OFC Networks

Chapter – 2
Signal Degradation in Optical Fiber

Introduction:
• A system is said to be distortion-less if the output of the system is
a replica of the input and does not contain any unpredicted and
undesired perturbations.
• Let us consider a system as shown in the figure, to which an input
x(t) is applied to obtain an output y(t). the output may be written in
terms of the input as:
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒙(𝒕 − 𝝉); where A= amplitude scaling factor and
𝝉 = time delay introduced by the system.
• If we now take a look into the frequency response of the system by
taking Fourier transform of equation, we get: 𝒀(𝝎) = 𝑨𝑿(𝝎)𝒆𝒋𝝉𝝎

• propagation of light through the optical fiber would be distortion-

less If the optical fibre satisfies two basic conditions:
a) The amplitude response should be constant with respect
to frequency (A should be independent of frequency)
b) The phase response ‘𝒆𝒋𝝉𝝎 ‘ should be linear in frequency (𝝉
should be constant)
• The loss profile of an optical fiber with respect to frequency (or
wavelength) is very slowly varying function of wavelength.
• the loss on the optical fiber decreases the amplitude of the signal
almost uniformly over the entire bandwidth. Hence, there would be
no distortion in the optical fiber due to amplitude variation.
• The phase performance of an optical fiber is inherently related to
the phenomenon of dispersion.
Attenuation:

• When an optical signal is transmitted on an optical fiber, the signal

is distorted owing to two phenomena known as attenuation and
dispersion.

• Attenuation can occur due to material absorption properties, micro-

bending or due to radiation.

• During manufacture process of the optical fiber, some

imperfections called as micro-centres are created inside the optical
fibers which have dimensions of the order of 𝜆−4 . These micro-
centres lead to scattering of light inside the optical fibers and as a
result the light signal is attenuated.

• When optical fiber cables are laid for communication, most often, it
is not possible to align them in perfect straight lines and some
bends remain here and there. These micro-bends lead to leakage
of light energy causing loss of optical energy.

• When fibers are laid in the form of large arcs or ‘macro-bends’,

another phenomenon referred to as radiation creeps in causing
loss of light energy and thus leading to attenuation of the optical
signal within the optical fiber.

• Signal attenuation largely determines the maximum repeaterless

separation between a transmitter and a receiver.
• Another cause of signal distortion in optical fibers is the
dispersion of the optical signal inside the optical fibers.

• When light is launched into an optical fiber in the form of a light

pulse, the pulse energy propagates by different paths which lead
to the broadening of the actual time-width of the pulse. This
phenomenon is called as dispersion.

• Dispersion may be due to material properties and imperfections

too. It may also be to pulse broadening within a single mode which
is referred to as intra-modal. Intra-modal dispersion occurs in
single mode fibers too on account of its finite bandwidth. The
dispersion caused by multipath propagation of light energy is
referred to as inter-modal dispersion. Inter-modal dispersion does
not occur in single mode fibers.

MCQ Questions:

1) A system is said to be distortion less when

a) Output is exact replica of input
b) Does not contain undesirable perturbation
 c) All of these
2) The phase performance of an optical fibre is related to
a) Dispersion
b) Scattering
c) Interference
d) None of these
3) Dispersion is due to
a) Material absorption
b) Pulse broadening
c) Material imperfection
d) All of these
4) Attenuation can occur due to
a) Material absorption
b) Micro-bending
c) Radiation
d) All of these
5) The micro-centres lead to
a) Scattering
b) Reflection
c) Dispersion
d) Absorption

Attenuation:

• Signal attenuation within optical fibers, is usually expressed in the

logarithmic unit of the decibel.

• The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels, may be
defined for a particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the input
(transmitted) optical power 𝑷𝒊𝒏 into a fiber to the output (received)
optical power𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 from the fibre as:

𝑷𝒊𝒏
Number of deciberls (dB)=10 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑷
• Thus the ratio 𝑷 𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎(𝒅𝑩⁄𝟏𝟎)
𝒐𝒖𝒕
• In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually
expressed in decibels per unit length (i.e. dB km−1) as following:

𝑷
𝜶𝒅𝑩 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝑷 𝒊𝒏 )
𝒐𝒖𝒕

• 𝜶𝒅𝑩 is the signal attenuation per unit length in decibels which is

also referred to as the fiber loss parameter and L is the fiber
length.

Example: When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km

length of fiber is 120 μW, the mean optical power at the fiber output is
3 μW. Determine:

(a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the

fiber assuming there are no connectors or splices;

(b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.

