Four case studies in Mediterranean France have
production monotony? Or did they been undertaken, all avant-garde
study the thermal functioning in the manifestations of a reaction to the Modern
summer heat and apply their findings as Movement: additive architecture, designed
design strategies? with the environment. The case studies were re-
From the foregoing, the current study drawn using Archicad software, based on
researches if the above morphologies are cadaster plans, architects’ plans, and aerial
efficient in summer and how they react under pictures. This information was completed with
hot summer conditions. This is because there is on-site fieldwork. The drawings and 3D models
a nexus between urban morphology, urban were used for morphology analysis and
microclimate, and energy use (Adolphe, 2001; parameter quantification. Comparison to
Taleghani, et al., 2015). The reviewed literature, research reference values allowed
as a result, treats morphologic and geometric environmental assessment. To give a
indicators to study this link (Adolphe, 2001). The “complete” environmental assessment, there
current research, therefore, uses an integrative were parameters related to all four climatic
approach by simultaneously considering aspects: wind, temperature, humidity, and solar
thermal and microclimatic functions, as in the radiation (Adolphe, 2001). Although street
case of Jamei, Rajagopalan, Orientation and Porosity are also key
Seyedmahmoudian, and Jamei (2016) and parameters, they were not examined in this
Ratti, Raydan, and Steemers (2003). In this case, paper since their method of quantification was
the retained indicators are Absolute Rugosity, not satisfactory.
Compactness Ratio, Building Density,
Mineralization, Sky View Factor (SVF), and Rugosity describes how the wind is influenced
Height/Width Ratio. Further, many studies are by obstacles. “The higher the rugosity, the
M.Sc. Marjan Sansen, Dr. Andres Martinez, Dr. Philippe Devillers 20

slower the main airspeed.” (Adolphe, 2001). Through image treatment, the sky was
Absolute Rugosity is the mean height of the represented in white, buildings and other
urban canopy, with built and non-built areas obstructions, like vegetation, in black. The black
(Table 1), and indicates why wind speed and white treatment and the SVF calculation
reduces owing to morphology. As observed by were undertaken using Rayman software.
Oke (1988), though wind disperses heat, too However, some images were pre-treated in
much of it can create a need for shelter. This Photoshop, since the software interpreted dark
study assumes that more wind contributes to an skies as walls and white walls as the sky. Analysis
increased cooling effect in hot summer of the plans was additionally undertaken to
conditions. determine typical street widths for each case
study. SVF locations were chosen based on the
The Compactness Ratio, on the other hand, observed widths, and indifferent height
reveals how much envelope area is exposed to situations, that is two buildings of the same
the outside environment. It is an indicator of height or different heights, a building and a
potential exchange between the building and courtyard wall, two courtyard walls, among
the environment (Table 1). The lower the ratio, others. Another criterion was the search for the
the less the heat loss (winter) and gain smallest SVF for every case study, based on
(summer), and the better in hot summer intuition and street width. Squares were not
conditions (Ratti et al., 2003). considered. Even though this method does not
cover the entire residence, it gives an overall
Mineralization is the ratio of Mineral Area to Total image. The lower the SVF, the more protection
Area (Table 1) (Adolphe, 2001). Vegetation has against summer heat (Jamei et al., 2016; Ratti et
a cooling effect due to evapo-perspiration al., 2003). As such, the streets remain cool for a
(impacting humidity) and shading (protection longer time during the day. On the contrary, the
from solar radiation) (Adolphe, 2001; Jamei et higher the SVF, the easier the summer heat
al., 2016). Green and blue areas were therefore disappears during the night. For climates with
traced from the aerial pictures. Literature shows high-temperature swings between day and
that the shading effect is more important than night, low SVF is considered better for hot
the evapo-perspiration effect (Ali-Toudert & summer conditions.
Mayer, 2007). It is therefore important to
consider trees as well as green surfaces. In this The SVF and the H/W Ratio are inversely related
regard, all green surfaces were traced. These (Oke, 1988). Since the additive ’60s
included: lawns, hedges, trees, private and morphologies have very few symmetrical street
public green. Generally, the greener the sections, the H/W Ratio needs some extra
surface (and the lower mineralization), the more attention. The height (H) is defined by the mean
cooling in hot summer conditions. height of the elements visible in the SFV
photograph (hedge, building, courtyard
The Sky View Factor (SVF) is a dimensionless wall…). The street width (W), on the other hand,
parameter that expresses sky visibility in a street. is between the defining height elements.
It is the degree to which a wall is exposed to the Inversely to SVF, a higher H/W is considered
sky, warming up due to solar radiation during better for hot summer conditions (Ali-Toudert &
the day, and cooling down at night (Oke, 1988). Mayer, 2006; Jamei et al., 2016).
It ranges between 0 (closed section) and 1 Table 1 shows the parameters and their
(horizontal flat surface in complete sky expression used for the environmental
contact). SVF can be measured with street view assessment.
image methods, numerical models, and fisheye
photo methods (Miao et al., 2020). This study
uses the last. The photographs (obtained on the
13th of March 2020, in the afternoon, for the
Ginestou and the Village Grec, and on the 27th-
28th of February 2020 for Gaou Bénat and
Merlier) were taken in street centres, at 30 cm
high.

Table 1. Parameters and their expression used for the environmental assessment.
Name Definition Units ref
Absolute rugosity R 𝑉𝑏 m (Adolphe, 2001)
𝑅=
𝐴𝑡
𝑛
Compactness Ratio Cf 1 - (Ratti et al., 2003)
𝐶𝑓 = ∑ 𝑆𝑒𝑖
𝑉𝑏
𝑖=1
Building Density 𝐴𝑏 - (Adolphe, 2001;

𝐵𝐷 =
𝐴𝑡 Tadi et al., 2017)
Mineralization M 1 % (Adolphe, 2001)

𝑀= (𝐴 − ∑ 𝐴𝑢 )
𝐴𝑡 𝑡
Ab Total area of the buildings’ footprints (m2)

At Total area of the selected site (m2)
Vb Total volume of the built area (m3)
Sei Envelope Surface of building i (m2): façades plus roofs, without underground and adjacent walls
Au Water and Vegetation Area
3. Case Study Presentation extensive sanitation, draining, and

Occitanie’s coast, on the Westside, was infrastructural works.
characterized by mosquito infestations, winds The Chief Architect, Georges Candilis,
and wine culture. It was a rough 180km strip of designed one of the villages, Leucate-Barcarès
sand that thousands of tourists passed every and two of the case studies (Village Grec and
year on their way to Spain or Italy (Figure 1). To Ginestou). Although they are private property,
transform the region from pass-through to stay- they are connected to and part of the urban
in, the French government initiated its network which is accessible to everyone. To
development into a mass tourism destination. date, most of the houses are secondary
A comprehensive undertaking, called Mission holiday houses, but some of them are
Racine, named after the project’s coordinator, inhabited all year round. Leucate has a
Pierre Racine, was consequently established temperate Mediterranean climate, with warm
for developing five villages and protected hot summers (33,8°C in June), temperate
natural green zones between 1963 and 1983. winters (-1°C in January), and strong North-
The planning process went hand in hand with West winds during the summer months. Figure 1
presents the location of the case studies.
1 2 3
Figure 1. Case study location and photographs.
(1): Village Grec in Leucate; (2): Ginestou in Leucate;
(3): Gaou Benat in Bormes-les-Mimosas; and (4): Merlier in Ramatuelle

The Eastern part of the coast (PACA region) has Mediterranean climate as well, with warm hot
a very different geography with rocky summers (35°C in May) temperate winters (-
seashores and garrigue vegetation 2,8°C in December), and strong NNW, SE, and
(scrubland). It has been developed mainly SW winds during the summer months.
through private initiatives. The accent lay less All case studies, apart from the Ginestou, are
on economic and low budget mass building. labelled “Patrimoine du XXème siècle” (label
Currently, Gaou Benat and Merlier are two of the Ministry of Culture and Communication
private residences, closed communities with a for remarkable architecture in France) for their
checkpoint at the entrance. Very few people remarkable architectural value. Ginestou
live there all year round and the houses are received the notion of “exceptional”
mostly used as secondary residences (as architecture in a patrimony study of Leucate
holiday housing). PACA has a temperate City.
3.1. Case Study 1: Village Grec, Leucate, 1968
sea
3,00 m
esplanade 8 m
placettes - squares
8
7
5 shelter over courtyard
10 9 house : T-shaped unit

4
3
2
1 A
6
0 10 20 30m
0 10 20 30m
P 70,5 m
0 10 20m
Figure 2. Village Grec. Left: Ground floor with pedestrian street widths and SVF locations;
Middle: first floor
Right: schematic diagram of the assembled “T” units
Bottom: Section A.
Red line: mean building
0 10height;20
Blue line:
30mAbsolute Rugosity or mean urban canopy height

The village’s morphology is created by and heights of courtyard walls and shelters,
assembling 53 T-shaped units with two and the randomness of the first floors. It
courtyards: a small access court with the seemingly looks like Candilis’ vernacular village
entrance door, and a large private courtyard, reference. A specificity of this residence is the
which is partially sheltered and only accessible brick-on-the-side-walls: some walls have bricks
from the inside (Figure 2). There is a second, with openings turned towards the streets and
larger, type of “T”, with a first floor. Some small terraces. They are omnipresent: on every first-
“T”‘s has the first floors as well. All first floors (but floor terrace or courtyard, sometimes near to
one) are offset from the street, to capture the the ground, sometimes up. They also protect
sun on street level. Units are grouped four by from wind, but let air pass.
four, with a large “esplanade” in the middle.
Missing or shifted units are green space, but In a general way, G. Candilis was sensitive to
only very few are accessible and real squares. bioclimatic approaches. This can be seen in his
The central esplanade is also only accessible drawings and writings. When he is designing for
on a walking path. Iran, for example, ventilation chimneys pop up,
While cars stay in the common parking, and in the tropics, ventilation takes the lead in
pedestrians take the 3m wide streets or the 8 m ideas and drawings. So, in Leucate, he
wide “esplanade” (Figure 2). All streets are designed for the Mediterranean moderate
boarded by hedges from 1 to 3 m high on one climate, integrating courtyards, shutters and
or both sides. The overall impression is one of a shelters (for solar protection), hedges and trees
small-scale village with plenty of green space. (for shade and coolness), small pedestrian
Despite the extremely regular road network, an passages and accessible rooftop terraces.
irregular impression comes from different kinds
3.2. Case Study 2: Ginestou, Leucate, 1963
sea
sea
8 8
3,00 m
12 3 45 3,00 m
4,30 m
placettes - squares
7 4,30 m
house : L-shaped unit
6
placettes - squares
7
house : L-shaped unit
6
0 10 20 30m
70 m
0 10 20 m
Figure 3. Ginestou. Left: Ground floor plan with pedestrian street widths and SVF locations.
Right: schematic diagram of “L” units’ assembly
Bottom: Section A.
Red line: mean building height; Blue line: Absolute Rugosity or mean urban canopy height
As shown in Figure 3, Ginestou seems to be a developed Village Grec (built-in 1968), the
simpler version of the Village Grec. As if it was plan assembles 73 “L” shaped units with one
an exercise for the more refined and courtyard, housing the entrance door. The “L”s

have a ground floor. They are grouped by 10 or sides of the streets, although they are less high
12 in long blocks (except for two smaller here. And in the same way, the original design
blocks). foresaw large green spaces in the courtyards.
Courtyard walls are between 1m and 2m high,
Like in Village Grec, cars are parked in the often with perforated parts to let air pass, and
parking lots by the residents, before they head vary from house to house. Besides those, the
to the village on foot. Pedestrian streets are 3m village has a quite monotonous and repetitive,
wide, except for two, which is 4.3m (Figure 3). almost boring, character.
Like in the Village Grec, hedges board both
3.3. Case Study 3 : Gaou Bénat in Bormes-les-Mimosas, 1958
sea view
1,45 to 1,80 m
1
3,00 to 3,20 m
placette - square (10m)

sea view
out of study area :
1,45 to 1,80 m
2 3,00 to 3,20 m
forest path / car road
P 5 house
placette - square (10m)
out of study area :
2 stairs
forest path / car road
5
3 house
stairs
3 A
4
P 4
6
6
0 10 20 30m
16 m
20 30m
65 m
0 10 20 30m
Figure 4. Gaou Bénat: Left: Ground floor plan with pedestrian street widths, slope contour lines, and SVF locations
Right : schematic diagram of the strip assembly of units on a slope
Bottom: Section A.
The main concern for this residential area was (Figure 4). This was Jean Aubert’s and André
to preserve the existing landscape, to create Lefèvre-Devaux’s challenge when they were
an “architecture of disappearance” as the called upon for the development of the Cap
guardian poetically put it during fieldwork Bénat. The question was how to build without

being seen, using slope and vegetation. They carefully positioned into the slope (Figure 4).
developed a set of regulations (called the They are oriented East and South-East, towards
“Cahier des charges”), with sketches and text, the Eastern sea view, and only have a ground
based on views, integration into the slope floor, often stacked at different levels and
(maximum height 4.5m) and intimacy between partially underground, so that views are not
houses. Besides, the regulations stipulate hidden by neighbouring units. Houses are
climatological aspects, like the positioning of juxtaposed, following contour lines, parallel to
courtyards between the house and the slope the slope, and forming a strip. Most of the
for wind and heat protection; or the houses are offset of the road, but enclosure
troglodyte-like covering of roof terraces with walls, containing terraces and yards, border
earth and vegetation for coolness. The study the streets.
area (sector G1 or the “Hamlet of the Car parking is situated on the West along the
Minotaure”) was designed and built to illustrate main road that follows the contour line of the
those regulations to promote sales. It was the slope and that leads cars through the village.
first of six Ahamlets and the most experimental Secondary and smaller pedestrian roads or
one. Later on, parcels were sold and stairs radiate from here. The village centre is a
constructed individually. Until now, every “placette” or square. This results in an irregular,
P
construction has to correspond to the “Cahier loose and very green tissue, attached to an
des Charges” and to be approved by a irregular street network.
congregation of architects. 36 houses are
7
3.4. Case Study
9 4: Merlier in Ramatuelle, 1958-1965
8
6 5 3 sea view
A
4
ground floor : public space
P
1,9 to 2,3 m
1 2,7 to 3,20 m
7
other: 3,7m and 4,65m
9
8
placette - square > 5m 6 5 3 sea view
out of study area : 4
2 forest path / car road
ground floor : public space
1,9 to 2,3 m
buildings' first floor 1 2,7 to 3,20 m
other: 3,7m and 4,65m
stairs placette - square > 5m

out of study area :
2 forest path / car road
buildings' first floor
P stairs
0 10 20 30m 0 10 20 30m
0 10 20 30m
P
33 m
141 m
0 10 20 30m
Figure 5. Merlier. Left: ground floor: partial underground units, public pedestrian space in black
Right: first-floor plan: pedestrian street widths and SVF locations
Bottom left: schematic diagram of the grid assembly of units on a slope;
Bottom right: Section A.
Merlier’s challenge was to create holiday of the private landowner, Simone Volterra. Site
housing respectful of the environment that visit and observation led to the idea to locate
could serve as an example of other vacation Merlier and four other villages in the hills’ folds
developments. These were the main concerns and creases so that they would not be visible in

the overall landscape. Merlier was the only one village in the West. All other streets are
built, before the developer’s bankruptcy. A pedestrian. Some streets are stairs, like the main
total of 36 houses was established in a pedestrian access from the North: scenic stairs
landscape fold. The units of 12.5 x 12.5 m are leading down to the village, framing sea views.
embedded in the slope in a grid assembly, on Streets are rather mineral, despite some green
different levels and distances (Figure 5). hedges and trees. The ensemble results in an
This system allows the village to cover the irregular vernacular village-like and mineral
natural slopes brilliantly as if it was a forest of tissue blended with an irregular street network
houses. The units’ backsides are partially and surrounded by trees. Openings between
underground. The ground floor covers only part courtyard walls and first-floor cantilevers,
of the square unit, and is oriented parallel to the between vegetation pots and terraces,
slope, thus leaving the ground floor space to between first-floor terrace walls and living room
courtyards. The first floor also only covers part of walls give an airy impression, despite the
the square, but is mostly oriented perpendicular massive and partially underground units.
to the slope, opening up to the sea view (a view The design seems to have been made to foster
for every unit!), as if the first floor were a ventilation, also in outdoor areas. Overall, there
covering “croûte”, to use le Corbusier’s words. is specific attention to climatological aspects:
As a consequence, the ground floor courtyards south oriented, partially covered courtyards,
are partially covered (for shade). The grid wooden shutters, the presence of two water
positioning leaves plenty of space for basins, vegetation pots on the façades and in
“placettes” (squares) in between the units. the courtyards, green roofs, porous ventilation
There is a car parking space in the North and openings.
one in the West, with access to the high part of
the village in the East, and the low part of the
4. Results
Table 2. Case study overview (top) and results (bottom)
Village Grec - Ginestou - 1963 Gaou Benat – 1958 Merlier 1958
1968
CASE STUDY OVERVIEW
Houses 53 73 36 35
Lot area (m2) 10 280 10 357 32 495 34 861
Study area (m2) 10 280 10 357 14 482 11 982
Houses / hectare 51.6 70.5 25.5 29.2

Street Orientation NS & EW NW/SE & NE/SW Streets follow slope: NS & EW
No main direction
Altitude (m) 2.0 2.5 108 50
Distance from the 460 (East) 730 (East) 400 (East) 30 (South)
sea (m) – 760 to lake (West) 350 to lake (West)
Dominant wind NW NNW, SE & SW

direction
Slope(%) - - 25 – E & SE 23 - S
Materials Prefabricated Prefabricated Local schiste stone, Bormes stone,
concrete concrete concrete parapet Catalan vault,
wall, wood shutters, concrete structure
terracotta flooring and brick filling
Assembly Small block Long block Strip Grid
RESULTS
Absolute rugosity 1.27 1.21 0.54 1.47
R
Compactness 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.64
Ratio Cf
Building Density 33 38 17 48
(%)
Mineralization M 70 73 59 70
(%)

4.1 Absolute Rugosity R (Table 2) between houses for intimacy, and between
The higher R, the more wind speed is reduced slope and houses).
due to the morphology. Merlier has the highest
R, meaning wind will be slowed down more. 4.3 Building Density - Mineralization M (Table 2)
Gaou Benat has the lowest R, so the wind will Gaou Benat stands out for its low densities
be less impacted. (17%) and its low mineralization (59%),
compared to the case studies in Leucate. All
4.2 Compactness Ratio Cf (Table 2) four have different kinds of green. Gaou Benat
Merlier stands out with the lowest value (0.64), is a natural green site, with some houses and
which is rather surprising since it does not look streets carefully integrated and a low Building
compact at all with its large cantilever Density. Green is omnipresent and intermingled
overhangs. They are largely exposed to with the buildings. Village Grec and Ginestou
climatological elements; the grid assembly are the opposite: a mineral site, with green
causes different street widths and thus units are carefully integrated. The result is small-scale
only partially aligned, increasing the envelope green (like lace), due to a high Building Density
area even more. The low value can be and small units. All streets are boarded with
explained by the slope and the presence of hedges and shifted or missing units are green
partially underground ground floors and walls. spaces. Ginestou has a high number of green
Besides, adjacent houses have common walls courtyards (private green). Merlier, at last,
on the ground floor. The first floor, on the combines both: natural green surroundings,
contrary, has little common walls. and small-scale green within the grid (planters
The other three case studies have similar on all terraces and courtyards are part of the
values, for very different reasons. Ginestou has initial design).
some adjacent walls and no first floor. Village
Grec has more adjacent walls on the ground 4.4 SVF and H/W (Table 3 and Figure 6)
floor, but a very irregular layout on the first floor Although the photographic method does not
(with very few adjacent walls). Gaou Benat has cover the entire residence, it clearly shows
few adjacent, but several underground walls, different tendencies or characters for every
due to regulation proscriptions (courtyards residence.
200
225
Table 3. A selection of SVF, in increasing order. The fish-eye photographs are in the direction of the street (North up). The
dotted line on the sections shows the visible element on the fisheye photograph, which is used for H/W. The first value of the
covered passage is not considered for320 further interpretation.
Location and Section
450 SVF (from low to high) H/W
street width
Gaou Benat
2.
3,20 m
A covered
passage 0.66
210
under house
320
0,01
Merlier
2.
2,00 m
Stairs
165
between two 1.94

140
481
buildings
100
233
145
0,10
200 courtyard

370
587
48
155
courtyard courtyard
233
300
200 courtyard
Merlier
7.
580
2,30 m
Stairs
265
between two
buildings 2.08
370
587
228
300
0,15
230
Village Grec
7.
4,50 m
250
Between an
160
access 1.53
courtyard
155
and an offset courtyard courtyard
300
unit courtyard 180
450 0,29
Village grec
6.
3,00 m
Between a
unit with a
580
terrace on 1.85
the first floor –
a unit with a
265
first floor 0,39
228
300
Ginestou
1.
3,00 m
Between two
320
units of same
200
height 1.29
155
300
0,40
courtyard 180
Gaou benat
1. 450
4,50 m
Between
200
225
hedge and 0.66

terrace wall -
Main car and 320
pedestrian 450
street 0,69
210
320
320
175
165
300 courtyard
140
100
145
0,9
SVF
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Village Grec Ginestou H/W

Gaou Benat Merlier
Tendency line (Village Grec) Tendency line (Ginestou)
Tendency line (Gaou Benat) Tendency line (Merlier)
Figure 6. SVF to H/W for the four case studies with a tendency line per case study. Gaou Benat’s covered passage is not
considered in the graph, since it is a very small passage and has a huge impact on the tendency line.
Gaou Benat stands out because it has the similar H/W. Thus, several areas in the residence
lowest (0.01) and highest SVF values (0.69) are well protected against summer heat.
(Table 3). The lowest is a punctual passage Village Grec does not stand out but has a
under a dwelling. There are two of those in the similar tendency line as the Merlier (Figure 6).
village. The highest SVF is on the main road for Offset first floors do not influence SVF, high
pedestrians and cars. Most dwellings keep a hedges and trees do. This is because it does not
distance from roads to protect intimacy so that have passages with a very low SVF, although
most of the roads are boarded by yard walls or finding “the smallest passage of the residence”
courtyard walls, which are lower than building was part of the fieldwork. The lowest SVF is 0.4
façades. Also, the roads are parallel to the (Table 3). All passages have a minimum width
slope, so there’s always a house higher, and of 3m, there’s no first floor and hedges are
another one lower than the road. This all adds lower than in the Village Grec. Courtyard walls
up to a high SVF. The small SVF of Gaou Benat are between 1m and 2m, which is lower than a
is on punctual spots, like two covered unit wall. Besides, Candilis’ search for intimacy
passages, a stair leading to the central square, and non-monotony led to pedestrian streets
or part of a secondary road. The main road where courtyards and buildings take turns,
and central square have a high SVF. meaning there are a few passages with high
H/W Ratio. Ginestou has the highest SVF values,
Merlier stands out with the lowest SVF after the lowest H/W Ratios (Table 3) and the highest
Gaou Benat’s passage (0.1 and 0.15) (Table 3) tendency line (Figure 6).
and the highest H/W (2.65 and 2.39) (Figure 6),
due to the presence of a second floor (and All low SVF measures are low thanks to
third floor for some units), and to vegetation vegetation (except for Gaou Benat’s covered
(public and private), both are on the stairs. The passage). Building height is not decisive: a
grid morphology has several more stairs with section with a higher building and a high H/W

of 1.85 (Village Grec number 6 – Table 3) can 4.5. Comparaison (Figure 7)

have a higher SVF (0.39) than a section with a It is not possible to point out one residence and
low courtyard wall and H/W 1.53 (Village Grec label it the “best environmental performance”
number 7 – Table 3): SVF 0.29, because of the in hot summer conditions since the link
hedges. Trees also have a large impact on SVF. between morphology and microclimate is too
The vegetation might be part of the complex. It is possible though to compare their
residence’s public areas or part of the private parameters and to indicate the residences
courtyards. The smallest SVF of the Merlier (0,10) that are more likeable to have a positive effect
illustrates the latter with private vegetation in hot summer conditions concerning these
from the neighbouring courtyard covering the parameters (the lower the values, the better,
passage. except for the H/W Ratio).
Absolute Rugosity
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
Mineralization M 0 Compactness Ratio Cf
Village Grec Ginestou Gaou Benat Merlier

Building Density
Figure 7. Case study comparison. The residences with the most positive effect in hot summer conditions are the ones with the
lower values. Gaou Benat stands out because the wind has fewer obstructions (low Absolute Rugosity) and it’s greener (low
mineralization). Merlier stands out because it has the lowest Compactness Ratio.
Gaou Benat stands out because the wind has courtyard walls with openings for air movement,
fewer obstructions and it’s greener (low balconies with offset walls to let air pass…
mineralization). Merlier stands out because it Further study will add other values, like porosity,
has the lowest Compactness Ratio, the lowest roughness length, street orientation and main
SVF and the highest H/W Ratio. wind directions.
5. Discussions and conclusions The obtained Compactness Ratio Cf values

