EE 43/100 Operational Amplifiers

Op-Amps Experiment Theory

1. Objective
The purpose of these experiments is to introduce the most important of all analog building blocks,
the operational amplifier (“op-amp” for short). This handout gives an introduction to these
amplifiers and a smattering of the various configurations that they can be used in. Apart from their
most common use as amplifiers (both inverting and non-inverting), they also find applications as
buffers (load isolators), adders, subtractors, integrators, logarithmic amplifiers, impedance
converters, filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-reject or notch), and differential amplifiers.
So let’s get set for a fun-filled adventure with op-amps!

2. Introduction: Amplifier Circuit

Before jumping into op-amps, let’s first go over some amplifier fundamentals. An amplifier has an
input port and an output port. (A port consists of two terminals, one of which is usually connected
to the ground node.) In a linear amplifier, the output signal = A × input signal, where A is the
amplification factor or “gain.” Depending on the nature of the input and output signals, we can have
four types of amplifier gain: voltage gain (voltage out / voltage in), current gain (current out / current
in), transresistance (voltage out / current in) and transconductance (current out / voltage in). Since
most op-amps are voltage/voltage amplifiers, we will limit the discussion here to this type of
amplifier. The circuit model of an amplifier is shown in Figure 1 (center dashed box, with an input
port and an output port). The input port plays a passive role, producing no voltage of its own, and is
modelled by a resistive element Ri called the input resistance. The output port is modeled by a
dependent voltage source AVi in series with the output resistance Ro, where Vi is the potential
difference between the input port terminals. Figure 1 shows a complete amplifier circuit, which
consists of an input voltage source Vs in series with the source resistance Rs, and an output “load”
resistance RL. From this figure, it can be seen that we have voltage-divider circuits at both the input
port and the output port of the amplifier. This requires us to re-calculate Vi and Vo whenever a
different source and/or load is used:
⎛ Ri ⎞
Vi = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟Vs (1)
⎝ Rs + Ri ⎠

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⎛ RL ⎞
Vo = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ AVi (2)
⎝ Ro + RL ⎠

RS + Ro +

INPUT PORT

OUTPUT PORT
Vi Vo
Ri AVi RL
VS _ _

SOURCE AMPLIFIER LOAD

Figure 1: Circuit model of an amplifier circuit.

3. The Operational Amplifier: Ideal Op-Amp Model

The amplifier model shown in Figure 1 is redrawn in Figure 2 showing the standard op-amp
notation. An op-amp is a “differential to single-ended” amplifier, i.e. it amplifies the voltage
difference Vp – Vn = Vi at the input port and produces a voltage Vo at the output port that is
referenced to the ground node of the circuit in which the op-amp is used.

ip
+ + + +
V_p Ri V_p
Vi R o
Vi
+ +
_
AVi AV i
in V_o _ Vo
_
+ +
V_n V_n

Figure 2: Standard op-amp Figure 3: Ideal op-amp

The ideal op-amp model was derived to simplify circuit analysis and is commonly used by engineers
for first-order approximation calculations. The ideal model makes three simplifying assumptions:

Gain is infinite: A = ∞ (3)

Input resistance is infinite: Ri = ∞ (4)

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Output resistance is zero: Ro= 0 (5)

Applying these assumptions to the standard op-amp model results in the ideal op-amp model shown
in Figure 3. Because Ri = ∞ and the voltage difference Vp – Vn = Vi at the input port is finite, the input
currents are zero for an ideal op-amp:
in = ip = 0 (6)
Hence there is no loading effect at the input port of an ideal op-amp:
Vi = Vs (7)

In addition, because Ro = 0, there is no loading effect at the output port of an ideal op-amp:
Vo = A × Vi (8)
Finally, because A = ∞ and Vo must be finite, Vi = Vp – Vn = 0, or
Vp = Vn (9)
Note: Although Equations 3-5 constitute the ideal op-amp assumptions, Equations 6 and 9 are used
most often in solving op-amp circuits.