(c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the
same fiber with splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an
attenuation of 1 dB;

(d) the numerical input/output power ratio in (c).

 Solution.

a) the overall signal attenuation in decibels through the fiber is:

Pin 120 × 10−6

Signal attenuation=10 log10 = 10 log10
Pout 3 × 10−6

= 10 log10 40 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎 𝐝𝐁

b) αdB L = 16.0 dB
16.0
Therefore, signal attenuation per kilometer αdB = = 2 dB/km
8

c) As αdB = 2 dB/km, the loss incurred along 10 km of the fiber is

given by:

αdB L = 2 × 10 = 20 dB

However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals) each
with an attenuation of 1 dB. Therefore, the loss due to the splices
is 9 dB. Hence, the overall signal attenuation for the link is:

Signal attenuation=20+9=29 dB

d) the numerical input/output power ratio is:

Pin
= 10(dB⁄10) = 10(29⁄10) = 𝟕𝟗𝟒. 𝟑
Pout

Sources of attenuation:

• there are many sources of attenuations that may occur inside an

optical fiber. Material absorption, scattering, micro and macro
bending losses, etc. constitute the main sources in this category.
Three basic attenuation mechanism in fibre:

₋ Absorbtion – related to fibre material

₋ Scattering – related to fibre material and structural imperfections in
optical waveguide

₋ Radiative losses – due to perturbations of fibre geometry

• Material absorption is a intrinsic property of a material to absorb

light of one or more wavelengths and hence this property of glass
may cause some amount of attenuation in the signal as it
propagates along the optical fiber.

Yet, the significant loss is the scattering loss which causes greater
loss of optical power from the optical signal

Absorption

• Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

₋ Atomic defects

o Imperfections of atomic structure of fibre material (missing

molecule, high-density cluster of atom groups, or oxygen defects in
glass structure).

o Typically relatively small except exposed to nuclear radiation level

(e.g., inside a nuclear reactor, nuclear explosion)

₋ Extrinsic absorption

o Also called impurity absorption.

o Results from transition metal ions (iron, chromium, cobalt, copper)

& particularly from OH ions (from water).

o Occurs either because of electronic transitions between the energy

levels associated with the incompletely filled inner subshells of
these ions or because of charge transition from one ion to another.
₋ Intrinsic absorption

o Associated with basic fibre material (eg. Pure SiO2)

o Results from electronic absorption bands in the UV region when

photon interacts with an electron in the valence band and excites it
to a higher energy level near the UV region

o and from atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region when
an interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic
field of the optical signal results in a transfer of energy from the
field to the bond.

Scattering

• There are two types of scattering: Linear and non-linear scattering.

Linear scattering losses

• Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of

the optical power contained within one propagating mode to be
transferred linearly (proportionally to the mode power) into a
different mode.

• This process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light

as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which does not
continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated from the
fiber.

• Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types:

Rayleigh and Mie scattering.

• Both result from the non-ideal physical properties of the

manufactured fiber which are difficult and, in certain cases,
impossible to eradicate at present.
 Rayleigh scattering

• Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the

low-absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared
absorption tails.

• It results from inhomogeneities such as density and compositional

variations of glass occurring on a small scale compared with the
wavelength of the light.

• These inhomogeneities give rise to refractive index fluctuations.

• The compositional variations may be reduced by improved

fabrication, but the index fluctuations caused by the freezing-in of
density inhomogeneities are fundamental and cannot be avoided.

Bending

• Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fibre undergoes a

bend of finite radius of curvature

• Two types of bends:

₋ Macroscopic bends – Radii large compared to fibre diameter (eg.

When fibre cable turn a corner)

₋ Microscopic bends – that arises when fibers are incorporated into

cables

Macro bending Loss

• For slight bends the excess loss is extremely small.

• As the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss increases

exponentially until it reaches at a certain critical radius.
 • For any radius a bit smaller than this point, the losses suddenly
becomes extremely large.

• Lightwave suffers sever loss due to radiation of the evanescent

field in the cladding region.

• Beyond a critical distance 𝒙𝒄 the optical energy in the field tail

radiates away as it cannot keep up with the core field.

• Higher order modes radiate out of the fibre faster than lower order
modes.

Micro bending Loss

• They are caused either by nonuniformity in the manufacturing of

the fibres or by non-uniform lateral pressure created during the
cabling of the fibre.

• Results in increase in attenuation because the fibre curvature

causes repetitive coupling of energy between guided modes and
the leaky or radiation modes in the fiber.