The obtained Absolute Rugosity R values (0.54 to (0.64 to 0.77) are higher than reference values
1.47), are lower than the reference value of the of 0.584 for a traditional courtyard morphology
historical city centre of Toulouse: 7.1 (Adolphe, (like central Marrakech with 9m high houses)
2001). This makes sense since historical centres (Ratti et al., 2003). They are also higher than
have several floors. They can be compared 0.404 for more modern urban morphologies (3
though to the reference value of 0.8 for a floors, 9m high, pedestrian streets without cars).
suburban area of Toulouse, with a majority of If we would imagine an individual house with
individual houses (Adolphe, 2001). the same volume as a Merlier unit, with two
This value alone is not very representative of the floors and a rectangular floor plan of 8 x 10m,
subtle design strategies that have been the compacity ratio would be 0.61. Again, the
implemented in the residences to favour air obtained values are higher. For the same
movement: brick-on-the-side-walls and volume as the Ginestou, with a single

rectangular floor of 6 x 9m, the compacity ratio thus less adapted to hot summer conditions
would be 0.87. This individual house with one than Marrakech. We should keep in mind,
floor would be less compact than the additive though, that the architects’ reference was
grouped housing. So, the additive case studies vernacular villages and not vernacular urban
are not compact at all. city centres.
High Compactness Ratios mean a large Compared to Adolphe’s reference values of

envelope surface in direct contact with 95% Mineralization (Adolphe, 2001) for
environmental conditions. Low compacity Toulouse’s medieval city centre, the measured
means less heat loss in wintertime and less heat values are 22-36% less mineralized, or the
gain in the summertime. So, in general, low additive morphologies are greener than
compacity is favoured. This was also the historical city centres. The interpretation of
hypothesis used for this study. But is low results depends on the reference values. This
compacity always better? Ratti et al. (2003) study compared obtained values to reference
claim that higher compacity, in warm climates, values of urban canyons, that have a
can also mean a higher wall mass, that can symmetrical section for a certain length. Many
function as a heat sink. This means that, when previous studies narrowly focus on (often
combined with inert walls and high diurnal vernacular) urban centres. Consequently, the
temperature swings (large temperature current study compared the results to available
difference between day and night), high reference values of urban centers that have a
compacity can have a positive effect, certain thermal functioning in high
according to this research. Further research will temperatures. Further research will need to be
point out whether there are other conditions undertaken to explore whether there are other
where a high Compactness Ratio has positive thermal ways of functioning, for example for
effects. village centres or green palmeraies with sparse
housing. This research focused on an
The obtained H/W values are higher than Oke’s environmental assessment of additive holiday
reference values for a mid-latitude city with 45° housing from the “Glorious Thirty” in France, with
latitude, like for example Avignon or Lyon (Oke, an integrative approach. Four neighbourhoods
1988). Leucate is at 42,85°. He mentions were analyzed and compared to each other,
theoretical values 0.4 as a lower limit, to allow as well as to the results of the literature review.
solar access and 0.60 - 0.65 as a high limit for Although the residences have been studied
wind protection and shade. The measured case before, from a historic and architectural point of
study values go from 0.66 – 2.08, which is higher. view, their environmental functioning in the
This means the additive residences are more summertime has not yet been evaluated. This
adapted to hot summer conditions than research, therefore, contributes to the search
theoretical mid-latitude morphologies. for semi-collective alternatives of individual
housing in peri-urban areas.
The measured SVF values (0.10 to 0.69) are
higher than Ratti’s reference values of 0.13 for a Acknowledgement
traditional courtyard morphology (like central The authors wish to acknowledge the financial
Marrakech with houses of 9m high) (Ratti et al., funding provided by FEDER (Fond Européen de
2003), except for one measure in Merlier. Développement Régional) – Région Occitanie
They’re also higher than more modern urban for the research project “OEHM - Optimisation
morphologies (3 floors, 9m high, pedestrian Energétique de l’Habitat Méditerranéen”.
streets without cars): 0.23, except for three
measures in the Merlier. This means that the Conflict of interests
street proportions of these additive residences The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Urbanization, Housing Quality and Health:
Towards a Redirection for Housing Provision in
Nigeria
* Dr. Oluwafemi K. Akande
Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
ARTICLE INFO:
ABSTRACT
Article History: Nigeria’s housing provision is perceived in terms of quantity with less
Received 8 May 2020 attention to its quality and impact on people’s health. The quality of indoor
Available online 6 September air in housing and its associated risks to human health was assessed in this
2020 paper to improve housing provision in Nigeria. Quantitative data collected
from Bauchi, Nigeria includes household surveys, housing characteristics,
Keywords: indoor carbon dioxide (CO2), and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10).
Urban Housing; PM2.5 and PM10 recorded in the building were (63 μm/m3) and (228 μm/m3)
Housing Quality; and observed to be greater than safe values of 25 μm/m3 (PM2.5) and 50
Indoor Air Quality; μm/m3 (PM10) recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Public Health; Some building features associated with some ailments were found to be risk
Urbanization. factors. The study recommended a redirection for more quality housing
provision. It concludes that housing characteristics should be targeted for
public health interventions as a means of improving the quality of urban
housing in Nigeria.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2020 Oluwafemi K. Akande.
1. Introduction urbanization rate, which has resulted in a

Housing has become an important issue in population explosion, resource constraint and
meeting the challenges presented by global shortage of houses. Consequently, in numerous
urbanization. In developing nations, particularly
in Africa, the need for housing has repeatedly *Corresponding Author:
emerged and become so critical. This is most Department of Architecture, Federal University of
pronounced with Africa’s population projected Technology, Minna, Nigeria
to reach over 700 million by 2030. African Email address: [email protected]
nations have over 4.5 percent yearly
Akande, O. K. (2021). Urbanization, Housing Quality and Health: Towards a Redirection for Housing Provision in Nigeria. Journal of
Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 35-46. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-3
African nations, access to safe, decent and 2. Literature Review and Conceptual Framework
affordable housing remains a challenge(Wong, Several researchers (Arundel, et al., 1986;
2014). Currently, 72% of the urban population in Guenther & Vittori, 2008; Li et al., 2007) have
Africa resides in slums with risks of diseases and posited that adequate ventilation should be
insecurity. To meet the challenges of housing central in designing buildings to lessen the
demand arising from rapid urbanization, possibility of transmitting infectious diseases.
housing delivery should not be limited to Similarly, other researchers (Ulrich et al., 2008)
quantity at the expense of quality in the have also underscored that buildings should be
provision of a healthy, safe, inexpensive, and designed to lessen occupants’ exposure to risks
satisfactory shelter. of diseases. Such risks, according to the
Population growth in most metropolitan urban Institute of Medicine (2011) include sick building
communities in Nigeria has assumed a syndrome and other risks that could arise from
geometrical progression with such an impact the occupants becoming exposed to pollutants
on housing provision which its demand has found indoors. Despite the growing body of
become disproportionate in level. This extent of knowledge linking architecture and human
the housing shortage has become extensive health, residential housing is still associated with
with the deficit considered quantitatively and significant health hazards. The
qualitatively. In 2019, the urban population rose Office of the Surgeon (2009) and Jacobs (2011)
to 51.2 percent, meanwhile over the last 50 defined healthy housing as built and
years, it grew substantially from 17.8 to 51.2 maintained apartments and their immediate
percent and rose to a maximum of 3.19 percent environment enhancing the health of its
in 1981 and then decreased to 1.61 percent in occupants. Hornberg and Pauli (2011)
2019. According to Aliyu and Amadu (2017), in extended the definition as houses that provide
the year 2011, the Nigeria housing deficit was sufficient physical, natural, and states of mind
estimated to be within the range of 12 and 16 that strengthen wellbeing, solace, and security.
million. This comes with the challenge of While some authors (Udofia, Yawson, Aduful, &
providing adequate housing for close to 200 Bwambale, 2014) argues that among the
million people. Consequently, most people live factors leading to poor health conditions of
in substandard housing with the problem building occupants are poor environmental
exacerbated by continuous urbanization and housing conditions which could trigger the
making housing provision more demanding transmission of infectious diseases, others
especially for the low-income groups. (Alnsour, 2011; Rauh Virginia, Chew Ginger, &
Among the Wong's (2014) key strategies are to Garfinkel Robin, 2002), posit that the materials
advance sustainability in the aspect of the from which the building is built may also
development of human settlement through the influence the occupant’s wellbeing. Rauh
provision of adequate housing for everyone. Virginia et al. (2002) further expressed that other
The implication of this agenda is the entitlement ways through which occupant’s health is
of everyone to reside in a quality house that influenced by housing are when exposed to
assures a healthy, safe, secured, happy, and poor conditions and other deficiency in the
comfortable life. According to Cattaneo, provision of basic facilities to make housing
Galiani, Gertler, Martinez, and Titiunik (2009), liveable. Fullilove and Fullilove (2000) validated
there is a correlation between housing quality this view by asserting that housing delivery
and the health, satisfaction and happiness of deficiency could worsen housing conditions
the occupants. Thus, among the prominent which in turn could trigger a range of diseases,
criteria in quality housing provision should be disorders and dysfunction. As such, housing
occupant’s health and well-being. In this quality as described by Muhammad, Kasim,
context, Ranson (2002) asserted that healthy Martin, Mohammed, and Adamu (2015) should
housing should not be viewed as staying away not be limited to physical building conditions
from sicknesses but rather to incorporate and basic facilities for liveability, but also
sufficient spaces to meet the occupants' need include indoor air quality. Thus, housing also
for daily comfort. In light of these, attention requires quality and not just quantity. This view is
should be given to ensure that housing delivery upheld by Aderamo and Ayobolu (2010) who
encompasses quality and health provision for suggested that the adequacy of housing must
the occupants. be both qualitative and quantitative to
accomplish its ultimate goals. Coker, Awokola,
Dr. Oluwafemi K. Akande 36

Olomolaiye, and Booth (2008) and Jiboye external environment. These findings relate to a
(2010) additionally corroborated that housing study in Ibadan by Coker et al. (2008) which
quality is a vital component that influences showed that the houses were grossly deficient
occupant’s health and well-being. This view for habitation. Similarly, in Osun State, Lanrewaju
agrees with those of Kembel et al. (2012) who (2012) also established the existence of poor-
described buildings as complex ecosystems quality housing that was below the required
containing microorganisms in trillions that standard. Despite numerous studies focusing on
connect along with living creatures and their the varied impacts of health linked to poor
environment. According to Aribigbola (2011) housing quality, there is still a scarcity in the
and Amao (2012), housing quality should, literature on the impact of urbanization on
therefore, enhance good living, possess healthy housing delivery in the developing
minimum health standard and should be countries with a particular reference to Nigeria,
affordable for all. a gap filled in the current study. Arising from the
Several studies (Björnsson et al., 1995; Emmelin & foregoing, this study sought to assess the indoor
Wall, 2007; Ishihama et al., 2009; Kovesi et al., air quality as a health risk in the existing urban
2007) have reported that poor indoor air quality housing in Nigeria using Yelwa ward of the
poses an infection risk through the Bauchi city as a case study. The specific
concentration of airborne bacteria which are objectives were (i) to determine the house(s)
associated with adverse respiratory symptoms. more susceptible to ill-health based on their
According to the World Health Organization indoor CO2 and PM10/PM2.5 and (ii) to find any
(WHO), the quality of indoor air is projected to association among the health symptoms linked
become the eighth major factor that will to the building parameter/air quality. This
account for the two percent in the spread of paper, therefore, fills the current gap in
diseases worldwide (WHO, 2006). Graudenz et knowledge in the provision of healthy housing
al. (2005) further reported that indoor variables development in Nigeria.
such as temperature, humidity, ventilation and A conceptual framework (Figure 1) was
accumulated biological pollutants can developed to investigate the factors identified
deteriorate the quality of the indoor in the literature review. It summarises and
environments. As such, Aderamo and Ayobolu describes the relationship, connection and
(2010) observed that other determinants of association between factors that combine to
housing quality included internal facilities, influence the implications of urbanization on
walling materials, and the source of lighting in housing and health in Nigeria. The major factors
the absence of electricity. identified are classified to include housing
Studies in Nigeria have also been undertaken drivers, housing deficit, housing delivery, current
on the factors affecting housing. For instance, in housing delivery deficiency and housing
Ibadan, Amao (2012) established that several dweller’s demand (the expectations of the
houses were in a poor condition, lacked occupant).
adequate ventilation, lighting, and a pleasant

Figure 1. Conceptual framework to assess implications of urbanization on housing and health (Developed by Author)
3. Methods C= confidence interval, expressed as decimal
3.1 Location of Study
Nigeria, a country in West Africa is divided into The sample size was calculated as follows:
36 states and a Federal Capital Territory (FCT). 1.962 ∗ (0.5) ∗ (1 − 0.5)
𝑆𝑆 =
Bauchi is a city in the North-East geopolitical 0.12
zone of Nigeria and according to the 2006
population census by the SS= 96.04
National Bureau of Statistics (2015) has a From the above calculations, the number of
population of 493,810. Officially, Bauchi city is households needed is ninety-six. However, the
divided into eight wards, each comprising of figure obtained requires further some
43,654 households, spread across various adjustments for finite populations. Thus, using
housing densities (i.e. low, medium, and high) the formula adopted from Czaja and Blair
in residential areas (Bello, Danjuma, & Adamu, (2005) the finite populations was calculated as:
2007; Gani, Chiroma, & Gana, 2012).
𝑆𝑆
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑆𝑆 =
3.2 Study Population 1+
𝑆𝑆 − 1
The study area is divided into eight wards 𝑃𝑂𝑃
Where:
having over 421, 187 residents, which formed
POP= population
the sample frame. Yelwa ward having the
96.04
highest number of population (50,533) and 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑆𝑆 =
96.04 − 1
highest number of households (6563) living in 1+
6563
naturally ventilated low-rise housing types was
purposively selected as a case study. This 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑆𝑆 = 94.67
formed the target population. Since there are
6563 households in the study area, a sample Thus, from the figure obtained above, a sample
size of 150 households was obtained from the size ranging from 95 and above was required.
calculations (Creative Research Systems, 2003; To make provision for non-response, 150
Czaja & Blair, 2005) below: households were selected and invited to
participate in the survey using stratified random
𝑍 2 ∗ (𝑝) ∗ (1 − 𝑝) sampling. The survey involved a household
𝑆𝑆 =
𝐶2 questionnaire comprising of 30 questions and a
Where: building audit checklist. A member of each
Z= Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95% confidence level) household was required to answer the
P= percentage picking a choice expressed as occupant survey questions. Only 116
decimal (.5 used for sample size needed) consented to participate in phase one of the

study through the use of questionnaires. The squares and Fisher exact tests were carried out
participants who were 18 years and above to assess the relationships between the
were asked if anyone living in their houses had dependent and independent variables. The
experienced a particular health issue and/or significant variables for the bivariate
experienced any symptoms itemised in the investigation having the value of ‘p’ under 0.05
survey questionnaire at any point in the past were added in the logistic regression. Ranking
five years. The main outcome of interest was of indicators of ventilation (CO2) was carried
self-reported illness. This was defined as at least out according to the WHO guideline value
one of the diseases and its symptoms (cough, using the following values as the benchmark;
sore throat, or runny nose). Ethics approval was less than 600 ppm (acceptable); between 600–
obtained from the University of Leeds, the 1300 ppm (complains); and 1300 ppm (very
United Kingdom and every participant signed bad).
a form indicating their consent and voluntary
agreement to participate anonymously and 4. Results and Discussions
with their confidentiality protected. Findings show that 67% of the respondents
were male, while 33% were female. The typical
3.3 Source of Data family in the survey consists of a family of four
Data collection was undertaken in three members and earned below N20, 000 ($50)
phases. The first phase involved the monthly (i.e. about $1.25 per day). Particulate
administration of a questionnaire on matter was quantitatively assessed on the
occupant’s background and health participating households. The mean
complaints through direct contact with the particulate matter found was 63 μm/m3 and
building occupants by the research assistants. 228 μm/m3 respectively, ranging from 10
Phase two involved building audits and phase μm/m3 - 231 μm/m3 (PM2.5) and 20 μm/m3 -
three involved indoor air quality monitoring. Air 1667 μm/m3 (PM10). Findings demonstrate that
quality parameters were measured using the majority (79.5%) of the household’s
Airnode sensors (Airvisual, USA) whose CO2 exposure to the PM2.5 value recorded
values were calibrated against a Rotronic CL11 surpassed the value considered to be safe for
(Rotronic, BSRIA, Bracknell, UK). Occupant’s human health (i.e. 25 μm/m3 for PM2.5 and 50
exposure to indoor CO2 emission, PM2.5 and μm/m3 for PM10) prescribed by WHO. This
PM10 particulate matter were recorded above suggests that the exposure of the greater
1m from the ground in the bedroom and the number of the respondents (79.5%) was more
living room for a minimum of 12 hrs with Airnode than twice greater in PM2.5 and multiple times
sensors in the dry season (i.e. October– more in PM10 than the recommended value.
November 2017). These findings are in line with the results from
previous studies conducted in India where
3.4 Statistical Methods Ansari et al. (2010) and Saksena, Prasad, Pal,
In the current study, the incidence of the and Joshi (1992) also reported the high mean
occupant’s health complaints constituted the particulate matter.
dependent variable as the major outcome.
Recoding was done to indicate 0 as no With evidence from the reviewed literature on
symptoms and 1 as having symptoms. the outcome of excessive concentrations of
Respiratory symptoms were classified into two, PM2.5 (i.e. breathing difficulties, irritation of the
namely; upper and lower symptoms. The lungs, risks malfunctioning lungs, etc.) in the
independent variable constitutes occupant’s indoor environment, this could account for its
demographic characteristics, building impact on the occupant’s health conditions.
operation and indoor environment conditions Similarly, the occupants having contact with a
(i.e. temperature, relative humidity, and greater value of PM10 in the indoor
presence of CO2). Data analysis employed IBM environment proved that they are at risk of
SPSS Statistics 23 for simple descriptive statistics respiratory illness (Dockery & Pope, 1994).
to generate the results. To identify the risk Households with these respiratory illnesses are
factors of buildings on the occupants, logistic responsible for a greater percentage of human
regression models were employed along with loss of life resulting from indoor air pollution. The
bivariate logistic analysis. Other non- high concentrations of the PMs in the indoor
parametric tests such as Odds ratios, Chi- environment could be a result of (i) some of the

houses are surrounded by untarred roads and Meanwhile, a greater percentage (41.4%) of
unpaved walkways which allows the entry of a the respondents answered in the affirmative
large number of dust particles into the buildings that their indoor environment affected their
(ii) the absence of landscaping elements such health while 30.2% disagreed. However, 19.8%
as green areas and trees around the buildings claimed that they did not know if the indoor
to absorb the dust particles and filter the air (iii) environment affected their health while the
improper building orientation to determine the remaining 8.6% gave no response. Findings
appropriate placement of fenestrations (i.e. obtained from Table 1 indicated that the
windows) and occupant’s behavioural pattern symptom that was generally acknowledged
in the operation of the buildings. by most of the respondents is
weakness/fatigue. This was indicated by the
Other diseases associated with the respiratory largest percentage (78.4%) of the respondents
system include tuberculosis (TB), asthma, and was closely followed by dizziness (69.8%)
pneumonia and influenza. In this study, the and headaches and stiff neck (68.1%). The
incidence of influenza was found to be least popular symptom acknowledged was
significantly related to PM2.5 (Wald = 5.087 p = “coughing up blood or sputum (mucus from
0.024). On the other hand, PM10 has Wald deep inside the lungs)” which was identified by
statistics with significant p-values for two 14.1% of the respondents.
ailments; chickenpox (Wald = 4.029, p = .045)
and influenza (Wald = 4.002, p = .045).
Table 1. Symptoms of illness experienced by the respondents in the indoor environment.

SN Variables Yes No
f % f %
1 Headaches and a stiff neck 79 68.1 37 31.9
2 Dizziness 81 69.8 35 30.2
3 A tingling/pins/needles feeling 33 28.4 83 71.6
4 Difficulty or fast breathing 42 36.2 74 63.8
5 Increased heart rate 37 31.9 79 68.1
6 Loss of consciousness (i.e. fainting) 27 23.3 89 76.7
7 Weakness/fatigue 91 78.4 25 21.6
8 Sore throat 63 54.3 53 45.7
9 Muscle pains 62 53.4 54 46.6
10 Severe watery/or loose diarrhea 42 36.2 74 63.8
11 Nausea (i.e. the feeling that you are going to vomit 39 33.6 77 66.4
12 Vomiting everything 22 19.0 94 81.0
13 A bad (severe) cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer 37 31.9 79 68.1
14 Pain in the chest 53 45.7 63 54.3
15 Coughing up blood or sputum (mucus from deep inside the lungs) 17 14.7 99 85.3
16 Sore or itchy eyes 62 53.4 54 46.6
17 Skin complaints/rashes/eczema 59 50.9 57 49.1
To determine the susceptibility of the houses to

ill-health based on their indoor CO2 and
PM10/PM2.5., the overall mean concentration of
CO2 obtained was 584 ppm. This was less than
600 ppm, which indicates on the range (for Figure 2. Houses were built within fence walls and around
the courtyard allowing windows to be opened.
acceptable value) that the ventilation was
adequate. Although some of the houses
However, findings show that several houses
exhibited adequate ventilation, the reason for
due to their poor design approach (Figure 3)
this could be a result of multiple interacting
had their CO2 up 2201ppm (i.e. more than 1300
factors such as the way the occupants
ppm (very bad). Although the p-values of the
operated their buildings, many houses were
Wald statistics show that CO2 is not a significant
built within fence walls and around a courtyard
risk factor in the incidence of any of the
(Figure 2), hence, households were able to
diseases in the prevailing residents’ indoor
leave their windows opened for long hours
environment (RIE), the indices as none of the
both night and day.
Wald statistics for CO2 is less than 0.05. The
average indoor temperature obtained in the

houses was 28.9 °C and the mean relative

humidity was 40.7%. These values exceeded by
slight the difference compared to the values
suggested by ASHRAE, which is between 21 –
26 degrees Celsius (temperature) and 30 - 70
percent (relative humidity) (ASHRAE, 1992). The
slightly higher than the recommended value of
the indoor temperature could be a result of
inadequate window openings and in the Figure 3. Windows of houses opening into a narrow lobby
appropriate window placement on the with insufficient setbacks between buildings, causing
insufficient airflow for adequate ventilation.
buildings for sufficient ventilation. This indicated
that most of the occupants are not thermally
Logistic regression analyses of the incidence of
comfortable coupled with the challenge that
diseases were carried out on the RIE indices
the majority of the occupants earned below
across the houses under study (Table 2). A
$50/month and as such unable to afford to pay
cursory look at the p-values of the Wald
for the energy required to make their houses
statistics for the houses concerning each of the
comfortable.
diseases shows that it is only in the incidence of
meningitis that houses become a significant risk
factor, as the p-value is less than 0.05. In all
other cases, the p-values surpassed 0.05 and
hence houses are not significant risk factors for
the diseases. For Meningitis, however, the odds-
ratio (Exp. B) is slightly greater than one.
Table 2. Susceptibility to ill-health based on indoor CO2 and PM10/PM2.5.
Variables in the Equation Model Summary
Disease Variable B SE Wald Df Sig Exp(B) -2 Log Cox & Nagelker
likeliho Snell R ke R
od Square Square
Tuberculosis House -.076 .112 .452 1 .501 .927
PM2.5_24Hrmean .004 .014 .097 1 .755 1.004
PM10_24HrMean .001 .003 .110 1 .740 1.001 34.510 0.018 0.043
CO2_24HrMean -.001 .003 .139 1 .709 .999
Constant -1.891 2.132 .786 1 .375 .151
Pneumonia House -.091 .066 1.918 1 .166 .913
PM2.5_24Hrmean -.007 .011 .363 1 .547 .993
PM10_24HrMean .001 .002 .291 1 .589 1.001 78.528 0.054 0.079
CO2_24HrMean .002 .001 1.498 1 .221 1.002
Constant -1.250 1.072 1.359 1 .244 .286
Asthma House .021 .095 .050 1 .823 1.021
PM2.5_24Hrmean -.005 .018 .082 1 .775 .995
PM10_24HrMean .000 .004 .011 1 .916 1.000 44.512 0.014 0.030
CO2_24HrMean .001 .002 .568 1 .451 1.001
Constant -2.825 1.549 3.325 1 .068 .059
Meningitis House .149 .075 3.927 1 .048 1.161
PM2.5_24Hrmean .006 .010 .379 1 .538 1.006
PM10_24HrMean -.002 .003 .670 1 .413 .998 69.308 0.069 0.105
CO2_24HrMean .000 .002 .008 1 .928 1.000
Constant -2.412 1.324 3.318 1 .069 .090
Measles House .016 .068 .057 1 .812 1.016
PM2.5_24Hrmean .012 .011 1.167 1 .280 1.012
PM10_24HrMean -.004 .003 1.819 1 .177 .996 76.735 0.046 0.066
CO2_24HrMean .001 .001 .969 1 .325 1.001
Constant -1.990 1.132 3.092 1 .079 .137
Chickenpox House .104 .065 2.545 1 .111 1.110
PM2.5_24Hrmean -.012 .010 1.366 1 .242 .988
PM10_24HrMean .004 .002 3.373 1 .066 1.004 82.412 0.129 0.179
CO2_24HrMean .001 .001 .600 1 .439 1.001
Constant -2.467 1.160 4.522 1 .033 .085
Influenza House .121 .064 3.557 1 .059 1.129
PM2.5_24Hrmean -.027 .011 6.597 1 .010 .973 92.728 0.149 0.206
PM10_24HrMean .005 .003 3.414 1 .065 1.005