I R2
Vp

Vp R1 Vn
Vn +
Vout
_
Vn + Vin Vp +
Vin R2 Vout Vout
_ _
R1
I Vin

Figure 4a: Non-inverting amplifier Figure 5a: Voltage follower Figure 6a: Inverting amplifier

Vout Vout Vout

A>=1 A=1

Vin Vin Vin

A<0

Figure 4b: Voltage transfer curve Figure 5b: Voltage transfer curve Figure 6b: Voltage transfer curve
of non-inverting amplifier of voltage follower of inverting amplifier

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Vout Vout Vout

+Vpower +Vpower +Vpower

A>=1 A=1
Vin Vin Vin
A<0

-Vpower -Vpower -Vpower

Figure 4c: Realistic transfer curve Figure 5c: Realistic transfer curve Figure 6c: Realistic transfer curve
of non-inverting amplifier of voltage follower of inverting amplifier

4. Non-Inverting Amplifier
An ideal op-amp by itself is not a very useful device, since any finite non-zero input signal would
result in infinite output. (For a real op-amp, the range of the output signal is limited by the positive
and negative power-supply voltages.) However, by connecting external components to the ideal op-
amp, we can construct useful amplifier circuits.

Figure 4a shows a basic op-amp circuit, the non-inverting amplifier. The triangular block symbol is
used to represent an ideal op-amp. The input terminal marked with a “+” (corresponding to Vp) is
called the non-inverting input; the input terminal marked with a “–” (corresponding to Vn) is called
the inverting input.
To understand how the non-inverting amplifier circuit works, we need to derive a relationship
between the input voltage Vin and the output voltage Vout. For an ideal op-amp, there is no loading
effect at the input, so
Vp = Vi (10)
Since the current flowing into the inverting input of an ideal op-amp is zero, the current flowing
through R1 is equal to the current flowing through R2 (by Kirchhoff’s Current Law -- which states
that the algebraic sum of currents flowing into a node is zero -- to the inverting input node). We can
therefore apply the voltage-divider formula find Vn:

⎛ R1 ⎞
Vn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟Vout (11)
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠

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From Equation 9, we know that Vin = Vp = Vn, so

⎛ R ⎞
Vout = ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟Vin (12)
⎝ R1 ⎠

The voltage transfer curve (Vout vs. Vin) for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 4b. Notice
that the gain (Vout / Vin) is always greater than or equal to one.

The special op-amp circuit configuration shown in Figure 5a has a gain of unity, and is called a
“voltage follower.” This can be derived from the non-inverting amplifier by letting R1 = ∞ and R2 =
0 in Equation 12. The voltage transfer curve is shown in Figure 5b. A frequently asked question is
why the voltage follower is useful, since it just copies input signal to the output. The reason is that it
isolates the signal source and the load. We know that a signal source usually has an internal series
resistance (Rs in Figure 1, for example). When it is directly connected to a load, especially a heavy
(high conductance) load, the output voltage across the load will degrade (according to the voltage-
divider formula). With a voltage-follower circuit placed between the source and the load, the signal
source sees a light (low conductance) load -- the input resistance of the op-amp. At the same time,
the load is driven by a powerful driving source -- the output of the op-amp.

5. Inverting Amplifier
Figure 6a shows another useful basic op-amp circuit, the inverting amplifier. It is similar to the non-
inverting circuit shown in Figure 4a except that the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal
via R1 and the non-inverting terminal is grounded. Let’s derive a relationship between the input
voltage Vin and the output voltage Vout. First, since Vn = Vp and Vp is grounded, Vn = 0. Since the
current flowing into the inverting input of an ideal op-amp is zero, the current flowing through R1
must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the current flowing through R2 (by
Kirchhoff’s Current Law):
Vin − Vn Vout − Vn
= (13)
R1 R2
Since Vn = 0, we have:
⎛ R ⎞
Vout = ⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟Vin (14)
⎝ R1 ⎠
The gain of inverting amplifier is always negative, as shown in Figure 6b.