• Extruding a compressible jacket over the fibre minimises

microbending losses
 MCQ Questions:

1) This is related to fibre material and structural imperfection in optical

waveguide

a) Absorption

b) Radiative losses

c) Scattering

d) All of these

2) Absorption is caused by

a) Atomic defects

b) Extrinsic absorption

c) Intrinsic absorption
 d) All of these

3) This is impurity absorption

a) Extrinsic absorption

b) Intrinsic absoption

c) Atomic defects

d) All of these

4) It is due to micorscopic variations in the material density

a) Scattering

b) Dispersion

c) Absorption

d) Bending

5) Rayleigh Scattering is proportional to

a) 𝜆4

b) 𝜆−4

c) 𝜆5

d) 𝜆−5

6) When an optical fibre undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature it

causes

a) Radiative losses

b) Scattering

c) Absorption

d) Dispersion
7) Non-uniform manufacturing of the fibre leads to

a) Microbending loss

b) Macrobending loss

c) All of these

Dispersion in Optical Fibers:

• Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for

both digital and analog transmission along optical fibers.

• Dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause broadening of the

transmitted light pulses as they travel along the channel.

• It may be observed that each pulse broadens and overlaps with its
neighbours, eventually becoming indistinguishable at the receiver
input. The effect is known as intersymbol interference (ISI).
• Thus, signal dispersion limits the maximum possible bandwidth
attainable with a particular optical fiber to the point where
individual symbols can no longer be distinguished.

• For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link, the

digital bit rate 𝑩𝑻 must be less than the reciprocal of the
broadened (through dispersion) pulse duration (𝟐𝝉).

𝟏
𝑩𝑻 ≤ 𝟐𝝉

• The maximum bit rate for an optical channel with dispersion may
be obtained by considering the light pulses at the output to have a
Gaussian shape with an rms width of σ.
𝟎.𝟐
𝑩𝑻 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) ⋍ 𝒃𝒊𝒕/𝒔
𝝈

• The conversion of bit rate to bandwidth in hertz depends on the

digital coding format used.

• For metallic conductors when a non return-to-zero code is

employed, there are two bit periods in one wavelength (i.e. 2 bits
per second per hertz), as illustrated in Figure. Hence the maximum
bandwidth B is one-half the maximum data rate or: 𝑩𝑻 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟐𝑩

• However, when a return-to-zero code is considered, as shown in

Figure, the data rate is equal to the bandwidth in hertz (i.e. 1 bit
per second per hertz) and thus 𝑩𝑻 = 𝑩.
Pulse broadening associated with each fiber type

• It may be observed that the multimode step index fiber exhibits the
greatest dispersion of a transmitted light pulse and the multimode
graded index fiber gives a considerably improved performance.

• The single-mode fiber gives the minimum pulse broadening and

thus is capable of the greatest transmission bandwidths which are
currently in the gigahertz range, whereas transmission via
multimode step index fiber is usually limited to bandwidths of a few
tens of megahertz.

• However, the amount of pulse broadening is dependent upon the

distance the pulse travels within the fiber, and hence for a given
optical fiber link the restriction on usable bandwidth is dictated by
the distance between regenerative repeaters.
• Hence, the number of optical signal pulses which may be
transmitted in a given period, and therefore the information-
carrying capacity of the fiber, is restricted by the amount of pulse
dispersion per unit length.

• In the absence of mode coupling or filtering, the pulse broadening

increases linearly with fiber length and thus the bandwidth is
inversely proportional to distance.

• This leads to the adoption of a more useful parameter for the

information-carrying capacity of an optical fiber which is known as
the bandwidth–length product (i.e. 𝐵𝑜𝑝𝑡 × L).

Example. A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse

broadening of 0.1 μs over a distance of 15 km. Estimate:

(a) the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no

intersymbol interference;
 (b) the pulse dispersion per unit length;

(c) the bandwidth–length product for the fiber.

Solution. a) the maximum possible bandwidth is equivalent to the

maximum possible bit rate (for non eturn zero pulses) assuming no
intersymbol interference:
1 1
Bopt = BT = 2τ = 0.2×10−6 = 𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳

b) The dispersion per unit length may be acquired simply by

dividing the total dispersion by the total length of the fiber:

0.1×10−6
Dispersion = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝐧𝐬/𝐤𝐦
15

c) The bandwidth–length product is:

Bopt × L = 5 × 15 = 𝟕𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳 𝐊𝐦

Types of Dispersion:

• Distortion is a consequence of intramodel dispersion and

intermodel delay effects.

• Intramodel dispersion or chromatic dispersion is pulse spreading

occuring within a single mode as a result of group velocity being a
function of wavelength.