CO2_24HrMean -.002 .002 2.057 1 .152 .998

Constant .028 .155 .034 1 .854 1.029
Malaria House -.020 .017 1.421 1 .233 .980
PM2.5_24Hrmean .004 .005 .530 1 .467 1.004
PM10_24HrMean .000 .003 .009 1 .923 1.000 25.797 0.013 0.055
CO2_24HrMean 4.349 2.474 3.089 1 .079 77.41
Constant .028 .155 .034 1 .854 1.029
To determine the correlation between the total p = .021). All the other relationships were not
number of symptoms and illnesses observed by statistically significant. There were weak
households and building parameters, a negative relations between the total number
Spearman’s rank-order correlation was of symptoms and four of the remaining building
performed (Table 3). There were weak positive parameters (the type of window, window size,
correlations between the total number of type of cooking fuel and main source of
symptoms and four building parameters (main lighting). The only significant relationship was
building orientation, type of housing unit, the observed between the total number of
orientation of window opening, and size of symptoms and the main source of lighting (r =
household). The only significant relationship .300, p = .001). All the other relationships were
was observed between the total number of not statistically significant (Table 3).
symptoms and the type of housing unit (r = .215,
Table 3. Correlation between the number of symptoms and building parameter/air quality.
Correlations
Total number of
symptoms
experienced
Spearman Rho The main building orientation Correlation Coefficient .097
Sig. (2-tailed) .303
N 115
Type of housing unit Correlation Coefficient .215
N 115
Window size Correlation Coefficient -.065
N 107
Household size Correlation Coefficient .105
N 115
Type of window in the bedroom Correlation Coefficient -.128
N 114
Size of the bedroom window Correlation Coefficient -.081
N 114
Window orientation in the bedroom Correlation Coefficient -.171
N 116
The building characteristics were cross- ratio is less than 1 implying that as the floor
tabulated with the incidence of the reported material improves from earth, wood, cement
diseases to explore the association between and to rug, the odds of incidence of the three
them; Chi-square values and Fishers’ exact test ailments are reduced. This result agrees with the
were computed at 0.05 level of significance. explanations on the findings of Alnsour (2011)
The results show that the main building that the health of building occupants is directly
orientation is significantly associated with the linked to the quality of the building materials
incidence of measles (p<0.02), meningitis (p< used for the building. Meanwhile, logistic
0.03) and TB (p< 0.04). The materials used for regression analyses of the diseases along with
floor covering were also found to significantly indoor air quality show no relationship with CO2.
associate with Meningitis (p<0.01), measles However, PM10 shows a significant relationship
(p<0.02) and influenza (p<0.002). Their odds with chickenpox (Wald = 4.029, p = .045) and

influenza (Wald = 4.002, p = .045); while PM2.5 housing into their design such as (i) appropriate
(Wald = 6.263, p = 0.012) is a significantly related building orientation to capture natural
to Influenza. The above findings point to the daylighting and adequate natural air for
general trend observed towards the approach appropriate airflow and air flush within the
to indoor environments that exists in current buildings (ii) appropriate positioning of
housing provision in the study area. The findings fenestrations on the elevations of the buildings
revealed the required intervention and (iii) introduction of shading elements around the
measures for the consideration of housing windows and entrances to reduce overheating
indoor environments. of the interior, and (iv) integration of soft and
5. Conclusion and Recommendations hard landscaping elements within and around
This paper presented the implications of the houses to absorb or lessen the dust particles
urbanization on housing provision and its entering into the building. Architects and
consequences on the building occupant’s housing developers also need occupant’s
health. It established that as urbanisation inputs in their design to create healthy housing
increases, there is a corresponding increase in and environments. This brings to fore the
huge housing deficits for the teeming Nigerian necessity of integrating neighbourhood design
populace. Exacerbating the already huge method in practice through the inclusion of
challenge of housing deficits is the less attention paved sidewalks, green and places for leisure to
given to housing quality as a significant area of enhance occupant’s health. This would need to
the non-clinical contributor to the quality of be backed up with appropriate data obtained
health of building occupants. This study found from the building occupants.
some association between certain building
characteristics and some diseases experienced 6. Limitations
by the building occupants as potential risk This paper presents a study that is preliminary
factors in the residential housing provision. The and cross-sectional in its design. The sample size
outcome of this study calls for a redirection in used in the study is considered to be small,
quality housing provision in Nigeria. This should thereby posed some methodological limitations
be occupant-centered with reduction which could have affected the results. This
strategies of indoor particulate matter which agreed with observations made by Bruce,
combine to deteriorate the indoor Perez-Padilla, and Albalak (2002) which
environments that trigger susceptibility to reported in their findings that as a result of some
infectious diseases. Future intervention in public limitations arising from methodological issues,
health policies for quality housing provision is some studies carried out on housing
needed to contribute towards efforts to address environments and health from the third world
the conundrum of a safe and healthy- countries finds no significant relationship
promoting building for the growing urban poor between them. Further, the equipment used to
populace in Nigeria. To curtail the implications capture indoor environmental parameters of
of urbanization on housing provision in Nigeria, the investigated buildings could not capture
this paper recommends the need for synergy the particulate matter continuously for 24 hours
between the built environment professionals as anticipated due to constraints of electricity
and the national government to formulate supply to power the equipment.
policies and develop guidelines that promote
healthy housing. This could limit an array of Acknowledgements
avoidable diseases arising from deficiencies in The author would like to acknowledge the fund
housing quality. Besides, there is a need for received from the Africa Research Excellence
constant revision of the nation's current housing Fund (AREF) to carry out this study.
policies to reflect the importance and
improvement required for healthy housing. This Conflict of interests
would serve as the basis for providing healthy The author declares no conflict of interest.
and socially acceptable housing for the
teeming populace in Nigeria. In practice,
building design professionals need to
incorporate comprehensive aspects of healthy

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Model Cities for Resilience: Climate-led Initiatives
* Dr. Didem Gunes Yilmaz
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Bursa Technical University, Bursa, Yıldırım Kampüsü, 152
Evler Mah., Eğitim Cd. No:85, Turkey

Paris Agreement of December 2015 was the last official initiative led by the
Article History: United Nations (UN) as the driver of climate change mitigation. Climate
Received 18 February 2020 change was hence linked with an increase in the occurrence of natural
Accepted 20 July 2020
hazards. A variety of initiatives were consequently adopted under different
Available online 25 July 2020
themes such as sustainable cities, climate-friendly development, and low-
Keywords: carbon cities. However, most of the initiatives targeted by global cities with
Climate Change; urban areas being the focus in terms of taking action against global warming
Sustainable Cities; issues. This is due to the structural and environmental features of cities
Sponge Cities; characterized by being populated, as such, they not only generate a large
Cities and Natural Disasters; number of carbon emissions but also happens to be the biggest consumer of
Cities and Climate Actions. natural resources. In turn, they create a microclimate, which contributes to
climate change. Masdar City, for example, was designed as the first fully
sustainable urban area, which replaced fuel-based energy with electric-based
energy. China, as another example, introduced the Sponge Cities action, a
method of urban water management to mitigate against flooding.
This article is an open access Consequently, architects and urban planners are urged to conform to the
article distributed under the terms and proposals that would mitigate global warming. This paper, as a result,
conditions of the Creative Commons examines some of the models that have been internationally adopted and
thereafter provide recommendations that can be implemented in large urban
areas in Turkey, primarily in Istanbul.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2020 by Didem Gunes Yilmaz.
1 . Introduction
Human beings experience different types of cyclones in the South Pacific and the Indian
natural disasters during their lifetimes. Some Ocean is between November and April.
types of natural disasters strike certain locations Tropical cyclones striking the Northwest Pacific
because of seasonal and natural deeds. For Ocean are called Typhoon and threaten the
example, in the Atlantic Basin from the islands of Japan and the Philippines. Differently,
beginning of June to the end of November, the west coast of the United States is prone to
there is a high possibility of a tropical cyclone
*Corresponding Author:
strike, which is called a hurricane. The most Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and
prone areas, therefore, are the Atlantic coast Design, Bursa Technical University, Bursa, Yıldırım
and the Gulf of the United States, and the Kampüsü, 152 Evler Mah., Eğitim Cd. No:85, Turkey
islands of the Caribbean. The season of Email address: [email protected]

Yilmaz, D. G. (2021). Model Cities for Resilience: Climate-led Initiatives. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 47-58.
earthquakes and wildfires rather than occur alone resulting from a serial formation of
hurricanes. Countries including Turkey, Iran, natural events. According to the EM-DAT
Greece, and Italy are known as earthquake- Database in 2020 (Table 1), the total number of
prone countries because of their geological natural disasters reported around the world
seismic structures. India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, significantly increased between 1970 and 2019.
and Thailand are countries exposed to river
floods very often due to heavy rainfalls and their
low-lying lands. These examples are to frame
the natural reasons for some hazard types.
Accordingly, natural disasters can be
categorized into five groups: geophysical,
biological, meteorological, hydrological, and
climatological (Figure 1). Some types of hazards
turn into disasters for a small area and a short
period, such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. Some of the hazards under the
categories of meteorological, hydrological,
and climatological affect larger areas and most
of the time last for a long period varying from
days to years. Consequently, natural disasters Figure 1. Types of natural disasters and their effect size.
are categorized based on their speed of
happening as well. Droughts, changes in the Floods and extreme weather events have the
amount of rainfall and the rise of sea level are largest shares among the others (including
among the slow-onset disasters that “that does earthquakes, and landslides) and have
not emerge from a single, distinct event but one witnessed a remarkable increase from the year
that emerges gradually over time, often based 2000 and onwards. Extreme weather events,
on a confluence of different events” (Adamo, mostly refer to heat waves and hailstorms,
2011). Slow-onset disasters are considered likely where floods occur mainly due to extreme
to have resulted in population displacement precipitation, coastal storms, and sea-level rise.
and migration mobility due to environmental Generally, the upsurge in the numbers of
challenges. Hence, they have social and disasters reported can be explained by the fact
economic effects in the long run since the that technology and communication have
movement becomes either temporary (that is, made it easier to undertake monitoring unlike
seasonal) or permanent in the case of before. However, the rise of the frequencies in
environmental conditions that cannot be the occurrence of floods and extreme weather
restored. Rapid-onset disasters, on the other events cannot be simply explained by this fact
hand, have an instant impact, although some since other types of disasters (such as
allow for the early warning system. Earthquakes, earthquakes and landslides) do not follow such
for instance, cause severe destruction in the an increasing frequency. This draws attention to
built environment in only a few seconds, and climate change where research from the USA
sometimes they trigger further disasters such as showed that since 1950, extreme precipitation
tsunamis, landslides, fires, and explosions (for events increased in 193 out of 244 cities across
example Fukushima Nuclear leakage in 2011). the country, particularly in the Southeast lands.
Nonetheless, they are considered rapid-onset This is explained by the fact that as global
disasters that require urgent intervention and warming causes more evaporation from water
preparation can simply improve the coping with resources (such as oceans and lakes), it results
strategies in most cases. Some geophysical in the atmosphere containing 4% more water
disasters can cause hydrological disasters too. molecules than the usual average
For example, a volcanic eruption emits a great (Climate Central, 2019). The debate intensified
amount of sulphur dioxide that the reaction in after the 1990s, although the issue is mostly
the atmosphere creates acid rains afterward rooted back to the 19th century during the first
(for example Kilauea eruption in 2018). industrial revolution. As such, it took decades to
However, not all geophysical disasters are convince world populations and the respective
bound to a hydrological, meteorological, or governments that the concern was real since
climatological disaster. The latter three can some events were accompanied by evidence.
Dr. Didem Gunes Yilmaz 48

Today, global temperature rise, warming land surface, consume 75% of natural resources,
oceans, shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreat, produce 50% of global waste and account for
decreased snow cover, sea-level rise, declining 60-80% of GHG emissions”. In more detail, IPCC
arctic sea ice, extreme events and ocean (2014) reported that buildings’ share in the total
acidification are deemed evidence of climate global final energy use accounted for 32 % and
change by the National Aeronautics and 19 % of energy-related GHG emissions (Lucon et
Space Administration. Hence, climate change al., 2015). The report also revealed that energy
is a collective term and global warming is a consumption is largely used for space heating
large part of it. IPCC, as a result, reported that both in residential and commercial buildings.
the global surface temperature will rise by This is followed by cooking in residential
between 1 to 3.5 Celsius degree by the year buildings and electricity use for powering
2100. However, it was only between 2006 and equipment in commercial buildings (Figure 3).
2015, when it increased by 0.87 Celsius degree. On a larger scale, urban areas’ consumption of
At this point, the Paris Agreement was global final energy use ranges between 71% to
introduced in December 2015 to campaign 76% (Seto et al., 2014).
against global warming by keeping the rise of
the global surface temperature below 2 Celsius
degrees by the end of the current century. This
goal is strongly linked with the prevention of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the
atmosphere, which mainly refers to carbon
dioxide and methane gases. An early study by
Tyndall in 1859 discovered that carbon dioxide
significantly absorbs solar radiation (Hulme,
2009). Consequently, its accumulation in the
atmosphere is responsible for global warming.
Table 1 presents a summary of the natural
disasters reported on the global scale between Figure 2. The interrelation between GHG emission, global
1970 and 2019. warming, and climate change.
Table 1. Natural disasters were reported on a global scale Needless to mention that the share must have
between 1970 and 2019. risen in the past decade on the account of the
Year Floods Extreme Drought Earthquake Landslide
weather number of building stock that increased
1970 31 24 2 11 5 towards the end of the year 2020. Urban built
1975 17 28 - 4 5 environment is therefore seen as a key driver in
1980 39 42 14 24 4 combatting climate change. IPCC, therefore,
1985 58 51 3 22 6 notes that adopting new technological options,
1990 60 137 12 43 4 changing design practices, and behavioural
1995 94 81 6 26 16 changes can lead to large reductions in
2000 157 102 27 30 28 building energy consumption. In this case, if it is
2005 193 130 20 25 13 a new building, such an initiative can result in an
2010 184 94 17 24 32 energy saving of up to 90%, and if it is a building
2015 160 118 28 23 20 with alterations, it can save up to 75% of its total
2019 170 85 15 32 22 energy consumption. Architects and urban
Source: Adapted with modifications from the EMDAT 2020 planners should, therefore, use adopt a
Database. different paradigm that takes cognizance of
the environmental impacts during the design to
Because of the relationship between GHG the construction process, and the potential
emission, global warming and climate change contribution in energy consumption and GHG
(Figure 2), most of the environmental initiatives emission. The current plans and designs of
target the reduction of carbon dioxide emission buildings should, therefore, take into account
as much as possible. The built environment the measures that would eliminate the
makes a great contribution to the total GHG anticipated environmental impacts. Figure 3
emissions worldwide. According to ISOCARP shows the shares in the final energy
(2018), “cities occupy only 2% of the world’s consumption in residential and commercial use.

Figure 3. The chart shows the shares in the final energy consumption in residential and commercial use.
Source: Adapted with modifications from IPCC (2014)
2 . Materials and Methods 3 . Ideal Cities vs. Energy Consumption

The generic design discourse has been 3.1 Masdar City
updated since climate change has become a In 2006, Abu Dhabi’s authorities were motivated
central focus in the built environment. A go- by the green energy concept and had the
green revolution is, therefore, being promoted vision to prepare the Emirate for a possible post-
for cities(Grey, 2018). Accordingly, new radical oil energy era. Masdar City was planned to be
cities are built, or existing ones undergo radical a zero-carbon eco-city, which aimed to keep
changes. For example, Low Carbon Liveable the amount of carbon emission at zero. To
Cities Initiatives by the World Bank (2009) achieve this, the city adopted the vernacular
support the model of low-carbon cities in Arabic architecture and utilized all the required
developing countries. Besides, eco-cities, zero cutting-edge technology through solar power
carbon, or carbon-neutral cities are models panels to produce energy in sustaining the
being developed as a strategy for promoting complex (Günel, 2019).
the concept of a sustainable city.
The City was planned to host 40 thousand
This paper, therefore, reviews case studies of people and 50 thousand commuters daily with
various ‘new’ urban approaches. The examples the entire project was planned to be
include the Masdar City project in Abu Dhabi, completed by the year 2016. Unlikely, in 2015
Sponge Cities interventions in Chinese cities, the population of the City was still only
and further examples from different countries composed of graduates and students at the
that aim to be carbon-neutral, self-energy Masdar Institute and some employees that
sufficient and ecological cities ideally. The were less than two thousand (Lee, Braithwaite,
paper also highlights key features in the design Leach, & Rogers, 2016). However, the
of the projects and thereafter examines a list of completion date of the project was delayed
strategies commonly adopted. The current until 2030 due to the various crises and
study further reviews the cases from the challenging conditions that affected the
qualitative approach, which focuses on the project. During the process, the project
outstanding design features and their expected evolved, and the goal did not remain the same.
environmental benefit on residents. A Masdar City still plans to be a low-carbon city.
conclusion is finally made on the most In this context, the energy sources of the City
appropriate design. were diversified into photovoltaic panels (53%),
concentrated solar power (26%), evacuated
thermal cube collector (14%), and waste reuse
(7%) to provide it fully self-sustained
(Afkhamiaghda, 2015). At the same time, more
than 22-hectares-of-land are fully occupied

with solar panels which generate power to the so that it creates its own selected gated
City, needless to say, that local dust storms community under an eco-city roof. Similarly,
occasionally block the area. Apart from the Cugurullo (2013) argued that the City was
benefits of the traditional Arabic city layout, planned from a business aspect (mainly
which provides shade during the day over the technology-based funds flow) leaving the
streets and prevents overheating, the City was social aspects behind. A study by Kherdeen
also built on a raised ground for 7-8 meters to (2016) also maintained that the timeline
maximize its exposure to the cooling winds and allowed for the project was too unrealistic that
decrease the need for air conditioning. Waste made it impossible for its objective to be
management was as well significant for the attained owing to the lack of research in its
project since the target was zero-waste. The development phase. Figure 4 shows the
waste was categorized under the categories of conception section of the Masdar HQ, the
compostable bio-waste, non-recyclable, and biggest office building in the City, and the
recyclable (Manghnani & Bajaj, 2014). 96% of distance by walk to LRT (light rail transport) and
construction waste was either reused or PRT.
recycled (Mezher, Dawelbait, & Tsai, 2016). In
buildings, while energy consumption is 56%, that
of clean water consumption is 54%, less than
any other conventional building. Inflatable ETFE
cushions were used on the Laboratory building
facades to barrier the heat transfer from outside
and the Arabic latticework was applied on the
concrete facades to provide shade to the
interiors (Patel & Griffiths, 2013).
Besides, all the buildings in the City must meet

a minimum 3-Pearl rating according to the
Estidama Pearl Building Rating System, which is
Administered by the Abu Dhabi Department
of Municipalities and Transport (3-Pearl
Estidama rating is comparable to the LEED Gold
international green building certification).
Nevertheless, it remains arguable whether the
Masdar City project was promoted to the extent
that it seemed unrealistic or a failure to some.
Nevertheless, by 2019, only 10% of the entire
project had been completed. Although it was
planned to be a car-free city by replacing fuel-
based transportation system with driverless
Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) system (Figure 4),
today electric vehicles and shuttles actively on
Figure 4. The conception section of the Masdar HQ, the
the City roads of (Patel & Griffiths, 2013). From biggest office building in the City and the distance by walk
the humanistic perspective, it has been to LRT (light rail transport) and PRT (personal rail transport).
observed that the process was purposefully
government-controlled instead of taking the 3.2 Chinese Eco-Cities
concerns and desires of the local community As the country that has the largest population,
(Lau, 2012). China makes attempts to solve the problems of
urban settlements. In the past decades, the
Buletti and des Noisetiers (2011) argued that the Chinese government channelled its economic
architecture of the city and the use of high-tech resources into building sustainable cities, and
applications (for example facades and large eco-cities projects. By the year 2015, more than
roof decorated with solar panels) was to draw a hundred cities were planned to be
an attractive image for scientific community transformed into eco-cities and more than 250
members, and the very polished renders were to be eco-city or low-carbon city (Caprotti,
to attract the luxury-interested society members Springer, & Harmer, 2015). Dongtan eco-city

and Tianjin eco-city are the two examples that development of Dongtan eco-city was, on the
are highly discussed in the literature. Tianjin eco- other hand, was postponed until. ARUP was
city (Figure 5) is deemed the “flagship national consequently hired in 2005 to design and
eco-city Project” on the east coast of China. construct the project. It was aimed to have 60%
The project was jointly developed by the less ecological footprint, 60% less energy
Chinese and Singaporean governments consumption and to emit almost no carbon
(Caprotti et al., 2015). The idea of the project dioxide while producing 40% of the total energy
was initiated in 2007, and by the end of 2008, required. The City was planned to have three
the Master Plan of the City had been finalized. villages to host 500 thousand people. In
The City planned to be home to 350 thousand Dongtan, all vehicles in transportation would run
residents and also provide job opportunities for on batteries or hydrogen fuel cells. An alluvial
190 thousand by 2020. The energy sources were island was chosen for the development which
diversified to include solar, geothermal, and was home to the migratory water birds. For the
wind. Like in Masdar City, a solar panel site was residential blocks, low-rise buildings (four to
built outside the Tianjin eco-city to power the eight stories) were preferred, unlike Tianjin.
offices. Wind turbines were mounted to Chang (2017) argued that the lessons learned
supplement the solar panels. Additionally, from the failed dream of the Dongtan eco-city
geothermal energy was introduced and used gave birth to a rather successful example,
to power the administration building with 50 Tianjin. However, Caprotti et al. (2015) criticized
pumps. The electricity and the pumps were that the project of Tianjin was a design with high
powered by the energy produced by the solar reference to countries of Singapore and Taipei,
panels. fashioning the eco-city and thus, attracting
people from a wealthy background. Figure 5
The waste management problem in bathrooms illustrates the view of Tianjin from the riverside.
was solved with the use of ecological taps and
toilet flushes that ensured minimum waste.
Large lawn areas and porous ground allowed
for the reuse of rainwater. For the cleanliness of
the urban environment, the pneumatic rubbish
collection system was configured. However,
because the system was found complicated at
first by the residents, they disliked it(Li,
Bonhomme, & Deroubaix, 2018). The City’s
layout was planned with a walking distance of
400 meters to enable the residents to easily
access public amenities, clinics, markets,
kindergarten, and primary school. In this way,
energy consumption based on transportation
needs was diminished in the inner city (Yao &
Chong, 2010). The public transportation network
was established with light rails, hybrid and
electric bus systems. For the residential building
stock, high-rise buildings that had 20 to 30 stores
were preferred. The land selected for the Figure 5. The view of Tianjin from the riverside and the
project development was mainly grey and location map (Source: Google Maps).
brownfield areas (Chang, 2017).
3.3 Chinese Sponge Cities
Since Tianjin a city facing water scarcity, the Urban water management includes rainwater,
Tianjin Municipality Ecological City groundwater, wastewater, and clean water
Development has adopted local codes and management. The concept of Sponge Cities
regulations to force water conservation, water- mainly focuses on water management
saving technologies in seawater desalination, regarding the control of rainwater,
wastewater treatment, water reuse, and flood groundwater, and riverbeds. It is about
and storm management (World Bank, 2009) preventing water-related disasters such as
While Tianjin eco-city was realised, the floods due to heavy rainfalls. The “sponge”

defines the process of absorbing water and To give another example, Yangtze Riverfront
control it through and release it when Park in Wuhan was completed in 2018. Wuhan
necessary. China launched the program in late had the worst rainfall events of its past 18 years
2014, to reuse 70% of rainwater. While by 2020, from 2016. Since the river was the main reason
the goal was to achieve this in 20% of the cities, for flooding, to achieve a resilient urban area, 7
further, by 2030, the goal is to reach 80% of the km long Beach Park fully covered with
cities across the country (Huang, Shen, & vegetation was designed as a buffer zone
Mardin, 2019). Therefore, the project targets the between the buildings and the riverside.
urban areas, primarily under the risk of flooding. Because the river culture was very common in
It first begins with harvesting the rainwater at the Wuhan, the Park created was designed as a
building scale. Roads and office buildings promenade that the public would enjoy
collect, purify, and reuse rainwaters. The goal is walking and skating.
to decrease the pressure on the drainage
system. Hence, the difference between eco-
city and sponge city is that eco-city focuses on
the energy consumption in all kinds, whereas
sponge city focuses on the rainwater
management to prevent possible flooding of
the human settlements in cities. In 2015, 16 pilot
cities were selected for implementation,
including Wuhan, Chongqing, and Xiamen, and
in 2016 another 14 cities were added to the list,
including Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and
Shenzhen (Zevenbergen, Fu, & Pathirana, 2018).
For example, Yanweizhou Park in Jinhua City,
Zhejiang Province of China (Figure 6), is one of
the examples designed by Dr. Yu Kongjian,
founder and Principal Designer of Turenscape
and Dean of the College of Architecture and
Landscape Architecture at Peking University. To
build a resilient park, the bridge was elevated
above the ground based on a 200-year flood
level and approaching to 700 m long, the Figure 7. The Riverside renders for both sides and the closer
bridge provides a connection of the island with rendering of the area.
no blockage during the wet season as well (Toh, Source: Sasaki Associates (2020)
2018). 3.4 Low-Carbon Society and City
Japan started the move ‘Low-Carbon Society’
in 2013, and since then made ‘City-to-City’
collaborations with other Asian countries to
exchange know-how technologies and to lead
the process overseas. Today, there are 25 cities
in Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and
Viet Nam, which are co-operating with 12
Municipalities in Japan, including Hokkaido,
Sapporo, Toyama, Fukushima, Kyoto, Kobe,
Osaka, Kanagawa, Kawasaki, Yokohama,
Tokyo, and Kitakyushu.
The cities in Japan are urged to take action
according to the Act on Promotion of Global
Warming Countermeasures. Japan’s target is to
reduce carbon emission by 26% by 2030, and
80% by 2050.
Figure 6. The view of Yanweizhou Park during the dry Yokohama city aims not only to reduce carbon
season on the left, wet season on the right. Source: (Toh, emission but also to transform the city into a
2018). smart city. Yokohama was selected in 2010 as

the lead in Smart City Project, and after 2015 the and is planned to start operation in 2023. A
city began to apply the measures, which target second plant is under bureaucratic progress for
energy efficiency in the transportation network, Sinop, the Black Sea coast. The third one in
improved disaster prevention capabilities, İğneada, the northwest coast, is still under
better environmental performance, and at last design. In 2010, Turkey published a targeted to
gain economic efficiency as well (Akagi, 2018). increase the production of electricity from
Based on the data from 2017, the energy renewable resources by 30% in 2023. Regarding
industry contributes to carbon emission by 22%, transportation, the aim is to upscale renewable
commercial buildings by 21% and residential energy by at least 10% by 2023 (Timperley,
buildings by 22%. Transportation system 2018).
contributes by 19% and various industry Turkey is an earthquake-prone country due to
contribution is 11% (Akagi, 2018). Accordingly, geophysical conditions. However, in the past
the City aims to reduce GHG emission amount decades, the country also began experiencing
by 30% per person by 2025, and by 2050 the severe floods and landslides in the cities, due to
goal is to reach 60%. Regarding the built climatological changes. Istanbul, as the largest
environment, the new buildings must meet the metropolitan city in the country, experienced
energy conservation standards, and to build more often than before such disasters after
greenhouses, low-interest loans are made heavy rainfalls. The floods are the result of the
available (UNESCAP, 2012). According to C40 combination of the increased water flow in the
International Initiative, the transportation Bosphorus and the insufficient underground
network was planned to be adjusted based on stormwater drainage systems in the city (Figure
non-fuel vehicles. The City provided two 8). The densely built environment also prevents
thousand electric vehicles and provided the flow of rainwater through the underground
charging stations as well. Besides, across the owing to the absence of green areas (Turoğlu,
borders of Yokohama city, solar power 2011). Although the city has experienced
generation in 249 locations, wind power several flood events, the most memorable one
generation in 2 locations, hydropower was in September 2009. In this case, the
generation in 3 locations, and biomass power Ayamama River basin overflowed, and the
generation in 6 locations will be implemented flood affected a large area, including the
(C40 Cities, 2014). Nonetheless, the municipality motorway as well as the settlements. The flood
was also aware of the fact that without caused the death of 31 people (Reyes-
informing the residents, the achievement Acevedo, Flacke, & Brussel, 2011).
cannot be realized. Hence, within a school
project, 418 lectures were held for 35,000
participants to sensitize them about the change
the city was about to experience.
4. Turkey and the Case of Istanbul