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6. Operation Circuit
Figure 7 shows an operation circuit, which combines the non-inverting and inverting amplifier. Let’s
derive the relationship between the input voltages and the output voltage Vout. We can start with the
non-inverting input node. Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law, we obtain:
V B1 − V p VB2 − V p VB3 − V p Vp
+ + = (15)
R B1 RB2 RB3 RB
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law to the inverting input node, we obtain:
V A1 − V n V A 2 − V n V A 3 − V n V n − V out
+ + = (16)
R A1 R A2 R A3 RA
Since Vn = Vp (from Equation 9), we can combine Equations 15 and 16 to get
⎛R ⎞ ⎛ V B1 V B 2 V B 3 ⎞ ⎛V V V ⎞
V out ⎜⎜ A′ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟ R B ′ − ⎜⎜ A1 + A 2 + A 3 ⎟⎟ R A′ (17)
⎝ RA ⎠ ⎝ R B1 R B 2 R B 3 ⎠ ⎝ R A1 R A 2 R A 3 ⎠
where
1
R A′ =
1 1 1 1
+ + +
R A R A1 R A 2 R A 3
and
1
R B′ =
1 1 1 1
+ + +
R B R B1 R B 2 R B 3
Thus this circuit adds VB1, VB2 and VB3 and subtracts VA1, VA2 and VA3. Different coefficients can be
applied to the input signals by adjusting the resistors. If all the resistors have the same value, then
V out = (V B1 + V B 2 + V B 3 ) − (V A1 + V A 2 + V A 3 ) (18)
R A1
V A1
R A2 RA
V A2
R A3 Vn
V A3

R B1 Vp +
V B1
V out
R B2 _
V B2
RB
R B3
V B3

Figure 7: Operation circuit

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7. Integrator
By adding a capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor R2 in an inverting amplifier as shown in
Figure 8, the op-amp can be used to perform integration. An ideal or lossless integrator (R2 = ∞)
−1
R1C ∫
performs the computation Vout = Vin dt . Thus a square wave input would cause a triangle wave

output. However, in a real circuit (R2 < ∞) there is some decay in the system state at a rate
proportional to the state itself. This leads to exponential decay with a time constant of τ = R2C.

R2

R1 Vn

V in Vp +
V o ut
_

Figure 8: Integrator

8. Differentiator
By adding a capacitor in series with the input resistor R1 in an inverting amplifier, the op-amp can be
used to perform differentiation. An ideal differentiator (R1 = 0) has no memory and performs the
dVin
computation Vout = − R2 C . Thus a triangle wave input would cause a square wave output.
dt
However, a real circuit (R1 > 0) will have some memory of the system state (like an lossy integrator)
with exponential decay of time constant τ = R1C.

9. Differential Amplifier
Figure 9 shows the differential amplifier circuit. As the name suggests, this op-amp configuration
amplifies the difference of two input signals.
R2
Vout = (V+ − V− ) (20)
R1
If the two input signals are the same, the output should be zero, ideally. To quantify the quality of
the amplifier, the term Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is defined. It is the ratio of the

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output voltage corresponding to the difference of the two input signals to the output voltage
corresponding to “common part” of the two signals. A good op-amp has a high CMRR.

R2
V- +10V
R1

V+
Vout
R1
-10V
R2

Figure 9: Differential amplifier

10. Frequency Response of Op-Amp

The “frequency response” of any circuit is the magnitude of the gain in decibels (dB) as a function of
the frequency of the input signal. The decibel is a common unit of measurement for the relative
loudness of a sound or, in electronics, for the relative magnitude of two power levels. (A decibel is
one-tenth of a "Bel", a seldom-used unit named for Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the
telephone.) The gain expressed in dB is 20 log10|G|. The frequency response of an op-amp is a low
pass characteristic (passing low-frequency signals, attenuating high-frequency signals), Figure 10.
Gain (log scale)

G -3 d B point

B Freq (Hz )

Figure 10: Frequency response of op-amp.

The bandwidth is the frequency at which the power of the output signal is reduced to half that of the
maximum output power. This occurs when the power gain G drops by 3 dB. In Figure 10, the

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bandwidth is B Hz. For all op-amps, the Gain*Bandwidth product is a constant. Hence, if the gain
of an op-amp is decreased, its operational bandwidth increases proportionally. This is an important
trade-off consideration in op-amp circuit design. In Sections 3 through 8 above, we assumed that the
op-amp has infinite bandwidth.