• Two main causes of intramodal dispersion:

₋ Material dispersion - This is due to intrinsic properties of the

material, glass

₋ Waveguide dispersion - This is due dispersive nature of the bound

medium.
• Intermodal delay is a result of each mode having a different value
of group velocity at a single frequency, and is present only in
multimode optical fibre.

• The dispersion is a rather weak phenomenon which means that

the pulses slowly broaden as they travel along the optical fiber. It is
therefore appropriate to investigate one type of dispersion at a
time. That is when we investigate waveguide dispersion we
assume the fiber material to be non dispersive, and when we
investigate material dispersion, we assume the medium to be
unbound.

Group velocity and group delay

• Group velocity is the actual velocity which the signal information

and energy is traveling down the fiber. The group velocity is given
𝒅𝝎
by: 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒅𝜷

• It is always less than the speed of light in the medium.

• The observable delay experiences by the optical signal waveform

and energy, when traveling a length of L along the fiber is
commonly referred to as group delay.
 𝑳 𝒅𝜷
The group delay is given by: 𝝉𝒈 = 𝑽 = 𝑳 𝒅𝝎
𝒈

Material Dispersion

• For calculating material dispersion, we assume that the optical

fiber is an infinite medium and there is no wave guiding of light in
the material of the optical fiber and the refractive index of the
material is a function of the wavelength

• In such an infinite medium, light would exist in the form of

transverse electromagnetic wave and the phase constant of the
light would be that of a transverse electromagnetic wave, which is
given by:

𝟐𝝅𝒏(𝝀)
𝜷=
𝝀

• Here n(λ) is function which depicts the refractive index

variation with respect to wavelength.
• The graph shows that the refractive index of glass decreases as
the wavelength of light increases, but this decrease is non-linear.
• The material dispersion is zero at 1270nm. So it is preferable to
perform optical communications in the 1270nm wavelength or to
keep the operating wavelength as close to it as possible in order to
have minimum distortion and high data rates.
Waveguide Dispersion

• we assume the material dispersion to be zero and the fiber has

distinct core and cladding regions

• Waveguide dispersion is due to the modal nature of light inside the

optical fiber.

• Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes propagate far from

cutoff, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is generally
negligible compared with material dispersion

• The pulse broadening in single-mode fibers results almost entirely

from chromatic or intramodal dispersion as only a single-mode is
allowed to propagate.

Signal distortion in SM fibres

• SM fiber only confines 80% of optical power to the core and the
remaining 20% propagates in the cladding.

• Dispersion arises because the light in the cladding travels faster

than the light in the core.

• In order to calculate waveguide dispersion, we consider that n is

not dependent on wavelength and defining the normalized
propagation constant b as:
 𝜷𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 𝟐
𝒃=
𝜷𝟏 𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 𝟐

• Here 𝜷𝟏 and 𝜷𝟐 are the propagation constants in the core and the
cladding material of the optical fiber. The value of ‘b’ ranges
between 0 and 1.

• The V-number of an optical fiber is related to the frequency by the

following relation:
𝝎𝒂 𝟐𝝅𝒂
𝑽= √(𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 ) = (𝑵𝑨); Here ω= Angular frequency of the
𝒄 𝝀

mode.

a= Radius of the optical fiber.

𝒏𝟏 = Refractive Index of core.

𝒏𝟐 = Refractive Index of Cladding.

λ= Wavelength of the light.

N.A. = Numerical Aperture of the fibre

• For a practically used optical fibre, the refractive indices of the core
and cladding to be very small, based on this, we defined a quantity
‘∆’ under the weakly guiding approximation, which is given as:
𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐
𝜟= ≈ (since 𝒏𝟏 ≈ 𝒏𝟐 )
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐
MCQ Questions:

1) Chromatic dispersion within a single mode occur due to

a) Group velocity

b) Phase delay

c) Frequency

2) Intramodal dispersion occur due to

a) Material dispersion

b) Waveguide dispersion

c) Pulse spreading

d) Both a) and b)

e) Both b) and c)

3) Intermodal delay is present in

a) Multimode optical fibre

b) Single mode optical fibre

c) All of these
4) The spectral width is measured in

a) ps/(nmkm)

b) ps/km

c) pmint/nmkm

d) all of these

5) The refractive index of the material is a function of

a) Wavelength

b) Frequency

c) Group velocity

d) Phase velocity

6) To find an expression for dispersion we have to calculate

a) Group delay

b) Phase velocity

c) Group velocity

7) The material dispersion is zero at

a) 1270 nm

b) 1350 nm

c) 1550 nm

d) None of these

8) When light travel faster in cladding than in core, arises

a) Scattering

b) Dispersion
 c) Internal reflection

d) Group velocity

9) The V-number of an optical fibre is related to

a) Frequency

b) Velocity

c) Wavelength

d) All of these

10) By altering the different fibre parameter such as refractive index,

fibre radius etc, we can manipulate

a) Dispersion

b) Scattering

c) Absorption

d) Bending

Cut-off Wavelength

• One important transmission parameter for Single mode fiber is cut-

of wavelength for the first higher order mode as it distinguishes the
single mode and multimode regions.