Turkey is the 20th largest GHG emitter in the
world (Timperley, 2018). The main natural
resource used for energy production is coal.
There are 15 thermal plants across the country
producing electricity power by consuming the
coal reserves (Kiliç, 2006). However, as a
developing country, Turkey imports other kinds
of sources as well, including natural gas and oil,
given that the country neighbours Iran, and
close to Azerbaijan, Russia, as also the leading
fossil energy exporter countries in the world.
Other than coal, hydro dams are also electric
energy providers of the country. Although the
country could benefit from solar and wind Figure 8. The floods cause to the scenes that the citizens
energy, it does not have large energy plants. were neither familiar with nor prepared before (Istanbul).
Differently, a nuclear plant is under construction
in Akkuyu, Mersin, the south coast, since 2017

5. Discussion and Conclusions Additionally, because transportation systems

Sustainable projects are long-term projections, require a significant amount of energy, this
consequently, they require huge investments should be replaced with hybrid systems, and
because they involve multiple stakeholders who more likely to be electrically powered. About
invest and take an active role during their Turkey (Table 2), the taxation system should be
operation (Zhan, De Jong, & De Bruijn, 2018) The improved to promote the use of hybrid cars and
local authorities should hence recognise this electric cars. As such, fossil fuel-based vehicles
fact. From the cited examples, it is now more in the public transport system should be
apparent that the built environment forms a key replaced with hybrid and electric options. Just
determinant in climate change through carbon like in Japan, the urban community should be
emission. As already observed, the first goal is to sensitized on their footprint on the environment
reduce this outcome. For that reason, the by placing info-points around the central areas
measures taken as a start should be to adopt an and possibly in the bus stops, and train stations.
electricity-powered system in favour of fossil-
based energy heating resources, mostly by Both thermal insulation and greywater systems
operating solar panels. The second measure should be promoted in buildings. Particularly,
concerns water management. This is because concerning new residential and office buildings,
although rainwater could be recycled and the amount of clean water supplied from the
reused, it has the potential to attract disasters. grid should be equal to the amount recycled
In terms of increasing the consumption of clean and within the facility. In the same way, since
water resources, rainwater should be electricity supply is largely dependent on the
managed, as in the case of Sponge Cities. grid, solar panels should be built on rooftops
Further, sea-level rise, as mentioned earlier, is a and in the façade systems for the high-rise
big problem for the seaside cities, in addition to buildings. Through this way, the contractors and
the heavy rainfalls that cause an overflow in residents would be obliged to install such
riverbeds. Hence, these cities should have a systems in the buildings, as opposed to the
buffer zone in the form of the embankment to conventional systems since they are cheaper.
let the water inundate to a possible level and Nevertheless, it is noteworthy to state that like in
distance (based on the estimations of the the example of Masdar City, instead of building
previous years). The buildings in the city layout a new settlement, which requires bigger
should, therefore, be sited according to this budgets, improving the existing cities and their
proposal in a re-study master plan. Besides, infrastructure would be the better option since
green parks and open areas with porous there will also be ownership by residents who
pavement should be designed so that the rain would, in the long run, want to experience an
flows down through the ground. improved built environment. In conclusion,
Table 2 shows the reasons why floods are
frequent in Istanbul, the mega-city of Turkey.
Table 2. The of reasons to have floods frequently in Istanbul, the mega-city of Turkey.
Factors Reasons
The most densely used urban area,
The seaside is the most valuable area (in terms of estate value),
Buildings Mass concrete construction is widespread in the city,
Which increases the heat felt and affect urban walkability,
Use of natural gas, coal for heating is common for residential and official
buildings,
Building construction still follows conventional approaches,
Building stock is largely old, hence use of air-conditioner is spread,
Building Energy Performance is widely understood as heat insulation, and least
as reduced electricity consumption,
Consumption of clean water is dependent on the grid, reuse systems are very
rare.
Surrounded by the Black Sea, the Marmara Sea and Bosphorus.
Infrastructure Suffer insufficient rain-drainage systems ends up with floods,

Insufficient green lands in the urban layout that decrease the porosity of the
ground,
As a crowded city, metro lines are being expanded newly, but not the
underground waterlines.
People tend to use their cars instead of taking public transport,
The largest number of vehicles in transportation,
Transportation Fuel based car use has the largest percentage, hybrid cars are still new, in the
market and electric charging stops are insufficient,
Bicycle use is promoted only in few districts, bicycle riding paths do not exist in
many districts.
The largest population in the country, almost 16 million,
Human Even in the dry summer season, people like to wash their cars to keep them clean
behaviour without caring for resources,
Women often wash carpets,
Municipalities wash the streets.
Acknowledgement Conflict of interests

This research did not receive any specific grant The author declares no conflict of interest.
from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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SIMURG_CITIES: Meta-Analysis for KPI's of Layer-
Based Approach in Sustainability Assessment
1
* PhD Candidate. Burcu Ülker , 2 Prof. Dr. Alaattin Kanoğlu , 3 Prof. Dr. Özlem Özçevik
1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Kırklareli University, Turkey
2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey
3 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
E-mail 1: [email protected], E-mail 2: [email protected]

E-mail 3: [email protected]

“SIMURG_CITIES” is the research and development project that is
Article History: developed under the main project named SIMURG: “A performance-based
Received 6 March 2020 and Sustainability-oriented Integration Model Using Relational database
architecture to increase Global competitiveness of Turkish construction
Available online 5 July 2020
industry in industry 5.0 era”, is a relational database model that is currently
Keywords: being developed in a dissertation for performance-based development and
SIMURG_CITIES; assessment of sustainable and sophisticated solutions for the built
Performance-Based Design environment. This study aims to analyze the key performance indicators
and Building; (KPIs) at «Cities Level» for the smart city concept that is referred to as
Competitiveness; «Layers» in the master project. KPIs for the concept of a smart city are
Competition by Design; determined by using the meta-analysis technique. Hence, the three most
Innovativeness; reputable urban journals issued from 2017 through 2020 are reviewed in this
Interoperability; KPIs; study. In addition to this, models of smart city frameworks/assessment
Sustainability; Smart Cities; tools/KPIs are reviewed within the context of this paper; environment,
Meta-Analysis. economy, and governance were found to have domain themes on urban
sustainability according to the literature review. Consequently, efficient and
This article is an open access integrated urban management, environmental monitoring and management,
article distributed under the terms and public and social services of urban development, and sustainability are found
conditions of the Creative Commons to be the most important dimensions in urban and regional planning.
Attribution (CC BY) license SIMURG_CITIES evaluation models for urban projects can use the findings
of this paper.
This article is published with open https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-5
access at www.ijcua.com www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2021 Burcu Ülker, Alaattin Kanoğlu, Özlem Özçevik.
1. Introduction
With globalization, individuals living within the
same community which has different *Corresponding Author:
demographics structures, and understanding of Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
life have increased and also lifestyles and Kırklareli University, Turkey
expectations of these individuals have Email address: [email protected]
changed. The characteristics of built

Ülker, B., Kanoğlu, A., & Özçevik, Ö. (2021). SIMURG_CITIES: Meta-Analysis for KPI's of Layer-Based Approach in Sustainability Assessment.
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 59-76. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n2-5
environment-related value systems have and society need in Turkey are the practical
differentiated utilizing individuals' age, culture, and accessible tools that provide these
educational level, etc. Nevertheless, concepts at all levels of decision-making. The
policymakers(individuals/companies/institution problem is the lack of these tools that allow the
s/local authorities) have designed living spaces governments and municipalities to propose
uniformly assuming there is a single type of suitable identities defined by the concepts or
individual according to their value systems. “layers” such as
While policymakers are preparing urban historical/smart/green/slow/safe/resilience etc,
policies, cities continue to grow depending on that are presented by specific KPIs and
rent since there are no tools to help rational associated weights, for their built environments
decision making and decision support systems at all levels and to develop consistent policies
that can be measured. At this point, for this purpose that helps individuals in
performance-based design and building of built matching up their attributes with social, cultural,
environments to evaluate alternatives in a economic, educational, etc., characteristics of
comparative way seems to have increased the built environment they are supposed to live.
attractiveness for individuals /companies Many more sub-components such as
/institutions / local authorities of policymakers. management, planning, energy,
As a result of the examinations made, it has transportation, infrastructure resources, etc. of
been concluded that the model which will be cities are needed to make a sustainable
developed for the solution of the identified performance-based assessment, as well as KPI’s
problem must include and reveal the set, should be determined from its parameters
components of the solution in the dimensions for the design to be aesthetic, compatible with
stated by Kanoğlu et al. (2018). user needs and functions.
The United Nations (UN) assumed seventeen SIMURG: “A performance-based and
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are Sustainability-oriented Integration Model Using
aimed to “stimulate action over the next 15 Relational database architecture to increase
years in areas of critical importance for Global competitiveness of the Turkish
humanity and the planet” in the last publication construction industry in industry 5.0 era” is
of the global sustainable development integrated with the subprojects conducted by
agenda, “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Kanoğlu et al. (2018) within the
Agenda for Sustainable Development”. SIMURG_ALKU&ITU Virtual Laboratory,
Features as part of the targets referred to 3rd established on the Research Gate Scientific
goal on “good health and well-being”, 4th goal Communication Platform
on “quality education”, 8th goal on “economic (https://www.researchgate.net/
growth”, 9th goal on “innovation and profile/Alaattin_Kanoglu). Kanoğlu et al. (2018)
infrastructure”, and 11th goal on “sustainable designed the open-ended project that
cities and human settlements” (United Nations, improvement for concerned models at all
2015). Sustainability is the main concept among hierarchical levels of “performance-based
those that can be achieved by the integrated design and construction” of the built
use of the other key concepts which are environment manner in various sub-projects in
innovation, competitiveness, competition by two supplementary fields, i.e., “product” and
design, performance-based building “process” dimensions. “Building components”,
production process, integration of building “building elements”, “building premises”,
production processes and interoperability “buildings”, “projects”, “lands”, “quarters”,
supported by BIM (Building Information “settlements”, “counties” and “cities” levels on
Modelling) and information classification “product side” and “operations”, “projects”,
systems (Kanoğlu et al., 2018). These concepts “departments”, “firms”, “groups of firms”,
seem to be the key factors to design an “sectors”, “national economies” and “global
integrated model that increases the economy” levels on “process side” are the
competitive advantage of the national hierarchical levels of these dimensions. All the
construction industry in the global market. levels are required, specific KPIs and weights are
Additional concepts that are not of less determined together with organisational,
importance compared with the first set are computational, and computer models are
transparency, accountability, and consistency. designed. SIMURG_CITIES, the relational
What the individuals, institutions, companies, database model that is currently being
PhD Candidate. Burcu Ülker, Prof. Dr. Alaattin Kanoğlu and Prof. Dr. Özlem Özçevik 60
conducted by Ülker under the supervision of particularly regarding urban studies. Hence, at
Kanoğlu et al. (2018) in her dissertation entitled first, this research demonstrates the descriptions
SIMURG_CITIES: “A Performance-Based of concepts and hypothetical basics of smart
Integrated Model for Design and Evaluation of cities. Literature review link to the papers and
Sustainable and Sophisticated Solutions at Cities researches is submitted, with the keywords
Level: Determination of Key Performance “smart cities” or "smart city” and its integration
Indicators and Principles of Model at with terms regarding urban planning and city
Conceptual Dimension”. The main goal of the assessment/framework/performance
project is to determine the KPIs of performance indicator/KPI. The literature review on the
of built environments at the city level in terms of background of the sustainability approach
the combinations of level-specific and indicated that research referring in related to
layer/concept specific KPIs in both expert and the urban framework is based on the headings
user point of views and integrate the findings of “smart cities" or "digital cities". The research
with SIMURG_INTEGRATED, the final output of was carried out through a search of libraries and
the master project. This paper aims to analyse scientific databases, particularly Taylor & Francis
and determine the KPIs at “Cities Level” for the Online, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science
smart concept that is referred to as “Layers” in and the most respected urban journals, Cities,
the master project. Also, the other aim of the Journal of Urban Technology, Sustainable Cities
paper is to review Models of smart city and Society for the period of 2017-2020 to
frameworks/assessment tools/KPIs on urban gather information and systematically review
development and sustainability owing to the the hypothetical literature. As a result, fifty
literature review. relevant papers were selected from these
journals to analyse, determine, and categorize
2. Materials and Methods the concept of smart cities and their KPIs. The
The conceptual framework of this research is writers, subjects and methodologies of the
based upon an analysis of KPIs for the smart city reviewed fifty papers are presented in the Table
concept. Meta-analysis is used to make a 1 and 2. The purpose is to allow for better
classification of the literature in the study. It also practical and accessible tools/performance-
purposes to allow for a better understanding of based assessment that provides this concept in
the smartness of an urban framework acquired all levels of decision-making in the future.
with the augmented use of sustainable thinking,
Table 1. Papers associated with KPIs of Smart City that have been issued in Urban Literature during 2017-2020.
Writers Year Journal Subject Research Methodology
Lam & Yang 2020 Cities PPP for SC projects Multi-attribute utility analysis
Wataya & Shaw 2019 Cities Measuring soft assets in SCs Co-value creation
development evaluation
Molinillo et al. 2019 Cities Measurement of SC communication via Digital content analysis
SM
Montalto et al. 2019 Cities Measurement of the cultural vitality of An empirical approach
ECs
Huovila et al. 2019 Cities Standardized indicators for sustainable Comparative analysis
SCs
Lam & Ma 2019 Cities Identifying potential pitfalls in SCs An exploratory study
development
Heaton & Parlikad 2019 Cities Infrastructure assets in SC framework A conceptual framework
Shmelev & 2019 Cities Multidimensional sustainability Performance

Shmeleva assessment for SC benchmarking
Yigitcanlar et al. 2018 Cities Multidimensional sustainability A systematic literature
assessment for SC review
Ruhlandt 2018 Cities Governance of SCs A systematic literature
review
Anthopoulos 2017 Cities Performance analysis of international SC A multi-methods approach
cases
Navarro et al. 2017 Cities ICT use and capability on SCs Component analysis
Ahvenniemi 2017 Cities Assessment framework for sustainable Performance

SCs benchmarking
Gessa & Sancha 2020 Journal of Urban Assessment framework for environmental Multiple case study
Technology in SC research
Kiuru & Inkinen 2019 Journal of Urban E-Capital and economic growth in An empirical approach
Technology urban areas
Costa-Liberato et 2018 Journal of Urban Digital Technology in Smart Tourism A case study research
al. Technology
Falco et.al. 2018 Journal of Urban “Infostructure” approach to urban A case study research
Technology mobility
Yigitcanlar & 2019 Journal of Urban SCs and Mobility Multiple regression analysis
Kamruzzaman Technology
Fernandez-Anez et 2018 Journal of Urban Assessment framework of SC projects Multiple case study
al. Technology research
Deal et al. 2017 Journal of Urban Urban resilience and planning support A systematic literature
Technology systems review
Wong et al. 2017 Journal of Urban Knowledge structures of City ISs Multiple case study
Technology research
Pak et al. 2017 Journal of Urban Socio-Demographic inequality in CP A descriptive analysis
Technology
Joss et al. 2017 Journal of Urban Smart Citizen A discourse analysis
Technology
PPP: Public-Private Partnerships, SC: Smart City, SM: Social Media, ECs: European cities, Iss: Innovation Systems, CP: Civic
participation.
Table 2. Papers associated with KPIs of Smart City that has been published in Urban Literature from 2017 to 2020 (continued).
Writers Year Journal Subject Research Methodology
Yang et al. 2020 Sustainable Cities and Smart Transportation A coupled simulation
Society method
Shapsough et 2020 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Performance measurement
al. Society
Tang et al. 2020 Sustainable Cities and Smart Transportation Machine learning methods
Society
Deveci et al. 2020 Sustainable Cities and Assessment framework of SC Interval Agreement Method
Society projects
Sáez et al. 2020 Sustainable Cities and Sustainbale City performance Performance
Society benchmarking
Sharifi 2020 Sustainable Cities and SC assessment tools and indicator Performance measurement
Society sets
Yigitcanlar et 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart and sustainable cities A systematic literature
al. Society review
Karji et. al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Assessment of Social Sustainability A case study research
Society Indicators
Ghofrani et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart building Neural Networks approach
Society
Akande et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Sustainbale City Component analysis
Society performance
Horgan & 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Citizen A case study research
Dimitrijević Society
Nitoslawski et 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Environment A literature review
al. Society
Walnum et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Multi-attribute
Society decisionmaking
Mattoni et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Performance measurement
Society
Zhu et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Machine learning methods
Society
Michalec et al. 2019 Sustainable Cities and Smart Environment A discourse analysis
Society
Zhang et al. 2018 Sustainable Cities and Performance Evaluation for Smart TOPSIS, A case study
Society Transportation
Manupati et al. 2018 Sustainable Cities and Urban renewal under SCs mission Multi-criteria decision
Society making
Ahmad & 2018 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Machine learning methods
Chan Society
Silva et al. 2018 Sustainable Cities and Sustainable SCs A literature review
Society
Alkhalidi et al. 2018 Sustainable Cities and Smart Environment The energy evaluation
Society method
Aghamolaei et 2018 Sustainable Cities and Performance Evaluation for Smart The energy evaluation
al. Society Energy method
Dall’O’ et al. 2017 Sustainable Cities and SC assessment tools and indicator Performance measurement
Society sets
Bibri & Krogstie 2017 Sustainable Cities and Sustainable SC assessment A systematic literature
Society tools/indicator sets review
Hukkalainen et. 2017 Sustainable Cities and Smart Energy Holistic energy analysis
Al. Society
Poggi et al. 2017 Sustainable Cities and Performance Evaluation for Smart A case study research
Society Energy
Massana et al. 2017 Sustainable Cities and Performance Evaluation for Smart A case study research
Society Energy
PPP: Public-Private Partnerships, SC: Smart City, SM: Social Media, ECs: European cities, Iss: Innovation Systems, CP: Civic
participation.
3. Results: Meta-Analysis for KPI’s of Layer-Based the meta-analysis are indicated in Tables 3, 4,
Approach in Sustainability Assessment and 5 that show the ratings of themes and sub-
This section elaborates on the reviewed fifty themes/dimensions related KPIs of a smart city
papers in the literature and seven key themes in urban literature. The rating of seven themes
and forty-four sub-themes/dimensions which for related KPIs of the smart city in the literature
are referred to in the last studies by Sharifi (2019, (Table 6), the major result of this research is that;
2020) for the smart city assessment. The environment, economy, governance-
“typology of smart city evaluation tools and institutional, and data management is found to
indicator sets” of Sharifi (2019, 2020) is used as a be the most important themes in urban and
base for the meta-analysis table. Specific KPIs regional planning. Besides, the themes which
determined for each paper were marked in the are people, living and mobility (transport & ICT)
meta-analysis table according to relevant need to become as important as the other
themes or sub-themes/dimensions which were themes.
conducted topics in the papers. The findings of
Table 3. Themes and Sub-themes of the reviewed papers on Urban Literature.

Sharifi (2019) Assessment Tools & KPIs for Smart Cities Relevant Studies for KPIs in Literature (2017-2020)
Shmelev & Shmeleva (2019)
Costa-Liberato et al. (2018)

Heaton & Parlikad (2019)
Gessa & Sancha (2020)

Yigitcanlar et al. (2018)
Wataya & Shaw (2019)
Montalto et al. (2019)
Kiuru & Inkinen (2019)

Navarro et al. (2017)
Molinillo et al. (2019)
Huovila et al. (2019)
Anthopoulos (2017)
Lam & Yang (2020)
Ahvenniemi (2017)
Falco et.al. (2018)

Lam & Ma (2019)
Ruhlandt (2018)
Theme Dimension
Economy Innovation/innovation culture √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Knowledge economy √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Entrepreneurship √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Finance √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Tourism √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Employment √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Local & Global Interconnectedness √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Productivity and efficiency √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Flexibility of the labor market √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Impacts √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
People Education/ lifelong learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Level of qualification/ ICT skills √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Cosmopolitanism/ open mindedness √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Governance Visioning and leadership √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
-institutional Legal and regulatory frameworks √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Participation √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Transparency √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Public and social services √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Efficient & integrated urban √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

management
Environment Environmental monitoring & √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
management
General infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Built environment/planning and √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
design
Materials √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Energy resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Water resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Waste (solid waste, waste water, √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
sewage)
Environmental quality/pollution √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Living Social cohesion/inclusion √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Equity and justice √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Cultural development √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Housing/livelihood quality √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Healthcare √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Safety and security √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Convenience and satisfaction/ well- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
being
Mobility Transport infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(Transport & Transportation management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT) ICT infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT accessibility √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Data Data openness √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
manageme Sensing and collecting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
nt Judging (analytics) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Reacting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Table 4. Themes and Sub-themes of the reviewed papers in Urban Literature (continued).
Sharifi (2019) Assessment Tools & KPIs for Smart Relevant Studies for KPIs in Literature (2017-2020)
Cities
Yigitcanlar & Kamruzzaman (2019)
Fernandez-Anez et al. (2018)
Horgan & Dimitrijević (2019)

Shapsough et al. (2020)
Yigitcanlar et al. (2019)
Ghofrani et al. (2019)
Akande et al. (2019)

Deveci et al. (2020)
Wong et al. (2017)
Yang et al. (2020)
Tang et al. (2020)

Deal et al. (2017)
Sáez et al. (2020)
Karji et. al. (2019)

Joss et al. (2017)
Pak et al. (2017)
Sharifi (2020)
Theme Dimension
Economy Innovation/innovation culture √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Knowledge economy √ √ √ √ √
Entrepreneurship √ √ √ √ √
Finance √ √ √ √ √ √
Tourism √ √ √ √
Employment √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Local & Global Interconnectedness √ √ √ √ √
Productivity and efficiency √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Flexibility of the labor market √ √ √ √
Impacts √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
People Education/ lifelong learning √ √ √ √ √ √
Level of qualification/ ICT skills √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Cosmopolitanism/ open mindedness √ √ √ √ √ √
Governance- Visioning and leadership √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
institutional
Legal and regulatory frameworks √ √ √ √ √
Participation √ √ √ √ √ √
Transparency √ √ √ √ √
Public and social services √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Efficient & integrated urban √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
management
Environment Environmental monitoring & √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
management
General infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Built environment/planning and design √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Materials √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Energy resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Water resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Waste (solid waste, waste water, √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
sewage)
Environmental quality/pollution √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Living Social cohesion/inclusion √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Equity and justice √ √ √ √ √ √
Cultural development √ √ √ √ √
Housing/livelihood quality √ √ √ √ √
Healthcare √ √ √ √ √
Safety and security √ √ √ √ √ √
Convenience and satisfaction/ well- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
being
Mobility Transport infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(Transport & ICT)
Transportation management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
ICT accessibility √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Data Data openness √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
management
Sensing and collecting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Judging (analytics) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Reacting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Table 5. Themes and Sub-themes of the reviewed papers in Urban Literature (continued).
Sharifi (2019) Assessment Tools & KPIs for Smart Cities Relevant Studies for KPIs in Literature (2017-2020)
Hukkalainen et. Al. (2017)

Aghamolaei et al. (2018)
Nitoslawski et al. (2019)
Ahmad & Chan (2018)

Manupati et al. (2018)
Dall’ O’ et al. (2017)

Michalec et al. (2019)
Bibri & Krogstie (2017)
Massana et al. (2017)

Alkhalidi et al. (2018)
Walnum et al. (2019)
Mattoni et al. (2019)
Total for dimensions

Zhang et al. (2018)
Poggi et al. (2017)

Silva et al. (2018)
Zhu et al. (2019)
Total for themes

Theme Dimension
Economy Innovation/innovation culture √ √ √ 22 219
Knowledge economy √ √ √ √ 19
Entrepreneurship √ √ √ 18
Finance √ √ √ √ 19
Tourism √ √ √ 18
Employment √ √ √ 20
Local & Global Interconnectedness √ √ √ 17
Productivity and efficiency √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 40
Flexibility of the labor market √ √ √ 16
Impacts √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32
People Education/ lifelong learning √ √ √ √ 21 68
Level of qualification/ ICT skills √ √ √ √ √ 27
Cosmopolitanism/ open mindedness √ √ √ √ 20
Governance Visioning and leadership √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 36 184
-institutional Legal and regulatory frameworks √ √ √ 18
Participation √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 27
Transparency √ √ √ 19
Public and social services √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 40
Efficient & integrated urban management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 44
Environment Environmental monitoring & management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 41 264
General infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 34
Built environment/planning and design √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32