10. More on Op-Amps

All of the above op-amp configurations have one thing in common. There exists a path from the
output of the op-amp back to its inverting input. When the output is not “railed” to a supply voltage,
negative feedback ensures that the op-amp operates in the linear region (as opposed to the saturation
region, where the output voltage is “saturated” at one of the supply voltages). Amplification,
addition/subtraction, and integration/differentiation are all linear operations. Note that both AC
signals and DC offsets are included in these operations, unless we add a capacitor in series with the
input signal(s) to block the DC component.

11. The LMC 6482 Operational Amplifier

Guidelines for usage:
• Two power-supply voltages (one positive, one negative) must be connected to the LM741.
The input voltage should fall within the range between the two power-supply voltages.
• The power-supply voltages limit the output voltage swing. The voltage-transfer
characteristics of the non-inverting amplifier, the voltage follower and the inverting amplifier
are illustrated in Figures 4c, 5b and 5c, respectively. The output swing also depends on the
load resistor RL. In order for the LMC 6482 to work like an ideal op-amp, don’t connect too
heavy a load (resistor of low resistance) to it. Avoid continuous operation under maximum
current output; otherwise it can burn your finger!
• The input resistance of the LMC 6482 is not tremendously large, so resistors like R1 and R2
shown in Figure 4 and 6 should not be too large. Of course they should not be too small,
since neither the external signal source nor the LMC 6482 itself may have sufficient current
driving capacity.

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LMC 6482 pins:

The op-amp is packaged in an epoxy mini-DIP (“dual inline package”) which has 4 pins emerging
from each of the two sides of the package. The most important part of the identification is to note
that Pin 1 is marked by a small circular indentation in the lower left-hand corner of the package
when viewed from the top side with the manufacturer’s marking reading upright. The pin numbers
on ICs always start with Pin 1 being this labeled pin and increase counter-clockwise as read from the
top side of the package. Thus on this particular package, Pin 8 is directly across from Pin 1, and Pin
5 is diagonally across from Pin 1.

You will need to use only 5 of the 8 pins. These are: Inverting Input – Pin2, Non-Inverting Input –
Pin3, Negative Supply – Pin4, Output – Pin6 and Positive Supply – Pin7. Other pins are available for
an optional offset null adjustment (Pins 1 & 5), which is unnecessary for the circuits used in this
experiment. Do not ground these pins, as this will result in failure of the op-amp. Pin 8 has no
internal connection into the silicon chip inside.

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Op-Amps: Experiment Guide

In this lab, we are going to study operational amplifiers and circuits with op-amps. The op-amp chip
that we are going to use is LMC 6482 from National Instrument. The configuration of the chip is
shown below. It has two amplifiers in one chip with 8 pins. The pin configuration is also shown in
the same figure (There is a node on the chip indicating pin 1). The power supply to the chip is -4 V
for V- and +6 V for V+ in this lab (Maximum V+-V- is 30V). For more information, please refer to
the device specification.

Part 1: Noninverting Amplifier

(a) DC measurements:
(1) Build up the noninverting amplifier as shown in Fig 1. Use +25V channel and -25V channel
of the DC power supply for the VDD and VSS, the +25V should be set up to +6V and -25V
channel should be set up to -4V. Use 6V channel of the DC power supply for Vin, and
measure both input and output using oscilloscope. R1 is 5k and R2 is 5k. Change Vin from -
2V to 3V to verify the proper amplification range of DC inputs.
(2) Fix the DC input 0.5V, measure the amplifier gain (Vout/Vin) for R2= 2 k, 5k, 10kΩ (turn R2 )
and compare with the calculated gain. (You need to take out the pot from the circuit to
measure its value.)
(b) AC measurement:
(1) Now, set the input signal to a 1 kHz, 0.5 VPP, 0 VDC offset (on the function generator
display) Sine wave from the function generator. Use a 10kΩ potentiometer as R2. Adjust R2
to see the gain change. Can you get a gain less than unity by turning R2? Why?