• the cut-off wavelength may be defined as the wavelength at which

the next higher mode just starts getting excited

• its knowledge is useful in deciding the wavelength range of

operation. If we take a typical 1310nm optical fiber, the cut-off
wavelength 𝝀𝒄 lies about 20-30nm away from the wavelength of
operation.
 • The effective cut-off wavelength at which the higher order (𝐿𝑃11 )
mode power relative to the fundamental mode (𝐿𝑃01 ) power is
reduced to 0.1 dB.

• The cut-off wavelength 𝜆𝑐 can be computed from expression of

normalized frequency:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎𝑛1 √2𝛥 ⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑎𝑛1 √2𝛥
𝜆 𝑉

𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒏𝟏
𝝀𝒄 = √𝟐𝜟; where 𝑉𝑐 is cut-off
𝑽𝒄

normalised frequency

• 𝝀𝒄 is the wavelength above which a particular fiber becomes single

moded. For the same fiber dividing 𝝀𝒄 by 𝜆 we get the relation as:

𝜆𝑐 𝑉 𝑉𝜆
= 𝑉 ⇒ 𝜆𝑐 =
𝜆 𝑐 𝑉𝑐

• Thus for step index fiber where 𝑉𝑐 = 2.405, the cut-off wavelength is
given by

𝑽𝝀
𝝀𝒄 = 𝟐.𝟒𝟎𝟓

Example. Determine the cut-off wavelength for a step index fiber to

exhibit single-mode operation when the core refractive index and
radius are 1.46 and 4.5 μm, respectively, with the relative index
difference being 0.25%.

Solution: Given n1 = 1.46 μm, a= 4.5 μm and Δ=.0025

2πan1 2π×4.5×1.46
λc = √2Δ = √2 × 0.0025 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏𝟒μm
Vc 2.405

1) The length of the fibre at which the cycle completes is called

a) Frequency
 b) Beat length

c) Velocity

d) All of these

2) The polarization due to unequal velocities of two orthogonal states

a) Cut-off wavelength

b) Polarization mode dispersion

c) Circular polarized

d) Elliptical polarized

3) The wavelength at which the next higher mode just starts getting
excited

a) 1500 nm

b) 1450 nm

c) Cut-off wavelength

d) Wavelength

END OF LESSON Q&A

1) The following are the cause of light attenuation in fiber optics except

a) Backscattering

b) Absorption

c) Refraction

d) Microbends

Answer: Option c)

2) Material dispersion is caused by the

 a) Wavelength dependence of the index of refraction

b) Wavelength independence of the index of refraction

c) Dependence of the propagation constant on the mode number

d) Independence of the propagation constant on the mode number

Answer: Option b)

3) Modal dispersion is caused by the

a) Dependence of wavelength on index of refraction

b) Dependence of propagation constant on index of refraction

c) Dependence of the propagation constant on the wavelength

d) Dependence of the propagation constant on the mode number

Answer: Option a)

4) Which is not a possible cause of optical fiber loss?

a) Impurities

b) Glass attenuation

c) Stepped index operation

d) Microbending. 5500 ft

Answer: Option c)

5) Band loss is

a) A reduction in transmitter power caused by earth’s surface

curvature

b) A reduction in strength of the signal caused by folded dipole bends

 c) An attenuation increase caused by bends radiating from the side of
the fiber

d) All of these

Answer: Option d)

Conclusion

• Attenuation determines the maximum transmission distance

between a transmitter and a receiver.

• The basic attenuation mechanism are absorption, scattering and

radiative losses.

• In addition to being attenuated, an optical signal becomes

increasingly distorted as it travels along a fibre.

• This distortion is a consequence of intramodal and intermodal

dispersion effects.

• Intra modal dispersion occurs within an individual mode. Its two

main causes are material dispersion and waveguide dispersion

• Intermodal occurs in multimode fibres and can be made small by

tailoring the core RI profile.