Materials √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 31
Energy resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32
Water resources √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 31
Waste (solid waste, waste water, sewage) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 31
Environmental quality/pollution √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32
Living Social cohesion/inclusion √ √ √ 22 148
Equity and justice √ √ √ 18
Cultural development √ √ √ 18
Housing/livelihood quality √ √ √ 15
Healthcare √ √ √ √ 17
Safety and security √ √ √ √ √ √ 21
Convenience and satisfaction/ well-being √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 37
Mobility Transport infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 26 163
(Transport & Transportation management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 35
ICT)
ICT infrastructure √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32
ICT management √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 36
ICT accessibility √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 34
Data Data openness √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 32 180
manageme Sensing and collecting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 40
nt
Judging (analytics) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 34
Reacting √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 40
Learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 34
Table 6. Ratings of 7 Key Themes for related KPIs of Smart City in Urban Literature
Themes Ratings
Environment 264
Economy 219
Governance-institutional 184
Data management 180
Mobility (Transport & ICT) 163
Living 148
People 68
Table 7. Highest and lowest 10 ratings of Dimensions for related KPIs of Smart City in Urban Literature.
Dimensions Ratings Dimensions Ratings
Efficient & integrated urban 44 Housing/livelihood quality 15
management
Environmental monitoring & 41 Flexibility of the labor 16
management market
Public and social services 40 Tourism 16
Productivity and efficiency 40 Healthcare 17
Reacting 40 Local & Global 17
Interconnectedness
Sensing and collecting 40 Cultural development 18
Convenience and satisfaction/ 37 Legal and regulatory 18
well-being frameworks
ICT management 36 Equity and justice 18
Visioning and leadership 36 Entrepreneurship 18
Transportation management 35 Finance 19
The highest and lowest ten ratings of forty-four development and sustainability are found to
dimensions for related KPIs of a smart city in the be the highest important dimensions. However,
literature review are defined in Table 7. The housing/livelihood quality, the flexibility of the
other critical result of this research is efficient labour market, smart tourism and smart
and integrated urban management, healthcare are found to be the lowest ratings
environmental monitoring and management, of dimensions. Smart/sustainable city planning
public and social services, productivity and has been revealed for the development of the
efficiency and data management in urban lives of urban citizens and increasing civic
services/assets; also, given the closeness of life for people, transportation, economy, on-
modern technology, citizens’ requirements line applications of public services and
and tools of interacting with their regional environment (Li et al., 2017). Smart cities are
administrations is changing (Nitoslawski et al., innovations for the improvement of targets in
2019). At this critical point of change, cultural the quality of life and development by the
development, innovation, and utilization of smarter approaches and
entrepreneurship are the main dimensions to technology (Lim et al., 2019). Smart cities have
be considered. Since, culture is a concept that been researched extensively for almost three
social, emblematic, and economic decades and there are many ways of looking
implications can mention people's customs, at them. Smart city studies first arose in the year
religions, and attitude, or economic activities 1992 in which “The Technopolis Phenomenon:
based on symbolic values, artistic creation and Smart Cities, Fast Systems, Global Networks”
creative skills also are a key for involved (Gibson et al., 1992). Then, Graham and Marvin
improvement, strengthening social ties and (1996) began the research of the link between
solidarity, and promoting innovation and ICTs and urban fields with
creativity (Montalto et al, 2019). “Telecommunications and the City”. Some
studies in this recent field of knowledge are
4. Discussions from Mitchell, 1995, 1999, 2003; and Castells,
Modern cities tackle numerous economic, 1996). In the early 2000s as the best efficient
social, and spatial troubles, together with research was “urban ICT studies”, Graham
which they perform in an extremely volatile (2004) accomplished to research “the complex
environment, which pushes them to seek an and poorly understood set of relationships
optimum development model. Nowadays, between telecommunications and the
countless concepts/models (such as eco/ development, planning and management of
green/ compact/ smart/ slow/ resilient/ agile/ contemporary cities”. In the study of ICT-driven
sustainable city etc.) of urban development urban development and innovation have
have been discussed by researchers. In this engaged the attention of researchers (Mora et
section, the model/concept of smart city al., 2017). The key centre of smart cities is on the
frameworks/performance act of ICT infrastructure. The plenteous
indicators/assessment tools is researched and environmental concerns as a significant motive
discussed in detail in the literature. of urban development at the part of
Cities act a crucial part socioeconomically relational/social capital and
and environmentally at a global level. The city education/human capital (Komninos, 2002;
infrastructure appeals to numerous people Shapiro, 2008; Deakin, 2010).
looking at the advantages of urbanisation over Many definitions for “Smart Cities” in use
the conventional rural lifestyles inside various globally, but smart city defines as “a new
cultural contexts. The United Nations (UN) concept and a new model, which applies the
estimates that almost 7 billion people will new generation of information technologies,
inhabit in urban fields by 2050 (Streitz, 2015). such as the internet of things, cloud computing,
Some other 1.3 million people around the world big data and space/geographical information
move into a city every week (Carter, 2020). integration, to facilitate the planning,
Consequently, cities and their executives are construction, management and smart services
meeting myriad difficulties and opportunities as of cities” according to SAC (ISO/IEC 2015). In
their facilities and infrastructure are placed literature, meanwhile, there is not any certain
under ever enhancement levels of pressure description of a smart city, a few basic
(Breetzke and Flowerday, 2016). A rising trend is dimensions of a smart city have been
that manage the impact of these difficulties described (Giffinger et al., 2007; Fusco Girard
and opportunities in the usage of Information et al., 2009; Van Soom, 2009). These dimensions
and Communication Technology (ICT) among cover "smart”
an accessible integrated infrastructure for a governance/environment/mobility/economy/l
concept of smart city (Ismagilova et al., 2019). iving/people. Briefly, "education" (e.g., e-
Numerous cities are focusing their struggles to governance or e-democracy), “technical
be “smarter” by using ICT to develop different infrastructure” (e.g., transportation or logistic),
ways of city management and operation, "industry" (e.g., business parks or districts),
including regional traffic control, offer upscale "participation" (e.g., government
administration, citizens), and various “soft cities have factors such as "community",
factors” (e.g. security/safety, green, efficient "technology", "policy"; the inclusive conceptual
and sustainable energy) are defined in the vision of the framework centres on finding the
literature regarding smart city (Giffinger et al. results in the development areas, i.e.,
2007; Lombardi et al. 2012). In addition to them, “economy”, “society”, “environment”,
Anthopoulos (2015) and Anthopoulos et al., “governance” which are associated with five
(2016) have defined seven utilization areas of results "productivity", "sustainability",
smart cities: “resource, transportation, urban "accessibility", "wellbeing", "liveability",
infrastructures, living, government, economy, "governance" (Yigitcanlar et al., 2018). In
and coherency” thus they founded the addition to them, Sharifi (2019, 2020) has
theoretical structure of smart cities. While examined the strengths and weaknesses by
academics maintain to qualify smart cities as a evaluating thirty-four topics/schemes between
recent and up-and-coming subject of smart city indicators. The results have shown
research, the study of conceptualising and that the widely known topics/themes are:
describing is still on-going (Townsend, 2013; "economy", "people", "governance",
Kitchin, 2014; Christopoulou et al., 2014; Greco "environment", "mobility", "living" and "data".
and Cresta, 2015; Albino et al., 2015;
Fernandez-Anez, 2016). On the other hand, the 5. Conclusions
technology-focused vision of smart cities SIMURG_CITIES, the relational database model
generally positions smart cities like cash cow of performance-based development and
and expects to produce a lot of money evaluation of built environment entities at cities
(Zanella et al., 2014). This rising market provides level with an emphasis of “sophisticated
an opportunity for various growth initiatives, solutions” such as slow, green, safe, smart,
especially in a period of recession (Paroutis et resilient, etc. in a comparative way have been
al., 2014), big firms such as ABB, Fujitsu, IBM developed. This study analysed the KPIs at
apply information and communication «Cities Level» for smart city concept by using
technologies as tools for smart-city meta-analysis technique and literature
development to motivate urban innovation. reviewed that has been issued in three best
Nevertheless, this "corporate smart-city model" reputable urban journals from 2017 through
is condemned since it has not successfully 2020. Environment, economy, governance
explained the cultural and social and data management were found to have
developments of smart-city manner except for domain themes, as well as efficient and
technological terms (Mora et al., 2017). integrated urban management,
Regarding this censure, Shin (2010) showed the environmental monitoring and management,
failure of this model empirically and highlighted public and social services in urban
the shortcomings of the firm and technology- development and sustainability, are found to
focused development for smart cities. Likewise, be the highest important dimensions of urban
Shwayri (2013), Townsend (2013), Yigitcanlar & and regional planning. In addition to these,
Lee (2014) and Yigitcanlar (2016) reported in smart tourism, smart healthcare, smart people,
some samples of these smart cities. On the smart transportation as well as the dimensions
other hand, from the recent studies, a holistic of cultural development, innovation, creativity
approach of smart cities has risen to base on and entrepreneurship are also open to
human-centric vision ovation, the balanced development. This detailed study presents a
integration of economic, social, cultural, crucial understanding of the key basic
technological, environmental, and human research topics/themes in smart cities,
sides (Townsend, 2013; Hemment and emphasizing the restrictions of the latest
Townsend, 2013; Komninos, 2014; improvements and potential further aspects.
Christopoulou et al., 2014; Angelidou, 2014; The results of this research might be used in
Concilio and Rizzo, 2016; Hollands, 2015, 2016). SIMURG_CITIES to assess/evaluate urban
After all Mora et al., 2017 have underlined that development models by related target groups
“the knowledge necessary to understand the such as smart city
process of building effective smart cities in the policymakers/planners/developers to prefer
real world has not yet been produced, nor the best appropriate tools for their
have the tools for supporting the actors requirements, can be used as a foundation for
involved in this activity”. In a nutshell, smart performing future crucial analyses of
assessment/evaluation framework, may also Angelidou, M. (2014). Smart city policies: A spatial
lead the performance-based development approach. Cities, 41(Supplement), 3–11.
and assessment of sustainable and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2014.06.007
sophisticated solutions in the future.
Anthopoulos, L. G. (2015). Understanding the
Acknowledgement smart city domain: A literature review. In M.P.
This research did not receive any specific grant Rodríguez-Bolívar (ed.), Transforming city
from funding agencies in the public, governments for successful smart cities, 8, 9–21.
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Springer International Publishing, Cham,
Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
03167-5_2
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Anthopoulos, L. G. Janssen, M., & Weerakkody, V.
(2016). A Unified Smart City Model (USCM)
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www.ijcua.com
Urban Land-use and Traffic Congestion: Mapping
the Interaction
1
* Ph.D. Candidate James Kanyepe , 2 Prof. Dr. Marian Tukuta , 3 Prof. Dr. Innocent Chirisa
1 and 2Department of Supply Chain Management, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe
3 Department of Demography Settlement & Development, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
E-mail 1: [email protected], E-mail 2: [email protected]
E-mail 3: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO:
ABSTRACT
Article History: The interaction between transport, land-uses and travel patterns produce
Received 25 October 2020 diverse transportation problems in urban cities with traffic congestion as the
Accepted 15 December 2020 most visible manifestation. Traffic congestion is a frequent phenomenon in
Available online 19 December
2020
most cities around the globe. This paper reviews the interaction between land-
use traffic congestion through published literature. The objective of this study
Keywords: is to encourage and provide researchers with future research directions in
Land-Use; land-use and traffic congestion. For this purpose, a systematic review was
Peak Hour; performed analysing 45 articles from the year 2010 to 2020 using a
Traffic Congestion; descriptive approach. Subsequently, the results of the study show that
Transport; although the interaction between land-use and traffic congestion has gained
Travel Patterns; currency in developed countries far less is known on this subject in developing
Travel Behavior. parts of the world, though new evidence is steadily accumulating.
Consequently, limitations of this work are presented, opportunities are
identified for future lines of research. Finally, the conclusion confirms the
This article is an open access need for further research addressing the methodological concerns.
Attribution (CC BY) license JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(1), 77-84.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2021 James Kanyepe, Marian Tukuta, Innocent Chirisa.
1. Introduction 2017). Mir Shabbar, Muhammad, and Syed

This systematic review aims to examine the Fazal Abbas (2014) argue that unplanned land-
recent literature on the interaction between use results in traffic congestion. Other scholars
land-use and traffic congestion. Traffic have asserted a connection between land use
congestion has become a ubiquitous problem and traffic congestion in urban areas (Colonna,
worthy of policy attention and citizens alike Berloco, & Circella, 2012; Kuzmyak, 2012;
(Shahgholian & Gharavian, 2018; Uniyal &
Gandhi, 2019). The rush hour has become a two *Corresponding Author:
or three-hour peak period, and congestion Department of Supply Chain Management, Chinhoyi
recurs mornings, midday, midevening, and on University of Technology
weekends as well (Jayasooriya & Bandara, Email address: [email protected]

Kanyepe, J., Tukuta, M & Chirisa, I. (2021). Urban Land-use and Traffic Congestion: Mapping the Interaction. Journal of Contemporary Urban
Affairs, 5(1), 77-84. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n2-6
Mukherjee, et al., 2014; Zhang, et al., 2017). Areas with diverse uses are found to significantly
However, the magnitude and significance of a increase slow modes shares, increase walk
relationship between land use and congestion mode choice for work trips (Ton, et al., 2019)
remain unclear. Two major impediments to and non-work trips (W. Zhou & Li, 2016). The
statistically sound, comparative studies of land proximity of commercial centers to the
use and congestion exist a lack of good residence location has a strong impact on
measures of congestion; and the difficulty in increasing the walk mode share for non-work
modelling the complex interrelationships trips (Alqhatani, Setunge, & Mirodpour, 2014).
between congestion, land use, and transport Regarding public transport (transit), similarly,
infrastructure (Wang, 2010). empirical evidence is found in the literature
Traffic congestion is a comparison of the use of about the positive impact of the land-use
transportation systems with the capacity of the mixture in promoting the frequency and mode
transportation system. In a way, land-use affects share of public transport. Numerous scholarly
traffic congestion in both dimensions. On the efforts have observed that walking distance
supply side, the street network determines the and walking time are critical factors in
number of lane-miles in a given area whereas, determining mode choice (for example
on the demand side, different types of land-uses whether to use public transport or not) (Durand
will cause variation in travel behaviour (such as et al., 2016; Ewing & Cervero, 2010; Grisé, Wasfi,
travel frequency, length and mode choice) Ross, & El-Geneidy, 2019). A plethora of studies
which in turn influences the level of congestion has investigated whether urban design increase
(Ewing & Cervero, 2017). A sizeable number of or reduce traffic congestion (Ewing & Cervero,
studies have investigated the impact of density 2010). Household VMT could be significantly
development (compact or sprawl) on vehicle- reduced with an increase in bicycle lane
miles traveled (VMT), traffic volume (e.g. annual density or with an increase in intersection
total traffic volume, and volume to capacity density (Litman, 2012). In contrast, residential
ratio), throughput (e.g. vehicles per hour, and areas with a high proportion of intersections are
average daily traffic per lane), travel time and empirically found to provide pedestrian-friendly
speed, travel delay, and congestion indices land-uses. These areas significantly increase the
(e.g. travel time index and roadway congestion active transport trip frequency and increase the
index) (Cervero, 2013; Engelfriet, 2015; Ewing, et probability of the walk mode choice for work
al., 2014; Ewing, et al., 2018). However, these and other trips alike
studies have reported mixed links between Another body of research investigated the
density and traffic congestion measures. impact of destination accessibility on traffic
In response to the new urbanism and compact congestion (Ewing & Cervero, 2010; Hasibuan,
city concepts, developments with diverse uses et al., 2014; Suzuki, et al., 2013). A development
are strongly thought to maintain sustainability toward a more sustainable transport system (as
and reduce car dependency (Kusumastuti & in increasing walking, cycling and public
Nicholson, 2017). There is relatively strong and transport, and decreasing car-use) has been
significant empirical evidence that diversity regarded as an important aim in the field of
reduces the individual VMT (Cervero, 2013; transportation research in the last decades due
Geyer & Quin, 2019; Spears, Houston, & Boarnet, to an array of reasons, including environmental
2013). A balance between jobs and housing issues and congestion. Therefore, the objective
might reduce the length of commute trips thus of this literature review is to present current issues
reducing traffic congestion and air pollution. surrounding the interaction between land-use
Scholars have been arguing that the reasons for and traffic congestion. For this purpose, a
the continued lengthening of commuting times systematic literature review published from 2010
and the marked deterioration of traffic to 2020 is carried out. A systematic literature
conditions are the results of the increasing job review was chosen due to its transparent and
and housing imbalance in many metropolitan replicable characteristics, and its identification
areas (Niedzielski, O'Kelly, & Boschmann, 2015; of research gaps and occurrence for further
Zhang et al., 2017). A community is considered investigation. This review analyses the literature
balanced when residential and employment from a descriptive standpoint, to assess
distributions are approximately equal advancement and emphasize the areas of
(Jiangping, Chun, Xiaojian, Wei, & Peng, 2014; further research required. Thus, this study aims to
Masoumi et al., 2018; J. Zhou & Long, 2014). answer the question: what sort of a relationship
Phd Candidate James Kanyepe, Prof. Dr. Marian Tukuta & Prof. Dr. Innocent Chirisa 78
exists between land-use and traffic congestion? research. We employed the Systematic Review
For this purpose, the present review is organized Data Repository (SRDR), a cutting-edge tool for
as follows: Section 2 presents the methodology extraction, administration and inspection of
followed by Section 3 which presents the results data for our systematic review. Gathering and
of the investigation. Section 4 presents the analysing publicly accessible literature we
discussion of the topic, section 5 presents the required no institutional ethics approval before
research gap, section 6 presents limitations and initiating our research. During the period August
future research and finally, Section 7 presents a 2019 we conducted a quantitative literature
brief conclusion. review of Elsevier, ScienceDirect, and JSTOR
databases, with search terms including “land-
2. Methodology use” and “traffic congestion” Out of 436 papers
To provide a vigorous review of the literature we found, dated from 2010 to 2020, only 45 articles
performed a systematic review on the met the eligibility criteria. These articles were
relationship between land-use and traffic analysed and classified according to different
congestion. The inclusion criteria were (i) categories based on their characteristics.
publications indexed in Elsevier, ScienceDirect Descriptive analysis was adopted and it
and JSTOR databases, (ii) publication date included the geographical framework and
between 2010 and 2020 (iii) written in English, research methodologies being used. Fig 1
and (iv) particular search terms covered. depicts the sequence of steps undertaken for
Editorial material, books, or book chapters, this research methodology.
technical reviews were excluded from our
Figure 1. The sequence of steps taken for this research methodology.
3. Results The geographical distribution shows that the

The results comprise of descriptive analysis of American continent dominates research on
the 45 articles. The descriptive analysis consists land-use and traffic congestion. For instance,
in identifying and classifying the articles by Wang (2010) used a multi-dimensional
geographical framework and analysis of approach to measure the impact of land-use
research methodology. and traffic congestion in Florida. Kuzmyak
3.1 Analysis of articles by the geographical (2012) performed a detailed analysis of the
framework relationships between higher-density land-use
Table 1 shows the geographical framework of and traffic conditions in four Phoenix
articles used to analyse the interaction of land- transportation corridors in the United States.
use and traffic congestion. Using aggregated commute data from the
Table 1. Distribution of articles by the geographical American Community Survey, Gordon and Lee
framework.
found that job dispersion, rather than just density
Geographical Framework Total
or population dispersion is the critical factor for
Africa 1 congestion and travel time. Ewing, Keith, et al.
America 20 (2018) conducted a study in the United States
Asia 11 and found that compact, mixed-use
Australia 4 development is inherently more efficient and
Europe 9 sustainable, using less land and reducing
private vehicle use rates by bringing people one has yet determined, using credible land-
and activities closer together, and also use metrics and credible congestion data, the
providing densities that are capable of net effect of those countervailing forces on
supporting walking and effective transit area-wide congestion. Cutsinger et al., (2010)
services. Adetunji (2020) stated that as points that there are eight dimensions of the
population increase, the number of metropolitan structure, namely: density,
automobiles, tricycles, and motorcycle also continuity, concentration, clustering, centrality,
increase. nuclearity, mixed uses, and proximity.
Some notable studies conducted in Asia Ewing et al. (2014) used the
include a study conducted by Patel, Kheni, compactness/sprawl index metrics
Patel, Patel, and Chauhan (2019) who methodology to measure sprawl in 162 U.S
evaluated traffic congestion using a urbanised areas. Following the same logic,
comparative land-use pattern in Surat, India, Sarzynski, Galster, and Stack (2014) explored the
and found that land-use impacts the multi-dimensional variations and changes in U.S.
movement of traffic. Zhang et al. (2017) metropolitan land-use patterns during the
proposed a new method to describe, compare, 1990s. Jaeger and Schwick (2014) have
and classify the traffic congestion points in conducted analyses extending the time
Beijing, China, using the online map data and considerably. They developed a Weighted
further revealed the relationship between traffic Urban Proliferation (WUP) metric to assess urban
congestion and land-use. Shubho and Neema sprawl in Switzerland and present for the first
observed that careless unplanned time quantitative figures about the
development of land-uses in Dhaka, development of sprawl for an entire country
Bangladesh has resulted in perpetual traffic over a time of more than a century. Their
congestion along with pollution, thereby method is suitable for studying changes in
aggravating its sustainability. Mukherjee et al. regional sprawl patterns over time and offers
(2014) carried a study to determine the effects valuable tools for analysing the changing
of heterogeneity in land-use distribution on nature of sprawl and urban development
traffic congestion in rapidly urbanising Ranchi historically. European Environmental Agency
City, capital of Jharkhand state, India and used urban permeation (UP) and WUP as sprawl
found that there is a positive relationship metrics for all European countries. Fuladlu (2019)
between heterogeneity in land-use distribution that urban sprawl does not promote auto-
and traffic congestion. There is a paucity of dependency.
studies on the research topic in the African Cutsinger et al., (2010) used a multidimensional
continent. The only study obtained from the conceptualization of land-use to prove to be an
search was a study by Oduwaye, Alade, and important improvement. Cervero (2013)
Adekunle (2011) who surveyed the land-use conducted a cross-sectional study design with
and pattern along the Lagos-Badagry corridor, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Using
in the Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. compactness/sprawl metrics they found that an
increase in compactness reduces the amount
3.2 Analysis of Research Methodologies of driving people to do, but also concentrates
This sub-section presents a comprehensive the driving in smaller areas. Using data from 45
analysis of the methodologies that were used to county-level urban areas of 2007 in the State of
uncover the relationship between land-use and Florida, Wang (2010) measured 12 indices of
traffic congestion. Although a consensus has land-use and 3 measures of traffic congestion,
been reached on the interaction of land-use grouping them into 5 distinct factors and
and traffic congestion, the magnitude and conducting bivariate analysis between
significance of a relationship between the two variables. Kuzmyak (2012) used the volume to
are still unclear suggesting that there might be capacity ratio (V/C ratio) to measure
inconsistencies in the methods used to analyse congestion and density, diversity, and
this topic. The differences in conceptual models destinations to measure land-use.
in previous studies are likely to generate In light of the articles reviewed, it clear that
contradictory results. For instance, land-use is there is a lack of consensus on the credible
measured in different ways (Newman & variables, congestion data used, population
Kenworthy, 2015) and so is congestion (Rao & size, and consideration for reverse causation
Rao, 2012). Ewing, et al., (2018) assert that no and time-lags. This lack of consensus suggests
that further refinement of the models may be congestion. Wang (2010) adapted the multi-
necessary, paying special attention to these dimensional approach to measure land-use
methodological issues. and traffic congestion. He obtained data
obtained from 45 county-level urban areas as of
4. Discussions 2007 in the State of Florida. In the conceptual
This study conducts a literature review of articles model, he developed three (3) congestion
on land-use and traffic congestion, published indicators – Roadway Capacity Index (RCI),
from 2010 to 2020, in Elsevier, ScienceDirect, Travel Time Index, and delay per capita, which
and JSTOR databases. This research investigates were correlated with twelve (12) land-use
the available literature under several measures, grouping urban form indices into 5
constraints: Time period, English language, distinct factors, and conducting bivariate
three database sources, research and literature analyses between variables. Zhang et al. (2017)
articles only with different variants on search used linear regression analysis to determine the
keywords, and land-use and traffic congestion influence of the high proportion of commercial
emphasis. Furthermore, this research classifies land-use on traffic congestion. The findings
the extracted articles under different show that there are studies on land-use and
approaches: Distribution of articles by the traffic congestion in developing countries
geographical framework and research particularly in Africa are scarce. Furthermore,
methodology, and tools and techniques used the study findings show that there are
for analysis. The results of these classifications inconsistencies in the methods that were used
have facilitated the discussion on the current to analyze the topic.
status and progress on traffic congestion and
land-use. Therefore, the key findings will be 5. The Research Gaps
discussed, followed by the research gaps and The current body of knowledge lacks empirical
future research opportunities. insights into the interaction between land-use
Policymakers, including transport planners and and traffic congestion in developing countries.
transport engineers, have become increasingly There has been inadequate attention to and
aware and interested in understanding the discussion on how land-use influences traffic
interaction between land-use and traffic congestion in developing countries. However, a
congestion. However, there is a paucity of great amount of literature-based evidence on
research on the research topic in developing the research topic is abundant in developed
countries. Out of 45 articles used for this study, countries but findings from these studies have
the American continent had 44%, followed by been refuted based on methodological
Asia (26%), Europe (21%), and Australia (8%) concerns. For instance, a sizeable number of
whereas African had less than 1% of the articles. scholars have focused on how density
The study also revealed that the United States influences traffic congestion but the influence
has been the major contributor to land-use and of other measures of land-use (such as diversity,
traffic congestion articles, followed by China, design, destination accessibility, and distance
Bangladesh, Europe, and Nigeria. The study to transit) on traffic congestion is scarce.
revealed that linear regression is the most used Besides, previous studies have used basic
technique (21 articles) followed by correlation measures of traffic congestion and obtained
analysis (17 articles) and the least used varying results. For example, Kuzmyak (2012)
approach is Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) used volume capacity (V/C ratio) and found
(7 articles), Ewing, Tian, and Lyons (2017) used a that that there was considerably less congestion
cross-sectional study, regression analysis along despite densities that were many times higher in
with Structural Equation Modelling. Kuzmyak four Phoenix transportation corridors in the
(2012) developed a set of regression models to United States of America while Zhang et al.
quantify the effects of key land-use variables on (2017) used commute time and found that a
household vehicle ownership and VMT, reasonable ratio of land-use could efficiently
illustrating the mitigating effects of higher reduce traffic congestion. However, studies
density, better mix, and better transit exploring the interaction between land-use and
accessibility. traffic congestion using a multi-dimensional
Density is the most commonly used measure of approach are limited. Therefore, it is important
land-use. From the articles used, 87% used to address the deficiencies exhibited by basic
density, design, and diversity concerning traffic
measures through the use of a multi- provide and discuss outcomes on current
dimensional approach. research status. Although a consensus has been
reached on the interaction of land-use and
6. Limitations and Future Research traffic congestion, the magnitude and
This sections present limitations and further significance of a relationship between the two
research opportunities. The restriction of are still unclear thus a critical knowledge gap
database access availability has limited the that needs to be filled. The ongoing debate with
research and thus articles from other sources of regards to the significance of the relationship is
primary importance on the interaction between intensified by inconsistencies in methodological
land-use and traffic congestion could have approaches, lack of multi-dimensional
been excluded from processing. The keywords measures for both land-use and traffic
used may not be all-inclusive. The review was congestion. Further research can be directed
carried out on 45 articles; therefore, the toward addressing these issues. It is also
exploration of more articles could broaden the recommended to conduct a study on the topic
conceptualization and knowledge of empirical in developing countries as far less is known on
research, and issues currently addressed this subject.
regarding land-use and traffic congestion. The
land-use dimensions that influence traffic Acknowledgement
congestion have not been studied in the same This research did not receive any specific grant
magnitude particularly in developing countries. from funding agencies in the public,
Besides, a plethora of research has not yet commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
agreed on the proper methodology to use
when examining the interaction between the
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
two. Likewise, the current body of literature on
the research topic can be criticised for a lack of References
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Igor Calzada, Elsevier Science Publishing Co Inc, ISBN:9780128153000
Book Review: Smart City Citizenship