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(2) Turn the potentiometer R2 until the gain is 2 and then adjust the Vpp and DC offset to the
input signal. Observe the input and output waveforms as you vary the DC offset for large
Vpp (say 2.5V).
(c) Clipping:
(1) Turn the potentiometer until the gain is ~2 and then add a DC offset to the input signal.
Observe the input and output waveforms as you vary the DC offset from 0VDC to +1.0VDC
(the FG should display 0VDC to +0.5VDC).
(2) Draw the input and output for a case that gives clipping, and include measured voltages of
the peak, trough, and saturation levels referenced to ground. Explain the conditions under
which distortion occurred.

Do not disassemble this circuit. Remove Vi and change R2 to a fixed 4.7k to be used in Part 2.

Fig 0: Grounding Unused Op-amps

VDD
3 8
1
2 +

4 Vo
_
VSS
Vi

R2
R1

Fig 1:Non-inverting Amplifier

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Part 2: Inverting Amplifier

Using the unused op-amp of the IC, build the inverting amplifier as shown below (please use the
unused op-amp now). While you are building a circuit, it is safer for the circuits if you turn the DC
power supply OUTPUT OFF. Let the input signal be a 1 kHz, 1.0VPP sine wave, 0 VDC offset, turn
R2 to max. What’s happening to the output signal? Adjust the input offset to make the output more
complete. Now adjust the potentiometer and observe the resulting change in the amplitude and offset
of the output. Adjust these two parameters until the gain is at its maximum and there’s no clipping.
What range of gain do you have in this circuit? Verify the correct amplification of both AC and DC
signals. What is the phase difference between Vout and Vin and where is it from? Is it a delay?

R2

VDD
R1 6 8
7
Vi 5 +

4 Vo
_
VSS

Part 3: Cascaded connection

Now we will study a cascade connection of two amplifiers. Connect the output of the inverting amp
to act as the input voltage for the non-inverting amp. Use R2 = 10k in the inverting circuit and
R2’=5k in the noninverting circuit. The input signal should be a 1 kHz, 50mVPP (on the function
generator display) sine wave and you have to pick the correct offset for the circuit to amplify
linearly. Adjust the input signal to make sure there is no clipping in the circuit. Measure the gain of
each stage separately and then the overall gain of this cascaded circuit.

Part 4: Integrator
Put a 0.1 uF capacitor instead of R2 in a new inverting amplifier (Fig 3) and measure the time
constant. Use a 60 Hz, 500mVPP square wave as input. After getting the waveforms and triggering
correct, measure time constant RC (how will you measure it? Hint: your prelab question 4).

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Compare measured time constant with theory. Now change the function generator back to a sine
wave input, sweep frequency from 1Hz to 100kHz and observe the change of the gain with
frequency.

Note on op-amp integrator

The circuit in figure 4 violates one of the cardinal rules of op-amp circuit design - ``there must
always be a DC feedback path to the inverting input or the op-amp output will go to the rail.'' The
general problem with this integrator circuit is that a small error current, input offset current, will be
integrated by the capacitor to be large output voltages, and eventually drive the op-amp output into
saturation. The LMC 6482 op-amp you are using has remarkably low input offset currents, so that
you may not see this effect in a short time. If you want to see this effect, ask your TA for another
pin-compatible op-amp such as the LM6142, substitute in the integrator circuit, and see if you
observe any difference in the average DC level of the output. (Typically, a real integrator is made
with a zero-reset, or a large resistor in parallel with the integrator capacitor).

Part 5: Differentiator
Build the inverting amplifier but put 0.1 uF capacitor in stead of R1 as shown in Fig 4. Use R2=5k
Input a 500 Hz 500 mVpp triangle wave. Zoom into the waveform to measure time constant RC
(Hint: prelab question 5). Compare measured time constant with theory. Add DC offset to the input
signal, is there any change on the output signal? Why? What happens when the input is a triangle
wave?

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