Dr. Igor Calzada
Cardiff University, WISERD, Wales, UK
E-mail: [email protected]

Against the backdrop of the current hyperconnected and highly virialised post-
Article History: COVID-19 societies, we, ‘pandemic citizens’, wherever we are located now, have
Received 15 February 2021 already become tiny chips inside an algorithmic giant system that nobody
Accepted 8 March 2021 understands. Furthermore, over the last decade, the increasing propagation of
Available online 20 March 2021 sensors and data collections machines and data collections machines in the so-called
Smart Cities by both the public and the private sector has created democratic
Keywords: challenges around AI, surveillance capitalism, and protecting citizens’ digital rights
Smart city; to privacy and ownership. Consequently, the demise of democracy is clearly already
Data ecosystems; one of the biggest policy challenges of our time, and the undermining of citizens’
Digital rights; digital rights is part of this issue, particularly when many ‘pandemic citizens’ will
Social innovation; likely be unemployed during the COVID-19 crisis. This book suggests reverting the
Networked Individualism; intertwined mainstream paradigm of the technocratic policy scheme popularised as
Penta helix; Smart City. The Smart City paradigm has increasingly been influenced (and even
City-regions; shifted) by the debate regarding urban liberties, digital rights, and cybercontrol by
Data infrastructures; leading us to the consideration that actually the Smart City incarnates a society of
techno-political control, which in itself has flourished abundant critique from
Digital government,
cybernetic urbanism. To provide a constructive standpoint and acknowledging that
Algorithmic nations;
since 2018 GDPR may have well contributed to open up a pertinent debate, this book
COVID-19; asks whether it is possible to alter existing data governance extractivist models to
Pandemic citizenship; incentivize further democratic citizenship through data ownership and technological
Liquid citizenship; sovereignty. As such, the book highlights citizen’s perspective and social
Data donation; accountability in both transitional and experimental frameworks by pointing out the
Algorithmic nations. importance of creating platform-based alternative urbanism such as data and
platform co-operatives. To examine citizenship is always important but perhaps never
more urgent than right now in the fragile post-COVID-19 hyperconnected societies.
This article is an open access Amidst the AI-driven algorithmic disruption and surveillance capitalism, this book
article distributed under the terms and sheds light on the way citizens take control of the Smart City, and not vice-versa, by
conditions of the Creative Commons revolving around the new book entitled Smart City Citizenship recently published by
Elsevier. By following the methodological and conceptual proposal of the book, this
review article will introduce nine key ideas including how to (1) deconstruct, (2)
unplug, (3) decipher, (4) democratise, (5) replicate, (6) devolve, (7) commonise, (8)
protect, and (9) reset Smart City Citizenship.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2021 Dr. Igor Calzada.
1. Introduction
Citizens in Europe have likely been pervasively
surveilled during and probably as a result of the *Corresponding Author:
COVID-19 crisis (Aho & Duffield, 2020; Hintz, Cardiff University, WISERD, Wales, UK
Email address: [email protected]
Dencik, & Wahl-Jorgensen, 2017; Kitchin, 2020;

Calzada, I. (2021). Book Review:Smart City Citizenship. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 112-117.
Zuboff, 2019). Despite the fact that the threats. Over the course of the pandemic, a
homologation of the vaccine has sped up, its debate has emerged about the appropriate
equitable distribution globally cannot be techno-political response when governments
ensured yet. As such, the coronavirus does not use disease surveillance technologies to tackle
discriminate and affects citizens translocally, the spread of COVID-19, pointing out the
yet it has unevenly distributed economic and dichotomy between state-Leviathan
social impacts across and within state borders, cybercontrol and civil liberties, and further
producing a new pandemic citizenship regime requesting in-depth debates. Moreover, the
that exposes health, socio-economic, giant technological flagship firms of
cognitive, and even digital vulnerabilities. But surveillance capitalism, such as Google,
how can e-democracy be ensured for all Amazon, and Facebook, have already
citizens while also creating further democratic assumed many functions previously associated
citizenship to avert the algorithmic and data- with the nation-state, from cartography to the
opolitic (Hand, 2020; Stucke & Grunes, 2017) disease surveillance of citizens. But particularly,
extractivist hegemonic paradigm as well as amidst the AI-driven algorithmic disruption and
Orwellian cybercontrol through massive surveillance capitalism, this book sheds light on
contact-tracing apps that serve as a digital the way citizens could take control of the Smart
panopticon of the Leviathan (Kostka, 2019)? To City, and not vice versa.
examine new emerging citizenship regimes is
always important but perhaps never more 2. Summary
urgent than right now in fragile post-COVID-19 This book presents nine intertwined key ideas
hyperconnected societies. COVID-19 has hit that show systemically a path to follow to
European citizens dramatically, not only further experiment using action research
creating a general risk-driven environment methodologies (not a recipe) as a techno-
encompassing a wide array of economic political route for smart citizen action from the
vulnerabilities but also exposing them to social innovation perspective (Calzada, 2021)
pervasive digital risks, such as biosurveillance, as follows:
misinformation, and e-democracy algorithmic
Figure 1. Smart City Citizenship as a spiral consisting of 9 intertwined key ideas from the Social Innovation perspective.
Dr. Igor Calzada 114

The demise of democracy is already one of the alternative funding and business/social models
biggest policy challenges of our time that for cities? (ii) What practical/political
urgently requires deconstructing the aftermath interventions have been tried among
of the extractivist models’ negative stakeholders? (iii) To sum up, is another type of
externalities affecting pandemic citizens. (smart) city possible? That is, is there a ‘third
Debating on the techno-politics of data for way’ between the state and the market that
citizens cannot be seen as an operation of overcomes the PPP framework?
ethic washing; it should be about ownership Smart City policy implementations not only
and how to rescue democracy. Failing to do so have reduced the interdependencies among
could risk exposing democracies to the stealthy stakeholders to technocratic Public-Private-
algorithmic manipulation of collective Partnership (PPP) models but also have failed
behaviours through social media, resulting in a to question the identities of strategic
dystopian populism. stakeholders and how they uniquely prioritise
Consequently, in the post-COVID-19 societies, their business/social models. Beyond these PPP
unplugging or being offline is a nearly models, little has been questioned about the
unaffordable privilege that very few dares to strategic stakeholders who have been
attempt. Potentially the opportunity to be formulating the Smart City priorities. As a result,
offline has been rarely considered to be the book suggests democratising the Smart
valuable so far. After the increasing enthusiasm City by rethinking multistakeholder helix
for using data to improve the life of citizens in strategies by ensuring the complete
modern societies, the publication of a democratic representation of diverse voices
considerable amount of confidential from each helix. Particularly, it proposes
information of citizens and heads of states via explicitly moving from the Triple and Quadruple
espionage, surveillance, dataveillance, and Helix models towards Penta Helix, where social
theft has somewhat altered the data entrepreneurs, activists, bricoleurs, brokers, and
enthusiasm of some communities (Lupton & assemblers play an important role as
Michael, 2017; van Dijck, 2014). An increasing transformative intermediators resulting in a
number of voices note benefits to not being wide range of business and social models
online constantly, thus challenging the widely (Direct public Provision, PPP, Public-Private-
spread techno-enthusiasm of the knowledge Academic partnership, Public-Private-
society. Hence, unplugging in the book is Academic-People partnership, by reaching
defined as a corrective from the corporate, out Urban/Data Commons as the highest
top-down direction of the Smart City degree of experimentation.
mainstream in favour of a transition towards
the critical use of digital technologies enabling
the construction of more democratic
citizenship.
Therefore, deciphering the Smart City
mainstream approaches requires a distinction
between the hegemonic techno-centric Smart
City approach and the new ongoing
alternative intervention approach called an
experimental city, a deep transition that aims
to blend the interdependencies between
various stakeholders to better re-align power
relations and outcomes. It goes without saying
that Smart City policy implementations not only Figure 2. Penta Helix Multistakeholder Social Innovation
have reduced the interdependencies among Framework.
stakeholders to technocratic public-private-
According to the urban scholar, Ayona Datta,
partnership (PPP) models but also have failed
the urban is not science. It cannot be
to question the identities of strategic
replicated like other sciences. Surprisingly
stakeholders and how they uniquely prioritise
though, over the last five years, probably not
their business and social models. Thus, three
only in the EC-H2020-SCC policy framework but
main questions are addressed in this book: (i)
also in other policy schemes in the Global
What prospects have existed so far for
North, replicating business models and projects

have been defined as ‘the possibility of notion of Data Devolution is a key governance
transporting or copying results from a pilot case component for data ecosystems in Europe that
to other geographical areas’. As such, is enabling some cities and regions to formulate
replication was defined by policymakers as their own smart governance policies (Scottish
unidirectional, hierarchical, mechanistic, Government, 2021). After conducting fieldwork
solutionist, and technocratic process among research in the four city-regions, the book
cities and their stakeholders. Strikingly though, identifies an implicit Smart city-regional
over the last years, even several reports by the governance strategy for each case study:
European Commission have acknowledged Whereas in Spain, Bilbao could be seen
that replication is like the quest for the Holy implementing a Corporate-in-Transition
Grail: everyone is searching but no one seems strategy and Barcelona has been pushing
to be able to find it. Thus, and probably even ahead an Anti-Corporate but highly uncertain
clearer, in the aftermath of COVID-19 and strategy; in the UK, Bristol attempted to
because of the local implementations of the implement a strategy based on an alternative
GDPR, the book argues that replication may open innovation model embodied by Bristol is
not be happening among smart cities as it was Open umbrella and Glasgow has been moving
anticipated. Hence, the fifth intertwined key from a conventional governance model
idea refers to the given policy understanding of towards its current claim on digital rights by
replicating urban solutions from city to city. The being an effective part of the Cities Coalition
book suggests reverting the mechanistic and for Digital Rights (CCDR; led by Barcelona;
solutionist approach by adopting a mutual Calzada & Almirall, 2020).
learning rationale among cities by establishing
the City-to-City-Learning Programme being
defined as multidirectional, radial, dynamic,
iterative, and democratic. As the conclusion of
replication, fieldwork research conducted in
Nilüfer (Bursa province in Turkey), Essen (in Rurh,
Germany), and Lausanne (Switzerland) reveals
that there is significant room for manoeuvre for
local stakeholders in their ability to pick and
choose, adapt, and prototype between
innumerable intervention models and networks
(Calzada, 2020a).
The six intertwined key idea focuses on the
institutional and techno-political configuration
of different city-regions devolving data to
citizens. Insofar as data are contextual
(Loukissas, 2019), this chapter examines how
four city-regions (two in the UK, Glasgow and
Bristol and two in Spain, Barcelona and Bilbao)
dealt with data governance models. In the
post-GDPR context, citizens’ data security and
ownership ultimately need to be protected by Figure 3. Data Devolution and Multi-Level Goverance
localising personal data via grassroots Models in four case studies: Glasgow and Bristol (UK) +
Barcelona and Bilbao (Spain)
innovation and platforms and data co-
operatives. Data, being a public good, should
The seventh intertwined key idea demonstrates
be devolved and brought back to citizens,
that unpacking the ownership of data and its
meaning that Data Devolution schemes
governance structures and dynamics within
through multi-level governance models should
their citizenries is as important as the collection,
be implemented onwards. Considering how
storage, and usage of data in AI-driven cities.
relevant the city-regional path-dependency is
As one of the core cases studies of the book,
in each territorial context, and analysing in-
Barcelona leads this way by formulating
depth four case studies, two in the UK, Glasgow
policies that consider citizens decision-makers
and Bristol and two in Spain, Barcelona and
rather than data provides by commoning their
Bilbao: fieldwork research found that the
data. It is rather evident that the availability of

data is and will be part of the new conditions in governance issues, which exposes pandemic
cities. Yet, unpacking the ownership of data citizens’ vulnerabilities.
and its governance structure and dynamics Alongside this general threat, several questions
within their citizenries will be as important as the arise: (i) Should governments protect citizens
collection, storage, and usage of data in AI- from being infected even if this might mean
driven cities. The future will probably show an establishing a new digital non-privacy norm?
increasing number of city-regions rolling out (ii) Will this pandemic crisis become an
unique Smart City-regional strategies. As a algorithmic crisis, with serious side effects for
result of the ongoing fieldwork research on the governments worldwide? (iii) How can citizens
case of Barcelona, findings revealed that the organise themselves to establish new social
main digital policy framework coined by capital that could overcome the post-COVID-
Barcelona was Data Commons including 19’s social distancing measures? (iv) Could
DECODE, DECIDIM, and METADECIDIM, among digital co-operatives (either platform or data
other initiatives related to Digital Social coops) be the answer? (v) To what extent is
Innovation, Urban Commons, and Social possible to think in these terms seeing an
Economy. Nonetheless, the book leaves one increasing degree of individualism and
open question to be responded by further selfishness caused by the pandemic fear and
future research: To what extent Barcelona’s the general sense of uncertainty? (vi) Are we
ongoing strategy is little more than a able to reset our cities and communities from
declaration of intentions of a progressivist the Foundational Economy perspective by
Smart City policy agenda? It remains to be putting in the centre what matters with the
seen. How could citizens decide, control, inevitable obligation to do the right thing after
govern, manage, and ultimately, own their this reset (2020)? Against the odds, pandemic
own data by being both conscious of digital citizens are beginning to develop new ways to
rights to the city and aware of duties in the responding to the COVID-19, through
techno-political processes of city-making? mutualising and donating data using data
As a result of this, we reach the eight altruism/donation, including the creation of
intertwined key idea: Protecting. This chapter platform and data co-operatives (Scholz,
argues that there is a need to establish pan- O’Brien, & Spicer, 2021). Nonetheless, the book
European Data Infrastructures and Data leaves one pending and open point for further
Institutions (collectively as Data Ecosystems) to research: It remains to be seen whether
protect citizens’ digital rights in Europe. AI- platform-based alternative urbanism such as
driven algorithmic phenomenon has led to platform and data co-operatives (among
new consequences (such as hyper-targeting other data governance models) could very
through data analytics, facial recognition, and much revert extractivist data governance
individual profiling). This resulted in not-so- models by establishing a feasible and
desirable outcomes, such as massive sustainable pathway onwards to foster further
manipulation in the US and the Social Credit democratic citizenship (Bigo, Isin, & Ruppert,
Systems in China. In contrast, these societal 2019). What is clear is that we must sharply hit
concerns raised a debate in Europe about the nail on the head, in this, final occasion.
digital rights and AI-driven algorithmic RESET.
disruption by spurring a call to action (Dyer-
Witheford, Kjosen, & Steinhoff, 2019). 3. Analysis
Ultimately, the book ends up with Resetting. So Methodologically speaking, in the book,
far, the urban phenomenon and its Critical or Radical Social Innovation could be
sociotechnical controversies have been seen as the approach from where to conduct
explicitly surfacing until we have reached this action research interventions to democratise
unknown and highly unexpected status of ‘the smart cities through citizenship (Moulaert &
new normal’. We all, Pandemic Citizens MacCallum, 2019; Nguyen, 2017). Social
(Calzada, 2020b; Craglia et al., 2021), sharing Innovation in the book is defined as the
similar fears, uncertainties, and risks, are capacity to elaborate alternative discourses
exposed differently depending on which and actions that are counter-hegemonic in
country we call home and our related living terms of resistance and/or innovative
conditions. Actually, this pandemic crisis has transformations.
been gradually and pervasively fuelling data

As such, the book is clearly analysing the paying special attention to AI disruption
following questions: (i) How can digital and citizens’ digital rights in the post-
technologies transform the relationships COVID-19 hyperconnected and highly
between governments, business, and civil virialized societies.
society? (ii) Which techno-political (power) (v) Ultimately, the book leaves an open
relations and dynamics exist between these question to the reader for being answered:
agents, and how do they change? (iii) Which It remains to be seen whether platform-
roles do innovative applications of digital based alternative urbanism such as
technologies and the use of newly emerging platform and data co-operatives could
technologies play in the post COVID-19 very much revert extractivist data
society? (iv) How do helix frameworks intersect governance models by establishing a
with contact tracing and tracking apps? (v) feasible and sustainable pathway
What role do the public authorities and civic onwards.
bottom-up initiatives play in addressing the
power imbalances of the current data-driven Acknowledgement and Funding
smart cities’ landscape (between data The preliminary literature review was funded by
providers, data platforms, and ultimately, the (i) Basque Foundation for Science
decision makers)? Critical or Radical Social (Ikerbasque) (BFI-2011-356/DKR; 2012-2014) and
Innovation may provide the lenses to better (ii) the Regional Studies Association’s (RSA) Early
steer changing power-relationships among Career Grant (#4040; 2014-2016). The fieldwork
stakeholders. research was funded by (iii) European
Commission’s H2020-SCC-Replicate project
4. Conclusion (691735; 2016-2021); (iv) Urban Transformations
COVID-19 has been a trigger for increasing the ESRC programme (ES/M010996/1; 2016-2019); (v)
impact of digital transformations on the daily Visiting Fellowship Vrije Universiteit
lives of citizens. However, little is known or has Brussel/Cosmopolis (2016-2019); (vi) RSA Smart
been explored in relation to the direct effects City-Regional Governance for Sustainability
of Big Tech surveillance capitalism and the Research Network (2016-2018); and (vii) Marie
cybercontrol push by nation-state Curie Regional Programmes – CoFund via Bizkaia
governments during this crisis on pandemic Talent and Bilbao Metropoli 30 (AYN-000-268;
citizens. The book contribution could be 2015-2017). In addition to the previous funding
summarised as follows: schemes, further policy-informed applied
(i) It highlights citizen’s perspective and social research was conducted via (viii) European
accountability in both transitional and Commission’s DG Joint Research Centre (JRC),
experimental frameworks for reorienting DigiTranScope and AI Watch research/policy
smart cities by pointing out the importance projects respectively at the Centre for
of creating platform-based alternative Advanced Studies in the Unit A5 and the Digital
urbanism such as data and platform co- Economy Unit B6 (2019-2021) and (ix) WISERD
operatives. Civic Society ESRC Programme (ES/S012435/1;
(ii) In doing so, the book encourages further 2021).
future interdisciplinary research agendas
The author is grateful to the University of Oxford,
anchored in social sciences on the present
Urban Transformations ESRC and Future of Cities
and future techno-political challenges of
Programmes, as its current Senior Research
citizenship in data-driven smart cities by
Affiliate since February 2012. The dissemination
reclaiming the original sense of sustainable
of this research is part of WISERD ESRC
peer-to-peer exchanges.
Programme ES/S012435/1 since 2021 at Cardiff
(iii) Another conclusion that it could be drawn
University.
on the book is the fact that citizens can be
effectively empowered in the emerging Conflict of interests
post-GDPR realm, creating more inclusive The author declares no conflict of interest.
digital citizenship.
References
(iv) In addition to this, probably we still may
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Calzada, I. (2021). Book Review: Smart City Citizenship. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 112-117.

Towards the Egyptian Charter for Conservation of Cultural
Heritages
1 Associate Professor Dr. Corinna Rossi , 2 * Sara Rabie
1Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture, Politecnico di Milano Cairo, Milan, Italy
2 Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of Architecture, German University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
1 E-mail: [email protected] , 2 E-mail: [email protected]

The notion of “Cultural heritage” is quite modern compared to other
Article History: humanistic fields developed in the last century. Conservation as a
Received 5 April 2021
Accepted 15 June 2021 science has emerged and took shape during international conventions
Available online 25 June 2021 and treaties in many places in Europe and developed various
frameworks to recognize the heritage and its value but based on
Keywords: “Eurocentric bias” criteria. The fact of sharing universal values and
Cultural Heritages; common practices during the age of globalization had a significant
Conservation;
impact on conservation actions in contexts utterly different from
History;
Value;
western societies and don’t share the same historical or cultural
Authenticity; dimensions. Therefore, this study traces the history of the evolution of
Europe; conservation in the west from two perspectives; the historical one and
Egypt. the developing methodologies, and the philosophies behind the main
theories in conservation. Cultural heritage is a reflection of the identity
of the society and its past; thus, this study outlines the development of
conservation practices in Egypt within the international approaches in
a chronological order to investigate the social response and the impact
of the political and cultural influence of the cultural consciousness of
the society and the conservation actions in the Egyptian context.
Furthermore, to investigate the contribution of international charters
in developing national policies in Egypt.
This article is published with open https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2021.v5n1-9
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2021 Associate Professor Dr. Corinna Rossi, Sara Rabie.
1. Introduction
The last century has witnessed a crucial science and expand its definition to include
development in the science of conservation cultural heritage as tangible and intangible
and its theories. Most of the synthesis of the heritage (Laurajane Smith & Akagawa, 2008).
critical debates and critique was driven by
western intellectuals and historians who
perceived the past from their perspective
(Yazdani Mehr, 2019). Moreover, developed Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of
protection methodologies and techniques that Architecture, German University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
are compatible with the legacy of their Email address: [email protected]
ancestors. All these efforts paved the way to
have a profound base for conservation as

Rossi, C., & Rabie, S. (2021). Towards the Egyptian Charter for Conservation of Cultural Heritages. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1),
However, these efforts reached a point at development of this discipline in both theory
which we cannot move forward unless we look and practice didn’t flourish in Egypt compared
back at the origins of that science and review to the international ones.” (Rezk & Rabie, 2019).
them analytically (Cuno, 2010). To perceive It is about time to start developing a national
the past of a product of an individual nation, approach driven by the synthesis of
the principles of conservation and heritage international developments and social
recognition must be revised and adapted consciousness. The main aim of this paper is to
before being adopted blindly anywhere else. highlight the milestones that shaped
History is not just the told past, it’s a cultural conservation as a science and its evolution
element that must be perceived within its concerning the critical political events and
context; through the remarks of the previous shifts in ideologies that affected its emergence
civilizations and the actions of the new ones. directly. Moreover, in an attempt to fill the gap
The French Novelist Marguerite Yourcenar in recognizing the history of conservation in
once declared that the changes caused by Egypt along with the international track; an
people’s tastes are more profound than those analytical reading of each era and its historical
caused by time. By this statement, the art consequences is provided as a research
historian reflected on the subjectivity towards methodology; to clarify the sequence of
the protection of heritage or monuments with conservation development and compare the
peculiar values for the society. Admiring the Egyptian actions to parallel one in the
legacy of the ancestors could be something international direction.
inherited in the culture, not imposed or shaped
by the importance of the monument itself, not 2. The nature of restoration in the past
its historic and aesthetic values (Szmelter, The idea of building protection in the past was
2013). Time changes the taste of people, the merely protection out of respected and valued
way they perceive and evaluate things and it structures, it was an expression of admiration
changes buildings as well and leaves traces of and gratitude of the predecessors for centuries
the passing of time. This change of taste is the the process of protection aimed at deliberately
social consciousness of heritage that formed erasing the traces of previous civilizations and
and refined over time from mere protection of alter their monuments in an action “to pursue
the function to the preservation of buildings in vain an attainable original condition”
that recall a myth or holds a memory for the (Philippot, 1996). Some art historians claim that
place, to a more advanced treatment based the regular maintenance of a building is
on scientific methodologies (Reid, 2002). The considered as an act of conservation,
ever-expanding definition of the term however, the roots of conservation dates back
conservation and its evolution from restoration to the Renaissance when the architectural
and preservation was an important topic in the stock began to be recognized by the society
global debate, that kept changing after and the historians started to differentiate
critical times and significant events (De la Torre, between the types of buildings values; eighter
2013). However, the global conflicts urged the “art value” or “age value” (Marijnissen, 1996).
need for conservation management in many Before the advent of the word “restoration” as
places; some contexts showed contradicting a cultural concept, the slight improvement in
reactions like Egypt. The most recent debate is cultural appreciation was the “Connoisseur”,
going towards generating conservation formulated by art historians who can
strategies led by the society as the main player contextualize and situate the artworks, and the
in identifying their values and assessing their archaeological artefacts in their original
monuments. In Egypt, where the long history is context and assess them by craftmanship. By
the accumulation of so many layers, each one the end of the 18th century, a more historical
of them left behind a legacy that must be consciousness was established due to the
recognized first then protected (Tunbridge, industrial progression in western countries
1984). The review of several conservation where the degradation of city centres
actions in Egypt shows how society reacts to became more prone to further deterioration
these movements. Although the concept of after riots and several revolts. The industrial
“cultural heritage” is drawn from humanities revolution put an end to the conventional ways
and made people question their heritage and of preserving the monuments and developed
evaluate their values differently, the new ideologies.
Associate Professor Dr. Corinna Rossi & Sara Rabie 102

with new parameters of treatments and

2.1. Disconnection: traditional vs new ways of interventions and also established the first
conservation Italian charter in 1884. He developed a
With the emergence of modernism, Europe has philological approach that harshly opposed
experienced a cultural paradigm, which the dualism between the “Revival restoration”
formulated a new basis for restoration. There and the “pure protection” as expressed clearly
were two conflicting causes of the in one of his lectures “with rare exceptions, only
disconnection between the past as a one wise course of action remains: to leave
“completed element” and the “modern them alone or, where necessary to free them
European man”; The striving drift towards a of restorations” (Philippot, 1996). By this
modern scientific approach in restoration and statement, Camillo declared the end of the
architecture in general, on one hand, and the “imitative restoration”, and promoted his
rift between the people and their past where, measures to restore and preserve a monument
on the other hand, they could not pursue it as while keeping the historical appearance and
a continuous history. “Purely scientific value, therefore, he sorted our building by age.
approach to the past cannot in itself to ensure Moreover, he affirmed that by distinguishing
the continuity that was guaranteed by between the layers of treatments and the
tradition... to fill this gap another approach original buildings, we can restore severely
developed to keep the contact with the past damaged monuments paved the way to
in a nostalgic way which is “preservation.” This introduce the notion of “anastylosis”.
rapture was due to the tension between the
sense of romanticism of the past and the 2.2. The age of universal values
rationalism of the enlightenment” (Philippot, Toward the outbreak of world war I that lasted
1996). the emergence of the stylistic approach for 4 years and followed by world war II after
was a milestone in treating monuments as two decades; Europe had witnessed a
reminiscent of a society. devastating and destabilizing era. The main
The Father of the “stylistic approach”; Viollet-le- casualties of these two wars were the historical
Duc, reformed the term “restoration” after the city centres and the national monuments. The
“Romanticism approach”, and used elements destruction of districts and the displacement of
according to the same form and appearance thousands of people urged the governments
of the original building to complete it. Despite to find new strategies to rebuild their cities as
the speculative essence of this method that fast as possible with moderate costs. The
has been adopted and practised widely in modern theories at that time promoted the
many European contexts, it confronted a very standardization of building codes and
critical disagreement from the intellectuals planning principles that can be implemented
who opposed the concept of adoption and easily everywhere.
modification of public monuments, and the The motive of rebuilding their societies
invention of “revival styles” as a synthesis of the encourages the European communities to
historical findings and individual interpretations. share a wide range of “universal values”.
(Yazdani Mehr, 2019). John Ruskin insisted on Therefore, the fundamental ideas of the French
giving the builders credits and value each revolution expanded and led to a movement
building, claiming that the workmanship and of ignoring the traditional ways of building and
the intentions of the builders are something organizing cities to be able to face the massive
that cannot be re-established or rebirthed - “as global (Rezk & Rabie, 2019). Concerning the
impossible as to raise the dead” (Ruskin & Birch, restoration of monuments, it reached another
1885)- in an attempt to defend the peak by broadening the scope of interventions
“Authenticity” of the monuments. In the and take into consideration the restoration on
“Society for the protection of ancient a bigger scale including parts of the urban
monuments SPAB”, he tried to set up standards fabric (Lamprakos, 2014). Moreover, as a
for the idea of preservation following the “Anti- natural consequence, the society itself started
restoration” notion by replacing “restoration” to build cultural awareness.
with “protection” as daily care to halt decay. Following a series of conventions and treaties,
By the end of the 19th century, Camillo Boito the broad definition of restoration and
became a pioneer in Italian conservation who monuments started to be redefined and take
proposed his conservation guidelines in 1883 a new shape within the social context. The

universal values revolved around the word focus of the international treaties by resolving
“Heritage” and its cultural significance after the confusion between “conservation as a
being introduced in Athens Charter in 1931 means of maintaining while the restoration is a
(Khodeir et al., 2016). The contribution of this method to accentuate the aesthetic values”
international participation helped in identifying (Yazdani Mehr, 2019) Such a global debate
the values of buildings and peculiar ones. enhanced the idea of “Pluralism” of
Moreover, they acquired a special interest in methodologies, where every context has a
reusing the destructed city centres instead of vast range of possibilities and choices in
contentiously rely on passive conservation. developing and regulating its approach
However, these efforts could not draw a proper towards their history.
framework and regulations for rehabilitation
and integration of historical parts of the city 2.5. The modern notion of the monument and
with contemporary ones due to the various the dilemma of value
specialization in conservation after the 50s In the 60s, the prevailing approach towards the
(Philippot, 1996). The modern and fast-growing realm of “Values” in conservation was
tendencies developed the laboratory work influenced by the “historicism approach”
and created an independent sector where which was imposed by Brandi and prioritized
intellectuals can have a prosperous debate over the “Aesthetics values” of a monument
that merges between scientific advancement (Rezk & Rabie, 2019). after almost two
and the humanities. the idea of “cultural decades, the Venice charter had been revised
conservation outreached other continents; and criticized by historians for endorsing the
each was trying to build their sensibility in “historical” principles of determining “values”
dealing with heritage. of the Athens charter and recasting them
under the umbrella of “Universal values”.
2.3. Urban conservation Venice charter emphasized many unrelated
In the following decade, historians discussed articles regarding the authenticity of the
the notion of “urban conservation” based on monument and the principles of rehabilitation
the theoretical contribution of Cesare Brandi’s which caused and never-ending arbitrary
writing and the “Teoria del Restaura” In1963; His explanation about the essence of
theories were valid for almost 20 years in Italy till “monument” (Lamprakos, 2014).
the constitution of “Carta del Restaura” in 1972. Alois Riegl, in 1903 developed his theory about
Some historians believe that Brandi’s work can the evaluation of monuments based on a set
be conspired as a foundation for a of values -instead of fixed values- that can
conservation school, as the characteristics of shape the identity of the monument and can
conservation were not standard but kept be investigated from the historical and the
reforming based on the term “Reversibility” cultural dimension of the monument. his paper
(Barassi, 2009). Regardless of his great “the modern cult of the monument: it is charter
contribution, his theory was subjective, limited, and origin”, can be considered as a profound
and contradicts the variety of technological base for studying the wide range of values and
methods at that time Brandi treated the their attributes. The attributes reflect all the
buildings and artworks from all contexts and layers of the history of a monument, present,
eras equally, neglecting their historic and social and future. He believed that the proper
value. reading of the monument comes from the
2.4. International Charters proper understanding of the integrated
The following international conferences in the attitudes and how they identify the real values
20th century were devoted separately to a of a monument, therefore the proper
specific topic, the most prevailing movement conservation plan.
at that time was the relationship between the
community as a driving force in developing the 2.6. The development of Authenticity
idea of “cultural heritage” and their The growing notion of preservation took a
monuments. After the establishment of refined shape as a synthesis of conferences
ICOMOS, they paid attention to the policies on and conventions. A key twist in defining
rehabilitation in general and “adaptive reuse” preservation science was Nara Document in
in specific. Venice charter in 1964 played a 1994 (Szmelter, 2013). With the expansion of the
substantial role in shaping the content and definition of conservation, historians had to

face the struggle in determining the developed their methods of preserving their
authenticity of monuments and context in the monuments as well as the larger context that
far east; in contexts that are entirely different has significant importance such as
from the European ones. The term itself had to necropolises and temples to satisfy their “divine
be re-considered to be able to determine a leadership” notion and to manifest the idea of
framework to assess the authenticity of “eternity”. The authenticity of the intent of the
monuments that can extend to include the builder is a profound role in preservation in
authenticity of the beliefs and notions. Egypt; they aimed at making their monuments
last till the afterlife.
2.7. The 20th century -Money ethics- The following epoch and the spread of Islam
the 21st century is the acme of the holistic changed the beliefs and the ideologies of the
notion of “cultural heritage”, It adopted and society and the conception of preservation
integrated both aspects of heritage; tangible with new principles that conform to the
and intangible manifested in language, principle of Islam. The new conception was
customs, beliefs, and social norms. The focus on described as “Eslah” which means “repair”; the
the notion of tangible heritage started recently regular repair of a public building that has a
after the year 2000, but it was discussed for the certain function in serving people and should
first time officially in the international debate in be functioning for the benefit of the society.
the “folklore and traditional culture” UNESCO During the Mamluk era, a certain typology of
recommendations in 1989. public buildings called “Al-Waqf” flourished
The expanding definition of conservation and was constructed all over the country. the
influenced social awareness and heritage efficiency of these buildings is strictly related to
recognition especially during globalization and “Sustainability” and self-sustaining mechanism.
the era of mass tourism (Orbasli, 2002). “Such a typology that constitutes almost 93% of
Globalization altered the importance of the Islamic heritage stock in Cairo had a
heritage to be seen as a national income regular maintenance plan until Mohamed Ali
source from an economical point of view. Thus, changed their maintenance policies, and the
new policies emerged to use heritage in building’s condition started to decline”.
generating income especially after the release The significant event and natural disasters that
of the world heritage list in 1972. The universal can cause damage to architectural stock are
vision of heritage appeared again behind the the main motives behind special restoration
so-called “international heritage” (Rössler, campaigns in Egypt during the Mamluk era.
2006). Compared to any other science, the Their appreciation of the remarkable buildings
science of conservation is considered as a very and their desire to keep expressing the
dangerous process that took shape rapidly in authority and glory of their power helped in
the last 60 years; a science that is evolved shaping a well-defined track in restoration in
based on analytical theories, critiques, and Egypt (Steinberg, 1996). After an earthquake,
debates on the empirical treatments and there was three main commission led by three
special cases with both shortcomings and different rulers dedicated to the restoration
virtues. work of the affected building and rebuilding
some of them. Each commission had a specific
3. Conservation in Egypt target and was following a particular way of
The old eastern civilization, particularly Egypt restoration, however, according to historians,
has developed a sensibility regarding their all of the commissioners shared one main
heritage recognition, but not as a “memory” common philosophical principle; which the
out of admiration and appreciation, but as a differentiating between the layers of
“memory” that can be lived, experienced, and intervention from the original parts of the
be expressed in everyday activities and lifestyle buildings, and till now this is the unbreakable
of various communities (Szmelter, 2013). The role in ethical conservation action.
definition of restoration as the continuous care
of buildings has always been practised in Egypt 3.1. What shaped an old cultural problem that
in all eras since the pharaohs. However, the affected the conservation policies in Egypt
scientific meaning of the conservation process today?
has been introduced in Egypt at the end of the All the variable historical events, different
last century. The old civilizations in Egypt movements in administrational frameworks,

and critical times, in the past, have influenced (Mahdy, 2017). On the contrary, the critical
and formed an accumulated attitude in times and instability made the heritage in Egypt
perceiving and recognizing the cultural more prone to further deterioration, vandalism,
heritage. In Europe, the world wars and the era and looting. Such deterioration can be
of modernization changed radically the observed during the French colonization and
societies and the face of conservation; as they the era of modernization and their impact on
were striving to save the remains of their cities. the social awareness of their culture.
of the east” by altering its original fabric passing
3.2. The French invasion and “Description de over the national identity as an extension to
l’Egypte” Napoleon’s intentions. The Parisian boulevards
Despite the political aims behind The French cutting through the historic fabric had a
occupation of Egypt for three years from 1798 profound impact on changing the face of
to 1801; it significantly altered the conservation Cairo and erased many historical buildings for
and heritage recognition. One of the the sake of this project.
unrevealed aims is to sort out the treasures of Another major impact is the rift between the
Egypt and document them for economic community and “Al-Awqaf” after the
reasons. Thus, Napoleon appointed 150 termination of its original maintenance policies.
scholars to accomplish his scientific expedition He formed another administration dedicated
to study the economical, historical, and social to the maintenance of public buildings, which
situation in Egypt and produce the masterwork afterwards, put “AL-Awqaf” out of service, and
“Description de l’Egypte”. The extensive left for decades to deteriorate and be
documents that include sketches, drawings of exploited (Mahdy, 2017). By the time, these
public life that depicted the Egyptians daily life, godforsaken buildings lost their role in the
mappings, remarks regarding the social and society because the secular administrations
economic activities, produced the planned to control heritage instead of
foundations of “modern Egyptology”. The preserving it and couldn’t replace the
various copies and volumes of this work, traditional religious management of such
besides many art pieces from Egypt, had been typology.
transferred to Europe there, which formed an The committee was run by foreigners mainly
exceptional tendency towards Egypt and its French that imposed the “stylistic” approach as
cultural legacy (Rezk & Rabie, 2019). The the prevailing attitude towards the monument.
international interest in studying its antiquities The “orientalism” direction lasted for almost a
encourage the commissioners to develop their century and considered the Islamic legacy as
work in restoring historical monuments in Cairo “dead buildings” with no value to their society
but they approached the buildings from an or function (Mahdy, 2017). This rift between the
orientalism perspective and imposed the community and their heritage is similar to the
tendency of “orientalists revival style”. rift in Europe after the french revolution in a
deliberate attempt to separate heritage from
3.3. The role “Comite de monuments de their cultural context. Nevertheless, the
l’Egypte” in protecting monuments majority of the Egyptian population were not
The first formal institution that was mandated aware of this schism which reflects on the very
with the maintenance of heritage was the “le low level of awareness of their cultural heritage
Comite de monuments de l’Egypte” in 1881. and identity, even the educated elite who
After the French occupation, Egypt became were influenced by orientalism and didn’t
under the authority of Mohamed Ali who had comprehend the disconnection in the history
a striving aim to modernize Egypt. He and its consequences.
proceeded with transforming Cairo to be “Paris
identity of the society and the new imposed
3.4. Pan Arabism ones. Due to the political unrest and the was in
With the declaration of the Republic of Egypt 1965, many conservation projects stopped and
and its independence, a new nation was decreasing the international funds for minimal
established by Gamal Abdul-Nasser based restorations with more governmental
following a secular notion to sustain the restrictions.
modernization plan, which naturally deepened After the war and delocalizing thousands of
the gap between the original traditional Suez Canal and Sinai displaced inhabitants into

dilapidated buildings in old Cairo, the

condition of the buildings became worst until 4. Why do we need an Egyptian national
the 70s when Cairo was listed as a world charter?
heritage site. The national and international The whole process of conservation starts with
attention it gained as a national income values and ends with values that are shaped
source made it liable for more exploitation differently according to the context.
(Frey & Steiner, 2011). For almost a decade, the According to the nature of the evolution of the
projects and interventions at that time in science on conservation in the western side of
historic Cairo aimed at supporting tourism the world where the context changes radically
disregarding the locals who had been than the eastern parts, and for a long time we
delocalized and left their place where they have been following the tendency of universal
built a coherent cultural network. values; the true recognition of the true values
of heritage emerges from the inclusive analysis
3.5. The Egyptian revolution in 2011 and reading of the history of a certain context
In the 80s, Egypt concentrated its efforts on and element to be able to develop a robust
political and economic strikes. The consciousness (Meskell, 2014). The recent
establishment of various institutions with approaches evoke the uniqueness and
ambiguous agendas and vague lows affected originality of heritage which is strictly linked to
the conservation track because of the the social and cultural accumulation and it
inconsistent coordination between the needs to be preserved itself.
different parties. The conservation actions were Today’s historians claim that the future of
not very prosperous because the state was conservation should be the domain where
weak and couldn’t save heritage buildings culture and technology become the two faces
from exploitation and vandalism. After the of one coin and urge the need of developing
revolution in 2011, the situation became worst a national approach taking into consideration
and worst; bands of outlaws broke into previous experiences. A national approach is
museums, looted artefacts, and demolished drawn from the social reaction to the
some heritage buildings. By statistics from the conservation actions. Riegl claiming that the
NOUH organization, Egypt has lost more than process of building a social consciousness
70% of the heritage buildings in the three years should follow an uninterrupted history (Rezk &
following the revolution. Rabie, 2019). Consequently, it’s essential to
The revolution and its subsequent uprisings and follow a scientific methodology to evaluate the
turmoil, uncovered serious facts regarding the cultural actions in conservation projects and to
conservation approach in Egypt. moreover, recognize the various set of old and new values
the halt of tourism left the heritage buildings in according to their defined attributes after the
complete ignorance from the government proper study of the history of monuments and
and the absence of risk management. the nature of the society, and their level of
However, the lack of funds and the termination consciousness. However, such an essential step
of conservation projects saved many buildings is still not present in Egypt because the society
from inappropriate and dreadful interventions didn’t shape his awareness of his cultural
and further destroy the revolution flattened the heritage regardless of the voices and efforts
conservation practices, which gives us a pause calling for a national charter.
and time to rethink our national plans and
strategies.


Figure 1. A timeline of the evolution of conservation in the international track and the Egyptian one in bold (Developed
by the authors).

5. Conclusions For further investigations and a better

Before the evolution of “cultural heritage” as a understanding of the history of conservation in
concept and a scientific field, the protection of Egypt, extensive research and documentation
heritage buildings and monuments, the of previous and current practices must be
conservation was formed through three main conducted and including all the needed data
stages. First, the idea of restoration during the to be shared with the public. Moreover, further
renaissance was characterized by “stylistic studies on social indicators are much needed
restoration” as a result of the romantic to indicate the social response to conservation
approach towards national monuments. actions in Egypt, therefore better monitoring of
Second; the idea of preservation provokes the the process and the after-plan phase.
mere protection of buildings from further
deterioration. And finally, the idea of Acknowledgement
conservation includes both restoration and This research did not receive any specific grant
preservation but following a scientific from funding agencies in the public,
approach in determining the level of commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
intervention. After the modernization, the
definition of conservation kept changing in Conflict of interests
theories and treaties to be more inclusive and The authors declare no conflict of interest.
tackle more social and cultural aspects in an
attempt to develop a mechanism to assess References
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Rossi, C.,& Rabie, S. (2021). Towards the Egyptian Charter for Conservation of Cultural Heritages. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1),

Enhancing Security in Affordable Housing: The Case of Prince
Fawaz Project
Professor Dr. Maged Attia
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA

The present study argues that the urban form of affordable housing
Article History: projects affects safety and security. The study examines the level of
Received 9 March 2021
Accepted 15 May 2021 safety and security in the Prince Fawaz project proposing
Available online 30 May 2021 recommendations that enhance it. Theories and approaches concerned
with the environmental crime are initially reviewed. Then, urban and
Keywords: architectural features as well as crime rates and patterns are
Environmental crime; documented. Also, trace and behaviour observations are carried out.
Enhancing security;
The observations monitored urban features and behaviours associated
Crime rates;
Prince Fawaz project; with crime or fear of crime. Residents’ perception of security and fear
Saudi Arabia. of crime is extracted through a questionnaire. A Space Syntax is
processed and linked with the questionnaire and observation outputs.
Observations demonstrate a semblance of fear of crime which is
supported by records of car and home theft. Although the questionnaire
reflects a suitable level of security, it points to peripheral spaces and
areas around mosques and shops as the less secure. However,
This article is an open access enhancing security in the Prince Fawaz project requires urban
article distributed under the terms and interventions including controlling access to peripheral spaces,
conditions of the Creative Commons reviving areas detected to be unsafe, repositioning elements causing
Attribution (CC BY) license visual obstacles and enhancing appearance by vegetation and
sustainable maintenance. Besides, reformulating the movement
network so that an appropriate integration between residents and
access at www.ijcua.com strangers is achieved. On the conceptual level, the study proves that
none of the theories of environmental crime can act as a comprehensive
approach; but each can partly work.
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2021 Professor Dr. Maged Attia.
1. Introduction the urban lifestyle, fathers used to absent

With the economic prosperity of the mid- outside the home for long hours, women went
seventies, the Saudi government began to to work relying on foreign nannies and maids in
build many housing projects to meet the
growing population and the immigration from
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and
villages to cities (Al Hazza', 2001). Traditional Planning, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
society is in general deeply religious, Email address: [email protected]
conservative, and family-oriented. Whereas in
Attia, M. (2021). Enhancing Security in Affordable Housing: The Case of Prince Fawaz Project. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 5(1), 85-100.
raising children, and sons acquired more effective tool for investment in the housing
freedom. The recruitment of labour from sector (Lacoe et al., 2018); this is crucial for
different nationalities led to noticeable social affordable housing.
changes. Social networks have made the new Literature does not establish that urbanization
generations more vulnerable to changes in causes crime, but it is linked with a crime
beliefs, behaviours, customs and traditions, because it harbours many people which some
and religious values. The socio-economic of them may tend to crime (Soh, 2012). Yet, in
changes caused pressures that led to a rise in many instances, the urban configuration of the
crime rates and the emergence of new types residential area contributes to making a
of crime (Abdullah Eben Saleh, 1999; Al Beshr, settlement an attractive area for crime (Lorenc
2000). et al., 2012). The relationship between crime
The crime rate in Saudi Arabia is generally low and urbanism attracted the attention of
compared with other countries. Though, in architects, planners, sociologists, criminologist
2005, the number was significantly raised to and policemen. There are some theories,
about 90000 crimes, with a rate of 392 crimes approaches and tools that aimed at
per 100000 people. By the year 2006, the promoting security and reducing opportunities
number of criminal offences dropped to 88609 for crime and risk in the built environment.
with a rate of 354 crimes per 100000 people Theories include the Defensible Space, Broken
(Abu Shama, 2007). During the year 2014, the Window and Crime Prevention Through
number of crimes reached 96000 but with a Environmental Design (CPTED) (Adel et al.,
rate of 311 crimes per 100000 people (El-Torky, 2016). New Urbanism is an urban design
2015). The number of crimes in 2016 reached approach that, among other objectives,
149781 with a rate of 464.46 crimes per 100000 advocates safety from crime (CNU, 2001).
people. This number dropped by 4.5 per cent Alongside other applications, Space Syntax
in 2017 (SABQ, 2017). During the last three seeks to find explanations for the places in
years, the Saudi government is adopting which crime incidents occur (Hillier & Sahbaz,
serious reforms in its economic policy causing a 2008).
huge number of job’s lay off of foreign labour The problem of understanding the impact of
and accordingly dramatic socio-economic urban design on crime lies in the complexity of
changes took place. Without specific figures, measuring this relationship. Although many
OSAC Crime and Safety Reports of 2019 and attempts have been made worldwide, it is
2020 indicate that crime in Saudi Arabia has receiving inadequate interest in Saudi Arabia.
increased but remains at levels far below most Therefore, the present paper is an attempt in
major metropolitan areas (OSAC, 2019, 2020). this direction.
It is worth mentioning that Saudi Arabia has two
types of police forces namely general and 2. Material and Methods
religious. The general police are responsible for The research reviews theories and approaches
national security and crime investigation. concerned with the relationship between
While, religious police is in charge of enforcing urban design and security, crime and fear of
religious customs of "Sharia" (Like segregation crime. In the case study, many techniques are
of sexes, the prohibition of alcohol, men utilized. First, data related to Prince Fawaz
attending prayer, suppression of non-Muslim affordable housing project is gathered
displays, and the modesty of women.) including rates and patterns of crime over the
(Pietenpol et al., 2018). last three years. Second, a trace observation is
Crime in residential areas is a vital issue tackled to monitor features associated with
because it affects the work of police crime or fear of crime such as fences,
departments, real estate agents, and residents. protection iron and visual obstacles. Third,
Crime, or fear of crime, has a direct reflection behaviour observation detects activities that
on outdoor activities, psychological status, might have a relationship with crime. Fourth, a
communal relationships as well as real estate questionnaire is conducted to explore levels of
value (Marques et al., 2018). Ghani (2017) security in different spaces, places and times in
argues that the frequent occurrences of crimes which residents feel more vulnerable to crime,
in urban area instil fear and accordingly previous experience with crime, and prevailing
reduce economic opportunities, safe living types of crime. A sample of 360 questionnaires
and quality of life. Crime reduction can be an was distributed covering about 27% of the
Professor Dr. Maged Attia 86

project’ units. The sample realizes a processed with Space Syntax. With Depthmap,
confidence level of 95%. The questionnaire many measurements are derived, and data
form includes several closed-ended questions obtained from observation and questionnaire
with bilateral answers; while, others are are correlated. An interpretation of concluded
formulated in a Likert-type scale. At the end of results accompanied by recommendations for
the questionnaire, residents are asked about enhancing security and reducing crime in the
their suggestions for enhancing security. The Prince Fawaz project are then discussed (Fig.
urban pattern of the Prince Fawaz project then 1).
Figure 1. Research Methodology.

3. Theory Defensible Space: Oscar Newman's
The relation between crime and the built ‘Defensible Space’, introduced in 1972, was
environment has been the interest of based on four design elements including
environmental criminology (Anna Alvazzi del territoriality, natural surveillance, image and
Frate, 1993; Brown & Altman, 1983; Cozens, milieu (Zen & Mohamad, 2014). The theory
2002; Yazdanfar & Nazari, 2015). It is based on advocates the consensus between a
the idea that criminals take geographic factors homogeneous group of inhabitants in a
into account when deciding on crimes (Bartol specific urban context which includes a
& M., 2006). Many theories and applications hierarchical system of open spaces, with the
were built on environmental criminology such maximization of private and semi-private
as rational choice, routine activity and crime spaces on the account of public and semi-
pattern (Malleson & Birkin, 2012; Shon & Barton- public ones. Accordingly, access to an area
Bellessa, 2015; Wilcox, 2015). However, several should be limited to legal users whereas
attempts have been made to derive criteria strangers are believed to be the source of
that can enhance security and reduce crime danger. Defensible Space adopts the
in housing communities as discussed below. separation of residents from strangers, whether

by physical or symbolic means (Newman, New Urbanism: The approach tried to avoid
1972). However, if Defensible Space could the criticism of urban design for its lack of
succeed on a limited scale, it will be difficult to humanity, responsiveness, sensitivity as well as
be replicated at the city level which, lack of safety from crime. Unlike Defensible
according to Hillier (2004), will transfer into Space, New Urbanism adopts expansion in
segregated islands leading to encouraging public spaces to encourage interaction
criminal activities and increasing the fear of between users and strengthen the sense of
crime. Empirical studies did not support affiliation, the mixture of uses to support the
Defensible Space too (Cozens et al., 2001). vitality and increase the presence of people in
Crime Prevention Through Environmental streets, encouraging walkability by utilizing grid
Design (CPTED): CPTED is affected by pattern of streets, allocating buildings
Defensible Space in terms that the safe adjacent to streets to enhance natural
community must enjoy a sort of control on surveillance, and finally increasing densities
danger, personal threat and crime (Mohit & (Elshater, 2012). However, Foster et al. (2016)
Hannan, 2012). CPTED aims to make the argue that New Urbanism may deliver social
physical context safe for normal users but make and wellbeing benefits but its impact on
it uneasy for abnormal users to engage in creating safe space is still subjective. Evidence
inappropriate behaviour. CPTED relies on from criminology links the main features of New
strategies including territoriality, surveillance, Urbanism with increased levels of crime. For
consolidated activities, controlled accessibility, instance, the non-residential land uses which
sustainable maintenance and good constitute destinations to walk to have been
management, and target hardening within associated with an elevation in property crime
geographical juxtaposition (Ha et al., 2015; levels. Likewise, street connectivity is a
Piroozfar et al., 2019). Natural surveillance in live fundamental aspect in new urbanism to
spaces will thus discourage crime. Meanwhile, provide direct and varied walking routes for
assigning clear functions for spaces residents; yet, streets are also easily navigated
accompanied by sustainable maintenance by offenders with more options of escape
and management is expected to leave a routes (McCord et al., 2007).
limited chance for crime. So, CPTED is Space Syntax: Space Syntax as a
embodied in the Three-D Approach which configurational analysis method was
includes “Designation” concerned with the established by Hiller in 1984 based on the
activities assigned for spaces, “Definition” research of Hiller and Hanson on the concept
concerned with the physical boundaries of of "Social logic of space" (Hillier & Sahbaz,
spaces, and “Design” concerned with the 2005). The technique is applied to examine
practice of desired uses in a safe manner how the physical or visual accessibility of a
(Marvi & Behzadfar, 2015; Sakip & Abdullah, spatial system affects the social behaviour of
2012). Like Defensible Space, empirical studies users; eliminating crime is one of the main
prove that CPTED outputs are not confirmed concerns. In a spatial system, the value of
(Elbadawi, 1991; Hardy, 1997; Robinson, 1997; accessibility of a street segment from all-
Serpas, 1998). around ones is identified by two measures
Broken Window: Broken Window theory which are integration and connectivity. In
believed that serious crimes occurred as a residential areas, studies demonstrate that
result of a series of minor crimes. The theory links streets that enjoy a higher integration value,
crime with disorder and argues that if the and hence higher accessibility, enjoy more
disorder was eliminated then serious crime security levels than segregated ones (Ballintyne
would not occur (Austin et al., 2002). Thus, a et al., 2000; Elgarmadiand & Özer, 2018). The
well-maintained environment could reduce presence and social interaction within a space
and prevent criminal activities. This link has prevent criminals from committing a crime
been shown to be often non-existent (Harcourt, because they could be easily caught then. But
2009). The theory has been criticized for being it does not seem that the relationship between
only a short-term solution, not a robust theory urbanism and crime is identified by accessibility
(Taylor, 2001; Thacher, 2004). However, the only. Many studies demonstrate conflicting
theory reinforced the principles of natural results according to variations in income level,
surveillance and territoriality. density and education (Nubani & Wineman,
2005). Sonia Hirt and Zahm (2012) argue that as

long as the city has inconsistent types of open (2018) who emphasize the fact that there is no
spaces, movements and activities, crime rates absolute right or wrong in criminology. Table (1)
will unexpectedly vary from one area to summarizes the above discussion.
another. This is confirmed by Hagan and Daigle
Table 1. Theories of environmental criminology, corresponding implications and impacts.

Theory/Approach Main concept/principles Implication to urban design Impact in practice
Defensible Space Territoriality, - Minimized common areas - Results are not
geographical - Maximized private confirmed
juxtaposition, natural ownership
surveillance, image and - Boundary definition
milieu - Minimized permeability
CPTED Territoriality, natural - Mixed land use - Crime levels dropped,
surveillance, access - Border definition of but
control, activity support, controlled space - Encouraging
image management, - Clearly marked gathering burglaries crime
geographical areas - Reduction of crime in
juxtaposition - Reduce use conflicts with the town centres not in
natural barriers housing areas
- Overcome distant and
isolation
Broken Window Well-maintained - Regular maintenance - Could reduce and
environment, prevent criminal
natural surveillance and activities
territoriality - Short-term and partial
- Failed to consider
collective efficacy
New Urbanism Vitality and sense of - Expansion in public - Linked with increased
community, walkability spaces levels of crime
and minimum car - Mixed land use - Still subjective
dependence, and - Grid pattern of streets
natural surveillance - Buildings adjacent to
streets
- Compact development
- Increasing densities
Space Syntax The increased - Enhancing pedestrians - Results widely varies
accessibility and social and vehicles movement depending on income
interactions (reflected in level, density and
Integration and education
Connectivity measures)
Vegetation is an integrated component of lower rates of assault, robbery, and burglary,

urbanism. Like the built environment, the but not theft crimes (Wolfe & Mennis, 2012).
impact of vegetation on crime is still Maas et al. (2009) argue that, in residential
questionable. From one side, vegetation is areas, vegetation could effectively decrease
believed to encourage crime as it can help to fear of crime, enhance the sense of safety and
conceal criminals while they plan and execute reduce reported crime. In large
crimes and then disappear (Nasar et al., 1993). Neighbourhoods, vegetation contributed to
Also, being visual obstacles, vegetation limit reducing violence and property crime (Kuo &
visibility and hence promote fear (Nasar & Sullivan, 2001). Moreover, Donovan and
Jones, 1997). Donovan and Prestemon (2010) Prestemon (2010) found that large private trees
indicate that smaller trees that obstruct visibility and street trees enhanced lower crime rates.
were associated with increased crime in Finally, the greening of vacant plots could
residential areas. On the other side, the latest reduce gun assaults and vandalism (Branas et
research argues that well-maintained al., 2011).
vegetation enhances reducing rates in certain
types of crime. Studies attribute the reduction 4. Case Study
in crime rates to increased surveillance in Prince Fawaz project is located about 10 Km
vegetated spaces and the delightful mode from the centre of Jeddah on Jeddah-Mecca
resulting from the landscape. For instance, rich highway which intersects with Prince Fawaz
vegetation is considerably associated with road splitting the project into four distinctive

zones: A (602 units), B (200 units), C (314 units) Saudi families (Fig. 3). The project enjoys many
and D (202 units) (Fig. 2). Each zone is divided public services such as mosques, open spaces,
into blocks including some two floor detached shops, a sports centre and primary, middle and
dwellings that are dedicated to mid-income secondary schools.
Figure 2. The layout of Prince Fawaz project, Jeddah (Source: Google Earth, edited by the author).
Figure 3. A typical dwelling of the project (Source: The author).
4.1. Crime Rates and Patterns in Prince Fawaz first place with a number of 63 criminal
Project offences, i.e., 54% of the total number of
Rates and types of crime in the Prince Fawaz reported crimes. Car theft topped the list
project during the last three years (2017-2019) followed by home theft with the numbers of 27
are summarized in Table (2). Unfortunately, the and 13 crimes respectively. Moral crimes reach
information does not include the location of 32 crimes, i.e., 27.5% of the total number of
the crimes. The table indicates that crimes in crimes, mostly like the previous year. Although
the project are classified into four types: money the number of self-molester crimes rose to 17, its
molesters, self-molesters, moral and juveniles. percentage of the total number fell to 15% of
Data in the table (2) show that, during the year the total crimes.
2017, the number of money molesters’ crimes In the year 2019, the number of crimes in the
reaches figure 33 i.e., 52% of the total number project declined to reach 77 crimes, i.e., 66% of
of crimes. Car theft, with the number of 16 the number of 2018, and slightly exceed the
crimes, is the highest on the list representing record of 2017. Still, money crimes, which
25.3% of the total crimes. Moral crimes, amount to 45, represent about 58% of the total
including sexual offences and drinking alcohol, number of crimes. Car theft topped the list
reach 17 crimes, i.e., 26.9% of the number of followed by home theft with 22 and 10 crimes
crimes which makes them come second. respectively. Moral crimes reach the number of
Drinking alcohol topped the list of moral crimes 20 representing 26% of the total crimes. While
with the number 12 representing 19% of the self-molester crimes dropped to 8 representing
total crimes. The number of self-molester crimes about 10% of the total crimes.
reaches 12 i.e., 19% of the total crimes. The above figures indicate that although the
During the year 2018, the number of reported total number of crimes varies among the three
crimes has doubled reaching 116 crimes. years, the number of money molesters’ crimes
Again, money molesters’ crimes come in the is the highest followed by moral crimes and self-

molester ones. The rate of money molesters is molesters, is alarming as its rate is increasing
rising (52%, 54% and 58%); and car theft is (7.9%, 11.2% and 13%); it is almost doubled over
always on the top of records representing a the three years. However, the rate of moral
quarter of the crimes along the three years crime is steady over the three years (26.9%, 27%
(25.3%, 23.3% and 28%). Home theft, which and 26%); while, the rate of self-molesters is
comes in the second place of money decreasing (19%, 15% and 10%).
Table 2. Numbers and types of crime committed in Prince Fawaz project 2017-2019
2017 2018 2019
Classification Crime type Rate Time Rate Time Rate Time
Car theft 16 2 am -12 pm 27 1 am - 10 pm 22 1 am - 10 pm
Shop theft 1 10 am - 12pm 0 8 am - 10 pm 0 8 am - 10 pm
Home theft 5 2 am - 12 pm 13 2 am - 12 pm 10 2 am - 12 pm
Money Theft 1 10 am - 4 pm 2 1 am - 8 pm 1 2 am
molesters Theft attempt 0 - 5 9 am - 9 pm 1 7 am
Ravage 1 10 am - 11 pm 2 1 am 1 1 am
Sorcery 2 8 am -10 pm 7 7 am - 11 pm 2 7 am - 11 pm
Fraud 7 1 am - 10 pm 7 5 pm - 12 pm 8 5 pm – 12 pm
Brawl 2 6 am - 11 pm 1 3 am - 10 pm 1 3 am -10 pm
Scrimmage 8 1 am - 12 pm 11 1 am - 11 pm 3 1 am - 12 pm
Self-molesters
Weapon 2 2 am - 12 pm 5 4 am - 10 pm 4 4 am - 10 pm
possession
Sexual offenses 5 1 am - 12 pm 7 1 am - 12 pm 4 1 am - 12 pm
Moral
Drinking alcohol 12 4 am - 12 pm 25 4 am - 10 pm 16 5 am - 11 pm
Absent 1 6 am - 12 pm 3 5 pm - 12 pm 2 5 pm - 12 pm
Juveniles
Embezzlement 0 - 1 11 am 1 10 am
Total 63 116 77
Source: Figures were obtained from Prince Fawaz Police Office, classified and arranged by the author.
4.2. Trace Observation Fences: Fences are heavily utilized everywhere

Open spaces: There are several open spaces in the project. They are raised to more than six
permeating the residential units, these spaces meters. In many instances, high fences isolate
are characterized by dereliction, so they are residents from viewing outside (Fig. 6). Even
mostly transferred into the junkyard where public buildings like mosques and schools are
domestic, gardens and construction waste are surrounded by high fences.
dumped. In peripheral spaces, a very little Protection iron: The heavy use of protection
number of alcohol bottles and cans are iron is observed in all dwellings on doors,
detected. However, many of these spaces are windows, and air-conditioners.
connected to both exterior and interior roads Visual obstacles: Visual obstacles are noticed
which makes them uncontrolled access into in the project including water tanks, electric
the project. In response, some residents transformers, garbage containers and
surrounded these spaces with fences, annexed enclosed parking areas, which have heights
them to the private gardens, or arranged them that outweigh the rise of an adult person. The
as playing areas (Fig. 4). location of those elements and their impact on
Parking areas: Residents used to park cars in visual scopes does not follow any criteria,
streets in front of their units. Parking areas are though they are abundantly existing in main
directly overlooked from the dwelling or the streets especially those leading to mosques.
guard room. Most of the parking spaces are Moreover, trees and shrubs planted by
surrounded by iron fences, strings or chains (Fig. residents to offer privacy for their families
5). enhance visual isolation (Fig. 7).
Figure 4. Open spaces either neglected or seized by adjacent units (Source: The author)

Figure 5. Parking
Figure areas are exposed
(00) Parking or protected
area on sidewalks byof
in front fences (Source:
the housing The author)
units
Figure 6. High fences are utilized to achieve privacy and protection (Source: The author)
Figure 7. Different types

Figure (00) of visual
Different obstacles
examples (Source:
of visual The author)
obstacles
Observation indicates that inhabitants do not • Foreign labour (porters, drivers and home
seem to enjoy a satisfactory level of security. labour) gathers in front of dwellings.
The heavy use of fences, strings, chains, • Zones D and A are more teeming than the
protection iron-on dwellings and parking areas others according to the presence of shops,
reflects the fact that there is a fear of theft. This while areas B and C enjoy a well socio-
could be justified by the numbers of theft, and economic look.
car theft crimes illustrated in the table (2). The • The pedestrian movement is rather low
deteriorated situation of open spaces seems to except during prayer times when some
generate a feeling of fear as argued in residents go to and return from, the
theories. Likewise, ambiguous or screened mosques.
areas created by visual obstacles sustain such Behaviour observation can support the idea
feeling. that inhabitants do not seem to enjoy a
satisfactory level of security as derived from
4.3. Behaviour Observation trace observation. The uncontrolled open
Behaviour observation concentrates on the spaces attract youth from adjacent areas to
activities that have a direct or indirect play in which sometimes ends up with
relationship with crime or fear of crime. Some scrimmage. They also attract foreign labour to
activities and behaviours could be recorded skulk and drink alcohol. So, families seem to
including: avoid such spaces. This could be also justified
• The scarcity of children or adults in the open by records of scrimmage and drinking alcohol
spaces or streets; their presence is limited in crimes. However, the absence of inhabitants in
better-off spaces utilized as gardens or open spaces could be partly attributed to the
playing areas. hot-humid weather.
• Scattered groups of teenagers are noticed
in periphery open spaces.

4.4. Questionnaire Analysis among the four zones were detected with a
The questionnaire contains questions median of 4.06, 4.21, 3.58 and 3.75 for
concerning crime experience and feeling of clusters A, B, C and D respectively. It is
security in different spaces during day and noticeable that the satisfaction level in
night as argued below: spaces surrounding the mosques is less than
• About 49% of the respondents do not allow those around the dwellings.
their children to play in outdoor spaces, • Residents evaluate the commercial area
while 51% of them do. Whereas, 73% of the rather safe during the day, but less safe to a
respondents do not feel worried about their neutral level at night with a median of 3.96
children while playing outdoors. Despite this, and 3.39 respectively. Again, a less level of
71% of them allow their children to play in satisfaction was detected in the western
the region while 29% of them do not do so. zones than the eastern ones with a median
Being worried then does not prevent families of 4.06, 3.75, 3.58 and 3.75 during the day,
from allowing their children to play outdoor, and 3.57, 3.53, 3.0 and 3.19 3.57 during the
which means that they do not consider the night for clusters A, B, C and D respectively.
area unsafe to the extent that requires • Residents consider the project boundaries
preventing children from playing outside safe during the day while neutral during the
while preventing children refers to reasons night with a median of 3.7 and 2.94
unrelated to security. No significant respectively. Residents evaluate the eastern
differences among the four zones of the edges as the safer where the eastern zones
project were detected. A and B achieved a median of 4.07 and 3.65
• Residents consider their dwellings very safe while western zones C and D achieved a
with a median of 4.59 during the day and median of 3.56 and 3.49.
4.41 during the night (on a scale from 1 to 5) • In general, residents give the project a
respectively. A less degree of satisfaction positive evaluation regarding security
was detected in the western zones (C, D) without differences between the four zones
during the day with a median of 4.21 and achieving a mean of 3.79 during the day
4.38 for clusters C and D, and during the and 3.34 during the night.
night with a median of 3.96 and 4.14 • In terms of crime rate, the questionnaire
compared with zones A and B that clarifies some differences between the four
recorded a median of 4.73 and 4.78 during zones. Respondents indicate that zone A is
the day and 4.43 and 4.73 during the night. the top in crime rate where 19.3% of the
• Residents consider the main roads leading residents exposed to crime. Zone C is in
to their dwellings safe during day and night second place (13.3%) followed by zones B
with a median of 4.08 and 3.65 respectively; and D (12.1% each). Likewise, 42.2% of the
likewise, frontal streets and spaces with a respondents of zone A heard that their
median of 4.19 and 3.86 respectively, and neighbours exposed to crime. While, those
rear streets and spaces with a median of who heard about crime in zones D, C and B
4.03 and 3.59 respectively. With that level of amount the ratio of 24.2%, 23.3% and 17.2%
satisfaction, there is no logical explanation respectively (Table 3). By adding figures of
for protection fences built around parking both who “exposed to crime” and who
areas in front of dwellings unless such “heard about crime”, the aggregate
satisfaction was achieved after erecting the number of crimes in the four zones can be
fences. Again, a less degree of satisfaction monitored. Zone A is the highest (61.4%),
was detected in the western zones during followed by zones C and D (37.3%, 36.6%);
the day compared with the eastern ones while, zone B is the least vulnerable to crime
with a median of 3.69 and 4.06 respectively, (28.7%). The total aggregate indicates that
while no significant difference among the 42.5% of the residents either exposed to
four zones was detected during the night. crime or heard about crime.
• Residents consider spaces surrounding the • However, residents’ proposals for
mosque safe during the day, but this enhancing security are limited in
satisfaction decreases during the night to a maintaining the neglected open spaces
neutral level with a median of 3.65 and 3.31 and removing garbage regularly.
respectively. Different levels of satisfaction

Table 3. Crime rate indicated by respondents in the four zones.
Exposed to crime Heard about crime Aggreg

ate
No Yes Total No Yes Total
A Count 92 22 114 66 48 114 70
% per zone 80.7% 19.3% 100% 57.8% 42.2% 100% 61.4%
B Count 83 11 94 78 16 94 27
% per zone 87.9% 12.1% 100% 82.8% 17.2% 100% 28.7%
Zone
C Count 51 8 59 45 14 59 22
% per zone 86.7% 13.3% 100% 76.7% 23.3% 100% 37.3%
D Count 82 11 93 70 23 93 34
% per zone 87.9% 12.1% 100% 75.8% 24.2% 100% 36.6%
Total 308 52 360 259 101 360 153
85.6% 14.4% 100% 71.9% 28.1% 100% 42.5%
Results indicate that residents’ evaluation of controllability and choice) and global
security in the project spaces is positive. measures (depth, integration, intelligibility,
Medians achieved in different spaces are all agreement, integration core, and entropy).
surpassing figure 3.39 except for the project The terminologies used are illustrated in the
boundaries and spaces around mosques at appendix.
night. This can be justified by the absence of Figure (8. left) illustrates the integration map of
activities. Residents of the eastern zones (A, B) the project; the map indicates that the north-
enjoy a better level of security than the western south axis is the most integrated. The segments
ones (C, D). The explanation for zone A could perpendicular to the north-south axis, and
refer to the continuity of movement associated surrounding the four zones, have high
with shops as noted in theories above. integration values too. These lines represent the
Although zone C has a good socio-economic spine of the project; they connect the four
appearance, it does not seem to enjoy a high zones but do not penetrate any of them. This is
level of safety which makes issues like image clarified more in Figure (8. Right) which
and milieu questionable. However, the level of represents lines that are 25% more integrated
security inferred from the questionnaire is rather (integration core). Most integration core
contradicting with the reported rates of crime segments are located on the borders of zones
and the observed tactics of protection. Such a with a limited number that penetrates them.
level of satisfaction could be achieved due to This confirms the fact that each zone of the four
the precautions taken by inhabitants to protect acts as an isolated entity with a little
their properties. relationship with the others. Zone A is the most
penetrated, which means that it is more
4.5. Space Syntax accessible than the others. Though, the
Prince Fawaz project is analyzed with questionnaire indicates that it is the highest
Depthmap software. The maps produce a set crime rate. This, however, makes accessibility
of local measures (connectivity, depth, control, questionable.
Figure 8. Integration maps, (Left) Project integration map; (Right) Lines 25% more integrated (Integration core)

The intelligibility value of the project, which between residents and strangers’ movement
amounts to 0.042, is relatively low compared to routes. Figure (9. Right) illustrates a good
the average values available in residential relationship expressed by the regression
areas which reach up to 0.7 (Fig. 9. Left and coefficient (R2 = 0.421) for the project, i.e.,
middle). Intelligibility value in zone A is relatively streets that are jointly used by both residents
higher than other areas reaching the figure and strangers are not few. In addition, the
0.123. The high intelligibility encourages chart clarifies that three out of the four zones
strangers to navigate through the area. The low enjoy a high regression coefficient ranging
intelligibility value refers to the clear distinction between 0.52 and 0.56, while region A has a
between spaces (streets) that link between value of 0.339 only, i.e., the agreement
regions and the internal spaces in each zone. between residents and strangers in this region
Despite the low intelligibility value for the is the least. This reflects the absence of natural
project, the intelligibility value for pedestrians surveillance imposed by the co-existence of
(diameter 3)1 is high with a value of 0.71. The both residents and strangers, which provides
intelligibility value for zone A is also the highest the opportunity for crime. This can be one of
among others with an average of 0.74, making the reasons for the high number of crimes
it more accessible for outsiders. concluded throughout the questionnaire in this
The relationship between integration and zone compared with the others.
choice expresses the degree of compatibility
Figure 9. Left and middle: Intelligibility values of the project

Right: Compatibility between residents and strangers in the four sectors
In the light of the foregoing discussion, the high surveillance of strangers, which seems essential
crime rate reduced in zone A can be for the security of residential areas.
interpreted, where many factors have led to
this situation. First, the high values of both 5. Discussion and Conclusion
integration and intelligibility. Second, the On the theoretical level, the case study shows
relatively deep penetration of the core of that none of the approaches concerned with
integration into the region; makes the region security in residential areas reached up to
more accessible by strangers. Third, and most completion; but each has aspects that partly
importantly, the weak coincidence between work. Prince Fawaz project clarifies that the
spaces commonly used by residents and those unidentified, uncontrolled and inactive open
easily accessed by strangers. The third factor spaces are unsafe areas that raise the
eliminates the residents’ control and residents’ fear in accord with Defensible Space
and CPTED. While Defensible Space claims
1 The local measure proximity diameter 3 looks at the closest axial lines are important for pedestrian movement
intelligibility of the 3 closest axial lines from the starting axial through the system; or that the area can be conceived from these
line; a distance which is appropriate for walking. A high parts.
(diameter 3) intelligibility implies that a line segment and the 3

territoriality and access control, the case study are accompanied by residents. On contrary,
shows that streets in which residents and the absence of residents provides an
strangers’ movement matches enjoy a higher opportunity for crime in spaces mostly
level of security. This agrees with CPTED, New accessed by strangers. This is typical with
Urbanism and Space Syntax. To enhance spaces around shops. It is recommended, thus,
security in affordable housing, it is suitable to to reformulate movement routes to drive
examine it case by case. A detailed record for strangers to routes used by residents
types, places and time of crimes is a major (integration core). Otherwise, the integration
component. A comparative analysis of core could be re-allocated to penetrate the
projects can help to refine the results too. four zones instead of surrounding them; and
Based on trace and behaviour observation, as pass by the commercial zone and mosque in
well as the questionnaire, the periphery open each zone. This is expected to enhance
spaces constitute unsafe areas. Space syntax intelligibility across the project encouraging
illustrates that they are accessible by outsiders movement on carefully selected spines that
with little compatibility with residents. Such are compatible with residents’ movement.
spaces provide uncontrolled access to the Zone A, in specific, requires more compatibility
project resulting in a threat for the residents. between residents and strangers’ movement
Controlling access to these spaces, a process to provide an adequate level of surveillance.
that some residents began to do on their own, The rest of the areas, with low intelligibility
is a recommended approach. As extracted values, could be turned into controlled private
from the questionnaire, organized and clean and semi-private entities to block strangers to
spaces reflect the sense of security among navigate through.
residents and provide an inappropriate Comparing zone, A, the highest crime rate
environment for criminals. Allocating and according to the questionnaire, with zone B
identifying specific activities for spaces and D, the least in crime rate, raises the issue of
encourage users to use them as intended. It is size and population of housing development.
equally important to allocate open spaces to Results advocate small scale development
specific entities to organize and maintain with a straightforward urban pattern.
them. Fear of crime can be generally eliminated by
Spaces around mosques are safe during prayer providing sustainable maintenance for the
time and vice versa as reported by the project spaces and movement routes;
questionnaire. The movement to/from vegetation can play a significant role herein.
mosques (five times along the day) bring life to Protection tactics justify the low fear of crime
the area during prayer times and makes achieved in the project despite the recorded
residents feel safe. While the lack of crime rate. However, protection tactics need
pedestrians in between prayer times to be studied, examined and developed in
accompanied by the existence of visual integration with the design not imposed on it;
obstacles, according to trace observation, this is an interesting future scope of research.
demonstrate the feeling of fear. Vegetation
and rearranging visual obstacles, like water Acknowledgement
tanks and garbage containers, are expected This article was funded by the Deanship of
to remedy fields of vision offering a Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz
comfortable environment for residents. University, Jeddah. The author, therefore,
Identifying areas for labour to gather in at night acknowledges with thanks DSR for technical
can keep an eye on the spaces, add courtesy and financial support.
and hence maintain security.
Zone A, the highest crime rate according to the Conflict of interests
questionnaire, is the most crowded according The author declares no conflict of interest.
to behaviour observation and the most
accessible and penetrated according to
Space Syntax. But, the agreement between References
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Appendix
In a network of potential lines of movement, “connectivity” represents the possible paths that link any
two locations. While, “integration” is a measure of closeness-centrality; it identifies the streets that
minimize directional or metric distances from all possible destinations. It is a normalized measure of
distance from any "a space of origin" to all others in a system. In general, it calculates how close the
origin space is to all other spaces and can be seen as the measure of relative asymmetry (or relative
depth). Spaces, thus, are arranged from highly integrated (indicated with red) to highly isolated
(indicated with blue). Integrated spaces are those easily accessed from everywhere of the project
and vice versa. “Integration core” is a pattern made of the 10%, 25% or 50% most integrating spaces.
“Intelligibility” represents degree of correlation between connectivity and global integration values of
the axial lines in spatial configuration analysis. The high correlation between connectivity and
integration ensures that the spatial configuration is understandable and predictable for the pedestrian
or vehicular movement. Axial intelligibility indexes the degree to which the number of immediate
connections a line has is a reliable guide to the importance of that line in the system as a whole. A
strong correlation, or ‘high intelligibility’, implies that the whole can be read from the parts.
“Choice” measures how likely an axial line or a street segment it is to be passed through on all shortest
routes from all spaces to all other spaces in the entire system or within a predetermined distance
(radius) from each segment. While, “depth” exists wherever it is necessary to go through intervening
spaces to get from one space to another.

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ARTICLE INFO: ABSTRACT

pandemic, there is a need to pursue strategies

How to Cite this Article:

covers a macro scale might not provide a • Pedestrian Passage in Downtown

Figure 1. Structure of the research.

2011). The development strategies of public

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 2

fast growth and complexity of cities at the environment as a dynamic accumulative

3. Urban Acupuncture Concept

One-time investment from From government and Various/unlimited

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 3

Various Types of Urban Renewal

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 4

Encourages all types of activities; welcoming and inviting

Figure 2. Urban Acupuncture Principles.

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 5

Figure 3. Urban Acupuncture Principles vs Strategies.

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 6

Table 3. Locations of selected international examples of Urban Acupuncture.

Main To create affordable housing buildings with

• The implementation of the upgrading project was

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 7

The purpose was to reuse the street

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 8

(Tang et al., 2015)

4.3 Summary of international examples gathering hub for different types of

Table 6. UA strategies in international examples.

UA-S01 Use existing resources √ √

UA-S02 Redefinition of urban aesthetic elements √

UA-S03 Achieve diversity and inclusivity √ √

UA-S04 Increase visibility of public buildings

UA-S05 Open space redefinition √

UA-S06 Reuse and recycle resources √

UA-S07 Confirm the sentimental value of vegetation

UA-S08 Connectivity and graduate design √

UA-S09 Adaptive and open design √ √

UA-S10 Shared management and responsibility √

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 9

of the oil boom (1970-1990). Its rapid from a

Figure 4. The study area of Riyadh city (Khan et al., 2018)

Dr. Usama A. Nassar 10